1.
National Army Museum (New Zealand)
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The National Army Museum is the museum of the New Zealand Army. It was formerly known as the Queen Elizabeth II Army Memorial Museum and it is situated 94 minutes south of Taupo on State Highway One, on the southern side of the small military town of Waiouru. The 1300 square metre museum is fortress-looking in design, complete with a bridge and it took the 2nd Field Squadron of the Royal New Zealand Engineers 276 days to build, and was opened in October 1978. According to the literature, it functions as a memorial to those who have fallen, to those who have served and are still serving. It is also a research, teaching and training facility of New Zealands military history, the museum offers a number of facilities and experiences which include a gift shop, the Rations Cafe, the Kippenberger Research Library, and the Tears on Greenstone Memorial. Kidz headquarters provides children with fun learning activities, the Tears on Greenstone or Roimata Pounamu is a large wall made of greenstone. It serves as a memorial for the 30,000 plus service men and women who have sacrificed their lives for their country. The water cascading down the southern hemispheres largest greenstone structure represents the tears of endless mourning, there is a touch screen near the Memorial where visitors can search for names of people lost in battle and hear those names read aloud. The Kippenberger Research Library houses a number of collections relating to New Zealand’s military history, the library, which is open to the public and free of charge, is named after Major General Sir Howard Karl Kippenberger, a military leader and historian who served in both World Wars. His extensive study of past campaigns aided his ability to command New Zealand troops in many great battles, a large military library owned by Major General Kippenberger was purchased by the New Zealand Army in 1958 and is now housed within the Kippenberger Research Library itself. The library was opened on 24 March 1995 by Kippenbergers daughter, on display within the museum is a large collection of medals associated with the army. These include medals donated, loaned and others acquired from the families of those who served overseas and they also have temporary displays which are changed regularly to display different family donated medals. The Museum had a number of Victoria Crosses on display in the Valour Alcove of the Lower Gallery, on 2 December 2007,96 medals were stolen from locked, reinforced glass cabinets in the museum. Also stolen were two George Crosses, David Russell, Ken Hudson, and an Albert Medal, Randolph Ridling and it appears that the museum was previously holding 13 VCs, of which 2, those of Charles Upham and Percy Valentine Storkey, were on loan
2.
Royal Hospital Road
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Royal Hospital Road is a street in Chelsea, London, England. It runs between Chelsea Embankment on the bank of the River Thames to the southwest and a junction with Lower Sloane Street, Pimlico Road. Also adjacent are Tite Street to the south and Flood Street to the north, the road is designated the B302. The closest tube station is Sloane Square to the north along Lower Sloane Street, to the southwest of Royal Hospital Road is the Royal Hospital Chelsea, hence the name. The National Army Museum is located next to the Royal Hospital Chelsea, to the south is the Chelsea Physic Garden. Restaurant Gordon Ramsay is at 68 Royal Hospital Road, formerly the site of another Michelin 3-starred restaurant, La Tante Claire
3.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
London Underground
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The London Underground is a public rapid transit system serving London and some parts of the adjacent counties of Buckinghamshire, Essex and Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom. The network has expanded to 11 lines, and in 2015–16 carried 1.34 billion passengers, the 11 lines collectively handle approximately 4.8 million passengers a day. The system has 270 stations and 250 miles of track, despite its name, only 45% of the system is actually underground in tunnels, with much of the network in the outer environs of London being on the surface. In addition, the Underground does not cover most southern parts of Greater London, the current operator, London Underground Limited, is a wholly owned subsidiary of Transport for London, the statutory corporation responsible for the transport network in Greater London. As of 2015, 92% of operational expenditure is covered by passenger fares, the Travelcard ticket was introduced in 1983 and Oyster, a contactless ticketing system, in 2003. Contactless card payments were introduced in 2014, the LPTB was a prominent patron of art and design, commissioning many new station buildings, posters and public artworks in a modernist style. Other famous London Underground branding includes the roundel and Johnston typeface, to prepare construction, a short test tunnel was built in 1855 in Kibblesworth, a small town with geological properties similar to London. This test tunnel was used for two years in the development of the first underground train, and was later, in 1861, the worlds first underground railway, it opened in January 1863 between Paddington and Farringdon using gas-lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives. It was hailed as a success, carrying 38,000 passengers on the opening day, the Metropolitan District Railway opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster as part of a plan for an underground inner circle connecting Londons main-line termini. The Metropolitan and District railways completed the Circle line in 1884, built using the cut and this opened in 1890 with electric locomotives that hauled carriages with small opaque windows, nicknamed padded cells. The Waterloo and City Railway opened in 1898, followed by the Central London Railway in 1900, the Metropolitan Railway protested about the change of plan, but after arbitration by the Board of Trade, the DC system was adopted. When the Bakerloo was so named in July 1906, The Railway Magazine called it an undignified gutter title, by 1907 the District and Metropolitan Railways had electrified the underground sections of their lines. In January 1913, the UERL acquired the Central London Railway, the Bakerloo line was extended north to Queens Park to join a new electric line from Euston to Watford, but World War I delayed construction and trains reached Watford Junction in 1917. During air raids in 1915 people used the stations as shelters. An extension of the Central line west to Ealing was also delayed by the war, the Metropolitan promoted housing estates near the railway with the Metro-land brand and nine housing estates were built near stations on the line. Electrification was extended north from Harrow to Rickmansworth, and branches opened from Rickmansworth to Watford in 1925, the Piccadilly line was extended north to Cockfosters and took over District line branches to Harrow and Hounslow. In 1933, most of Londons underground railways, tramway and bus services were merged to form the London Passenger Transport Board, the Waterloo & City Railway, which was by then in the ownership of the main line Southern Railway, remained with its existing owners. In the same year that the London Passenger Transport Board was formed, in the following years, the outlying lines of the former Metropolitan Railway closed, the Brill Tramway in 1935, and the line from Quainton Road to Verney Junction in 1936
6.
Sloane Square tube station
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Sloane Square is a London Underground station in Sloane Square. It is served by the District and Circle lines, between South Kensington and Victoria stations and is in Travelcard Zone 1, the entrance to the station is on the east side of Sloane Square. It is adjacent to the Royal Court Theatre and is the nearest station for Kings Road shopping, the Peter Jones department store and the Cadogan Hall. The station was opened on 24 December 1868 by the District Railway when the company opened the first section of its line between South Kensington and Westminster stations, the River was carried above the platform in a large iron pipe suspended from girders. On 1 February 1872, the DR opened a branch from its station at Earls Court to connect to the West London Extension Joint Railway to which it connected at Addison Road. From that date the Outer Circle service began running over the DRs tracks, the service was run by the North London Railway from its terminus at Broad Street in the City of London via the North London Line to Willesden Junction, then the West London Line to Addison Road. Due to financial problems, the DR extended only one further east. The service was operated jointly by the H&CR and the DR, on 30 June 1900, the Middle Circle service was withdrawn between Earls Court and Mansion House. On 31 December 1908 the Outer Circle service was also withdrawn, in the late 1930s, the station building was rebuilt in the modern style and escalators were installed between the ticket hall and the platforms. The new station building did not last long as it was destroyed during World War II. A German bomb that fell in November 1940 killed 37 and injured 79 passengers on a train in the station and destroyed the hall, escalators. In 1949, the Metropolitan line operated Inner Circle route was given its own identity on the map as the Circle line. By 1951 the station had been rebuilt again in a style to the 1930s building. The arched glass roof was not replaced and the current station does not have the open atmosphere of the original. The office building above the entrance is a later addition. On 5 April 1960, Peter Llewelyn Davies, one of the Llewelyn Davies boys who were the inspiration for the boy characters of J. M, on 26 December 1973, a terrorist bomb exploded in the telephone kiosk in the booking office. The station has ticket halls, escalators, a Wifi service, vending machines and it also has canopies over each platform. Sloane Square was going to be a stop on the long proposed Chelsea-Hackney line, however it is planned to be re-introduced in the next safeguarding of the line
7.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
8.
Chelsea, London
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Chelsea is an affluent area in West London, bounded to the south by the River Thames. Its frontage runs from Chelsea Bridge along the Chelsea Embankment, Cheyne Walk, Lots Road and its eastern boundary was once defined by the River Westbourne, which is now in a pipe above Sloane Square tube station. The modern eastern boundary is Chelsea Bridge Road and the half of Sloane Street. To the north and northwest, the area fades into Knightsbridge and Brompton, the football club Chelsea F. C. is based at Stamford Bridge in neighbouring Fulham. From 1900, and until the creation of Greater London in 1965, the exclusivity of Chelsea as a result of its high property prices has historically resulted in the term Sloane Ranger being used to describe its residents. Since 2011, Channel 4 has broadcast a reality show called Made in Chelsea. Moreover, Chelsea is home to one of the largest communities of Americans living outside the United States, the word Chelsea originates from the Old English term for landing place for chalk or limestone. Abbot Gervace subsequently assigned the manor to his mother, and it passed into private ownership, the modern-day Chelsea hosted the Synod of Chelsea in 787 AD. King Henry VIII acquired the manor of Chelsea from Lord Sandys in 1536, in 1609 James I established a theological college, King Jamess College at Chelsey on the site of the future Chelsea Royal Hospital, which Charles II founded in 1682. By 1694, Chelsea – always a popular location for the wealthy, Kings Road, named for Charles II, recalls the Kings private road from St Jamess Palace to Fulham, which was maintained until the reign of George IV. One of the important buildings in Kings Road, the former Chelsea Town Hall. Part of the building contains the Chelsea Public Library and this is no longer the case, although housing trusts and Council property do remain. The areas to the west also attract very high prices and this former fashionable village was absorbed into London during the eighteenth century. Many notable people of 18th century London, such as the bookseller Andrew Millar, were married and buried in the district. The memorials in the churchyard of Chelsea Old Church, near the river and these include Lord and Lady Dacre, Lady Jane Cheyne, Francis Thomas, director of the china porcelain manufactory, Sir Hans Sloane, Thomas Shadwell, Poet Laureate. Sir Thomas Mores tomb can also be found there, in 1718, the Raw Silk Company was established in Chelsea Park, with mulberry trees and a hothouse for raising silkworms. At its height in 1723, it supplied silk to Caroline of Ansbach, Chelsea once had a reputation for the manufacture of Chelsea buns, made from a long strip of sweet dough tightly coiled, with currants trapped between the layers, and topped with sugar. The Chelsea Bun House sold these during the 18th century and was patronised by the Georgian royalty, at Easter, great crowds would assemble on the open spaces of the Five Fields – subsequently developed as Belgravia
9.
Central London
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Central London is the innermost part of London, UK. Over time a number of definitions have been used to define the scope of central London for statistics, urban planning and local government. From 2004 to 2008, the London Plan included a sub-region called Central London comprising Camden, Islington, Kensington and Chelsea, Lambeth, Southwark, Wandsworth and it had a 2001 population of 1,525,000. The sub-region was replaced in 2008 with a new structure which amalgamated inner and outer boroughs together and this was altered in 2011 when a new Central London sub region was created, now including the City of London and excluding Wandsworth. However, districts at the edge of this subregion such as Streatham, Dulwich. During the Herbert Commission and the subsequent passage of the London Government Bill, the first two were detailed in the 1959 Memorandum of Evidence of the Greater London Group of the London School of Economics. It had an population of 350,000 and occupied 7,000 acres. The area had an population of 400,000 and occupied 8,000 acres. During the passage of the London Government Bill an amendment was put forward to create a central borough corresponding to the used at the 1961 census. The population was estimated to be 270,000
10.
Royal Hospital Chelsea
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The Royal Hospital Chelsea is a retirement home and nursing home for some 300 veterans of the British Army. It is a 66-acre site located on Royal Hospital Road in Chelsea and it is an independent charity and relies partly upon donations to cover day-to-day running costs to provide care and accommodation for veterans. They must not, however, have any dependent spouse or family, King Charles II founded the Royal Hospital in 1682 as a retreat for veterans. The provision of a rather than the payment of pensions was inspired by Les Invalides in Paris. The site for the Royal Hospital was an area of Chelsea which held an incomplete building Chelsey College, the Royal Hospital opened its doors to the Chelsea Pensioners in 1692 for the relief and succour of veterans. Some of the first soldiers admitted included those injured at the Battle of Sedgemoor, Wren expanded his original design to add two additional quadrangles to the east and west of the central court, these were known respectively as the Light Horse Court and the College Court. Due to mismanagement by Lord Ranelagh, the Hospital Treasurer, the building was not completed until 1692 and it was replaced by a modern infirmary which was located to the east of the main building and opened by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother in 1961. The 1960s infirmary was demolished to make way for the Margaret Thatcher Infirmary which was designed by Sir Quinlan Terry and was completed in 2008, the Mace was designed by Charles Webb and Aubrey Bowden and was made by Master Goldsmith Norman Bassant. The bowl of the Mace is decorated with acorns and is surmounted by the St Edwards Crown, in March 2009, the first women in the Hospitals 317-year history were admitted as In-Pensioners. Winifred Phillips and Dorothy Hughes were the first, Phillips trained as a nurse and later joined the Auxiliary Territorial Service in 1948 before enlisting in the Womens Royal Army Corps in 1949 while serving in Egypt. After 22 years service she retired with the rank of Warrant Officer Class 2, Hughes had joined the British Army in 1941 aged 18, later working as part of 450 Heavy Anti Aircraft Battery in the London Division. In 1945 the Battery was deployed near Dover to defend against V1 flying bomb attacks and she retired with the rank of Sergeant. Chelsea Pensioners are entitled to come and go from the Royal Hospital as they please, however, within the hospital, and in the surrounding area, pensioners are encouraged to wear a blue uniform. If they travel farther from the Royal Hospital they should wear the distinctive scarlet coats instead of the blue uniform, the scarlet coats are also worn for ceremonial occasions, accompanied by tricorne hats. In uniform, the pensioners wear their ribbons and the insignia of rank they reached while serving in the military. They may also wear other insignia they earned during their service and many now wear parachute jump wings. The Royal Hospital Founders Day takes place close to 29 May each year – the birthday of Charles II, on Founders Day, in-pensioners of the Royal Hospital are reviewed by a member of the British Royal Family. The 76 statue of King Charles II which stands in the court of the Hospital was cast in copper alloy by Grinling Gibbons
11.
Chelsea Pensioner
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A Chelsea Pensioner, or In-Pensioner, is a resident at the Royal Hospital Chelsea, a retirement home and nursing home for former members of the British Army located in Chelsea, London. The Royal Hospital Chelsea is home to some 300 retired British soldiers, male and female, historically, the phrase Chelsea Pensioner applied more widely, referring to both In-Pensioners and Out-Pensioners who live elsewhere. The Royal Hospital was founded by King Charles II in 1682 as a retreat for veterans, the provision of a hostel rather than the payment of pensions was inspired by Les Invalides in Paris. During the reign of King William III and Queen Mary II, the pension was to be made available to all former soldiers who had been injured in service, or who had served for more than 20 years. By the time the Royal Hospital was completed, there were more pensioners than places available in the Royal Hospital, eligible ex-soldiers who could not be housed in the Hospital were termed Out-Pensioners, receiving their pension from the Royal Hospital but living outside it. In-Pensioners, by contrast, surrender their army pension and live within the Royal Hospital, in 1703 there were 51 Out-Pensioners. By 1815 this figure had risen to 36,757 and they must be over 65 years of age, be able to live independently on the Long Wards on arrival to the Royal Hospital Chelsea and be free of any financial obligation to support a spouse or family. Applicants for the Royal Hospital Chelsea are invited for a four day stay during which they get a taste of life is like for a Chelsea Pensioner. If they enjoy their stay and it is felt that they fit in they are invited to become a Chelsea Pensioner. Upon arrival at the Royal Hospital, each In-Pensioner is measured up for their Blues and they are given their own room, or berth in a ward, and are allocated to a Company. Up until refurbishment works carried out in the 1950s, these rooms measured 6 x 6 feet, work completed in 2015 has ensured that all In-Pensioner berths include en suite facilities, a writing desk, and natural light. On entry, In-Pensioners surrender their army pension, in return receiving board, lodging, clothing, In-Pensioners also have their own Club with a bar, lounges and restaurant and there are allotments for those who enjoy gardening. If an In-Pensioner becomes unwell they are moved into the Infirmary, which is a state of the art care home with nursing, the Royal Hospital Burial Ground is at Brookwood Cemetery in Surrey. Until 2009, only candidates were admitted. It was announced in 2007 that female ex-service personnel would be admitted on the completion of modernisation of the long wards, in March 2009 the first women in the Hospital’s 317-year history were admitted as In-Pensioners, Dorothy Hughes and Winifred Phillips. Winifred Phillips trained as a nurse and joined the Auxiliary Territorial Service in 1948, for the next 22 years she served in Singapore, Cyprus and Egypt reaching the rank of Warrant Officer Class 2. Dorothy Hughes joined the British Army in 1941, later working as part of 450 Heavy Anti Aircraft Battery in the London Division, in 1945 the Battery was deployed near Dover to defend against V-1 flying bomb attacks. She later worked with the Army Operational Research Group developing fuses in shells used against V-2 rockets and was discharged from the Army in 1946 with the rank of Sergeant and she died in 1739 and was buried in the Royal Hospital Chelsea with full military honours
12.
History of the British Army
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The history of the British Army spans over three and a half centuries since its founding in 1660 and involves numerous European wars, colonial wars and world wars. As of 2015, there were 92,000 professionals in the army and 20,480 Volunteer Reserves. Britain has generally maintained only a regular army during peacetme, expanding this as required in time of war. The British Army has been involved in international conflicts, including the Napoleonic Wars. Historically, it contributed to the expansion and retention of the British Empire, the British Army has long been at the forefront of new military developments. It was the first in the world to develop and deploy the tank, at the same time the British Army emphasises the continuity and longevity of several of its institutions and military tradition. The English Army was first established as a military force in 1660. In 1707 many regiments of the English and Scottish armies were combined under one operational command. Stuart Asquith argues for roots before 1660, Many authorities quote the Restoration of 1660 as the date of our modern British Army. While this may be true as far as continuity of identity is concerned. The evidence of history shows that the creation of an efficient military machine and its proving on the battlefield and it was on the fields of Naseby, Dunbar and Dunes that the foundations of the British professional army were laid. The New Model Army was the first full-time professional army raised within the three kingdoms of England, Ireland and Scotland and it was created in 1645 by the English Long Parliament and it proved supreme in field. At the end of the First Civil War the New Model Army survived attempts by Parliament to disband it, winston Churchill described its prowess thus, The Story of the Second English Civil War is short and simple. Having survived Parliaments attempts to disband it, the New Model Army prospered as an institution during the Interregnum and it was disbanded in 1660 with the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II. At his restoration Charles II sought to create a standing army made up of some former Royalist. For political expediency he also included elements of the New Model Army. The whole force consisted of two corps of horse and five or six of infantry and it is, however, on this narrow and solid basis that the structure of the English army was gradually erected. The horse consisted of two regiments the Life Guards, and The Blues, formed by Lord Oxford, out of some of the best New Model Army horse regiments, the foot regiments were Grenadier Guards, the Coldstream Guards, the Royal Scots, and the Second Queens Royals
13.
Corps
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A corps is a military unit usually consisting of several divisions. Some military service branches are also called corps, such as the Military Police Corps, Royal Logistic Corps, Quartermaster Corps, a few civilian organizations use the name corps to imply a similar service level, such as the Peace Corps. In many armies, a corps is a formation composed of two or more divisions, and typically commanded by a lieutenant general. During World War I and World War II, due to the scale of combat. In Western armies with numbered corps, the number is indicated in Roman numerals. II Corps was also formed, with Militia units, to defend south-eastern Australia, sub-corps formations controlled Allied land forces in the remainder of Australia. I Corps headquarters was assigned control of the New Guinea campaign. In early 1945, when I Corps was assigned the task of re-taking Borneo, the Canadian Corps consisted of four Canadian divisions. After the Armistice, the peacetime Canadian militia was organized into corps and divisions. Early in the Second World War, Canadas contribution to the British-French forces fighting the Germans was limited to a single division, after the fall of France in June 1940, a second division moved to England, coming under command of a Canadian corps headquarters. This corps was renamed I Canadian Corps as a corps headquarters was established in the UK. I Canadian Corps eventually fought in Italy, II Canadian Corps in NW Europe, after the formations were disbanded after VE Day, Canada has never subsequently organized a Corps headquarters. The Chinese Republic had 133 Corps during the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Corps became the basic tactical unit of the NRA having strength nearly equivalent to an allied Division. The French Army under Napoleon used corps-sized formations as the first formal combined-arms groupings of divisions with reasonably stable manning, Napoleon first used the Corps dArmée in 1805. The use of the Corps dArmée was an innovation that provided Napoleon with a significant battlefield advantage in the early phases of the Napoleonic Wars. The Corps was designed to be an independent military group containing cavalry, artillery and infantry and this allowed Napoleon to mass the bulk of his forces to effect a penetration into a weak section of enemy lines without risking his own communications or flank. This innovation stimulated other European powers to adopt similar military structures, the Corps has remained an echelon of French Army organization to the modern day. As fixed military formation already in peace-time it was used almost in all European armies after Battle of Ulm in 1805, in Prussia it was introduced by Order of His Majesty from November 5,1816, in order to strengthen the readiness to war
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Regiment
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A regiment is a military unit. Their role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, in Medieval Europe, the term regiment denoted any large body of front-line soldiers, recruited or conscripted in one geographical area, by a leader who was often also the feudal lord of the soldiers. By the 17th century, a regiment was usually about a thousand personnel. In many armies, the first role has been assumed by independent battalions, battlegroups, task forces, brigades and other, similarly-sized operational units. By the beginning of the 18th century, regiments in most European continental armies had evolved into permanent units with distinctive titles and uniforms, when at full strength, an infantry regiment normally comprised two field battalions of about 800 men each or 8–10 companies. In some armies, an independent regiment with fewer companies was labelled a demi-regiment, a cavalry regiment numbered 600 to 900 troopers, making up a single entity. With the widespread adoption of conscription in European armies during the nineteenth century, the regimental system underwent modification. Prior to World War I, a regiment in the French, German, Russian. As far as possible, the battalions would be garrisoned in the same military district, so that the regiment could be mobilized. A cavalry regiment by contrast made up an entity of up to 1,000 troopers. Usually, the regiment is responsible for recruiting and administering all of a military career. Depending upon the country, regiments can be either combat units or administrative units or both and this is often contrasted to the continental system adopted by many armies. Generally, divisions are garrisoned together and share the same installations, thus, in divisional administration, soldiers and officers are transferred in and out of divisions as required. Some regiments recruited from specific areas, and usually incorporated the place name into the regimental name. In other cases, regiments would recruit from an age group within a nation. In other cases, new regiments were raised for new functions within an army, e. g. the Fusiliers, the Parachute Regiment, a key aspect of the regimental system is that the regiment or battalion is the fundamental tactical building block. This flows historically from the period, when battalions were widely dispersed and virtually autonomous. For example, a regiment might include different types of battalions of different origins, within the regimental system, soldiers, and usually officers, are always posted to a tactical unit of their own regiment whenever posted to field duty
15.
Imperial War Museum
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Imperial War Museums is a British national museum organisation with branches at five locations in England, three of which are in London. Founded as the Imperial War Museum in 1917, the museum was intended to record the civil and military war effort and sacrifice of Britain, the museums remit has since expanded to include all conflicts in which British or Commonwealth forces have been involved since 1914. As of 2012, the aims to provide for, and to encourage. Originally housed in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham Hill, the museum opened to the public in 1920. The outbreak of the Second World War saw the museum expand both its collections and its terms of reference, but in the period, the museum entered a period of decline. The 1960s saw the museum redevelop its Southwark building, now referred to as Imperial War Museum London, during the 1970s, the museum began to expand onto other sites. The first, in 1976, was an airfield in Cambridgeshire now referred to as IWM Duxford. In 1978, the Royal Navy cruiser HMS Belfast became a branch of the museum, in 1984, the Cabinet War Rooms, an underground wartime command centre, was opened to the public. From the 1980s onwards, the museums Bethlem building underwent a series of multimillion-pound redevelopments, finally,2002 saw the opening of IWM North in Trafford, Greater Manchester, the fifth branch of the museum and the first in the north of England. In 2011, the museum rebranded itself as IWM, standing for Imperial War Museums, the museum is funded by government grants, charitable donations, and revenue generation through commercial activity such as retailing, licensing, and publishing. General admission is free to IWM London and IWM North, the museum is an exempt charity under the Charities Act 1993 and a non-departmental public body under the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. As of January 2012, the Chairman of the Trustees is Sir Francis Richards, since October 2008, the museums Director General has been Diane Lees. On 27 February 1917 Sir Alfred Mond, a Liberal MP and First Commissioner of Works and this proposal was accepted by the War Cabinet on 5 March 1917 and the decision announced in The Times on 26 March. A committee was established, chaired by Mond, to oversee the collection of material to be exhibited in the new museum, there was an early appreciation of the need for exhibits to reflect personal experience in order to prevent the collections becoming dead relics. Sir Martin Conway, the Museums first Director General, said that exhibits must be vitalised by contributions expressive of the action, the experiences, the valour and the endurance of individuals. The museums first curator and secretary was Charles ffoulkes, who had previously been curator of the Royal Armouries at the Tower of London, in July 1917 Mond made a visit to the Western Front in order to study how best to organise the museums growing collection. While in France he met French government ministers, and Field Marshal Haig, in December 1917 the name was changed to the Imperial War Museum after a resolution from the India and Dominions Committee of the museum. The museum was opened by The King at the Crystal Palace on 9 June 1920, shortly afterwards the Imperial War Museum Act 1920 was passed and established a Board of Trustees to oversee the governance of the museum
16.
Field marshal
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Field marshal is a very senior military rank, ordinarily senior to the general officer ranks. Usually it is the highest rank in an army, and when it is and it is considered as a five-star rank in modern-day armed forces in many countries. The origin of the dates to the early Middle Ages, originally meaning the keeper of the kings horses. Promotion to the rank of marshal in many countries historically required extraordinary military achievement by a general. However, the rank has also used as a divisional command rank. The traditional attribute distinguishing a field marshal is a baton, the baton nowadays is purely ornamental, and as such may be richly decorated. That said, it is not necessary for the insignia to be a baton, the exact wording of the titles used by field marshals varies, examples include marshal and field marshal general. The air force equivalent in Commonwealth and many Middle Eastern air forces is marshal of the air force. Navies, which usually do not use the nomenclature employed by armies or air forces, use titles such as fleet admiral, Field marshal Mohammad Qasim Fahim was a politician in Afghanistan who served as Vice President from June 2002 until December 2004 and from November 2009 until his death. Between September 2001 and December 2004, he served as Defense Minister under the Afghan Transitional Administration. As military commander of the Northern Alliance, Fahim captured the Afghan capital Kabul in the fall of 2001 from the Taliban government, in 2004 President Hamid Karzai provided Fahim the honorary title Marshal and a year later he became member of the House of Elders. He later became a recipient of the Ahmad Shah Baba Medal, Fahim was a member of Afghanistans Tajik ethnic group. He was affiliated with the Jamiat Islami party of Afghanistan, Sir Thomas Blamey was the first and is the only Australian-born field marshal. He was promoted to the rank on the insistence of the Australian prime minister, Sir Robert Menzies, Blamey was, at the time of his promotion, seriously ill and mostly bed-ridden in the Heidelberg Repatriation Hospital. He was presented with his marshals baton at a ceremony held in the sunroom at the Heidelberg Repatriation Hospital by the Governor-General of Australia. Blameys field marshals baton is on display in the Second World War galleries at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. Currently, the only Australian field marshal is HRH Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, during Imperial rule in China, different dynasty gave different titles to generals. A very similar title is 司馬 in Eastern Han dynasty, which means master of horse
17.
Gerald Templer
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He is best known for his defeat of the guerrilla rebels in Malaya between 1952 and 1954. As Chief of the Imperial General Staff from 1955–58, he was Prime Minister Anthony Edens chief military adviser during the Suez Crisis and he was promoted to lieutenant on 16 February 1918. In 1936 he was deployed to Palestine during the Arab revolt there for which he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order on 6 November 1936 and he was promoted to major on 1 August 1938 and posted to the War Office as a staff officer in military intelligence. At the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 Templer was a lieutenant colonel in military intelligence. He was assigned as an officer to V Corps in May 1941. Then in April 1943 he took command of XI Corps, then based in East Anglia and he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 24 August 1944 in recognition of his services in Italy. Templer briefly became GOC 6th Armoured Division before being injured by a land mine in August 1944. He was mentioned in dispatches on 8 November 1945 in recognition of his services in North West Europe, on 17 October 1946, Templer was awarded the Legion of Merit in the Degree of Commander by the President of the United States for his conduct during the war. He was also appointed a Commander of the Order of Leopold II of Belgium and Croix de guerre and he first came to public notice after firing the mayor of Cologne, the later German chancellor Konrad Adenauer, for laziness and inefficiency. He was promoted to general on 4 June 1950, advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in the Kings Birthday Honours 1951 and he also became a Knight of the Venerable Order of Saint John. On 22 January 1952, Winston Churchill appointed Templer British High Commissioner in Malaya to deal with the Malayan Emergency, working closely with Robert Thompson, the Permanent Secretary of Defence for Malaya, Templers tactics against the communists were held up as a model for counter-insurgency. In military terms Templer concentrated his efforts on intelligence, Templer famously remarked that, The answer lies not in pouring more troops into the jungle, but in the hearts and minds of the people. He demanded that newly built villages, where ethnic Chinese were resettled away from the jungles and beyond the reach of the guerrillas, Templer sought political and social equality of all Malayans. Crops grown by the communists in response to these measures were sprayed with herbicide and these restrictions were lifted on so-called White Areas which had been found to be free of communist incursion. When Templer left Malaya in 1954 the situation had dramatically improved, in response to an article in Time Magazine that the jungle had been stabilised, he declared Ill shoot the bastard who says that this emergency is over. The Malayan government eventually declared the Emergency over in 1960 and he was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George for his work as High Commissioner in the Coronation Honours List in June 1953. The Malaysian Government arranged for the Main Hall at the Royal Military College, Kuala Lumpur in Sungai Besi and they also named after him Templers Park, a nature reserve established in 1955 in Rawang. Advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the Queens Birthday Honours 1955, in this capacity he advised the British Government on the response to the Suez Crisis
18.
Royal Military Academy Sandhurst
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The Academys stated aim is to be the national centre of excellence for leadership. All British Army officers, including officers who were previously Warrant Officers. The Academy is the British Army equivalent of the Britannia Royal Naval College Dartmouth, Royal Air Force College Cranwell, despite its name, The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst is located in Camberley, the boundaries of the academy straddle the counties of Berkshire and Surrey. The county border is marked by a stream known as the Wish Stream. The main entrance is located on the east of the Academy, the nearest railway station is Camberley. The present Royal Military Academy Sandhurst was founded in 1947 with the merger of two institutions, the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. The first Military Academy had been established in 1720 at Woolwich, known as the Shop, this academy moved to a permanent site at Woolwich Common in 1806 and was granted royal status in 1841. In 1806, the Military Academy took on the training of Royal Engineers officer cadets and, later, coincidentally,1802 was also the year of foundation of Saint-Cyr in France and of West Point in the United States. In 1812 the Junior Department of the Royal Military College moved from Great Marlow into buildings designed by James Wyatt at Sandhurst. A few years later, the Junior Department was joined at Sandhurst from High Wycombe by the Senior Department, which in 1858 became a separate institution, in 1984, the Womens Officer Training College Bagshot moved to Sandhurst. In 1992 a new Commissioning Course finally unified the training of male, female, the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst Collection illustrates the history of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, and the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. The collection includes the Gentlemen Cadet registers, historic archives, uniforms, paintings, photographs, for the 1948 Summer Olympics in London, the newly created Academy hosted the running leg of the modern pentathlon competition. Contemporary training at Sandhurst was the subject of a television series, first broadcast by BBC television in October 2011. In 2012 Sandhurst accepted a £15 million donation from the government of United Arab Emirates for the Zayed Building, an accommodation block, named after the UAEs founding ruler. In 2013 Sandhurst accepted a donation of £3 million from the government of Bahrain for the refurbishment of Mons Hall and it was renamed as King Hamad Hall in honour of the King of Bahrain, which generated some controversy in the United Kingdom. In 2015 Sandhurst appointed Lucy Giles as the first female commander in its history. Potential officers are identified by the Army Officer Selection Board situated in Westbury in Wiltshire, nearly 10 percent of British cadets are female and nearly 10 percent of all cadets come from overseas. More than eighty percent of entrants are university graduates, although a degree is not required for admission, the course is accredited by various academic and professional institutions
19.
Brutalist architecture
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Brutalist architecture is a movement in architecture that flourished from the 1950s to the mid-1970s, descending from the modernist architectural movement of the early 20th century. The term originates from the French word for raw in the used by Le Corbusier to describe his choice of material béton brut. British architectural critic Reyner Banham adapted the term into brutalism to identify the emerging style, there is often an emphasis on graphically expressing in the external elevations and in the whole-site architectural plan the main functions and people-flows of the buildings. Brutalism became popular for educational buildings, but was rare for corporate projects. Brutalism became favoured for government projects, high-rise housing. In one critical appraisal by Banham, Brutalism was posited not as a style, Brutalism as an architectural critical term was not always consistently used by critics, architects themselves usually avoided using it altogether. More recently, brutalism has become used in popular discourse to refer to buildings of the twentieth century that are large or unpopular – as a synonym for brutal. The term brutalism was originally coined by the Swedish architect Hans Asplund to describe Villa Göth in Uppsala, designed in 1949 by his contemporaries Bengt Edman and he originally used the Swedish-language term nybrutalism, which was picked up by a group of visiting English architects, including Michael Ventris. In England, the term was adopted by architects Alison. The best known proto Brutalist architecture is the work of the Swiss architect Le Corbusier, in particular his 1952 Unité dHabitation, Brutalist buildings are usually formed with repeated modular elements forming masses representing specific functional zones, distinctly articulated and grouped together into a unified whole. Concrete is used for its raw and unpretentious honesty, contrasting dramatically with the refined and ornamented buildings constructed in the elite Beaux-Arts style. Surfaces of cast concrete are made to reveal the nature of its construction. Brutalist building materials include brick, glass, steel, rough-hewn stone. Another common theme in Brutalist designs is the exposure of the buildings functions—ranging from their structure, from another perspective, the design of the Hunstanton School included placing the facilitys water tank, normally a hidden service feature, in a prominent, visible tower. This style had a position in the architecture of European communist countries from the mid-1960s to the late 1980s. In Czechoslovakia brutalism was presented as an attempt to create a national, John Andrewss government and institutional structures in Australia also exhibit the style. In the United States Paul Rudolph and Ralph Rapson are both noted Brutalists, Walter Netsch is known for his Brutalist academic buildings. Marcel Breuer was known for his approach to the style
20.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
21.
Catterick, North Yorkshire
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Catterick is a village, civil parish and electoral ward in the Richmondshire district of North Yorkshire, England. Historically part of the North Riding of Yorkshire, it is 8.5 miles north-west of the county town of Northallerton just to the west of the River Swale. It lends its name to nearby Catterick Garrison and the hamlet of Catterick Bridge. It lies on the route of the old Roman Road of Dere Street and is the site of the Roman fortification of Cataractonium, the place is mentioned in Ptolemys Geographia of c.150 as a landmark to locate the 24th clime. It dates back to Roman times, when Cataractonium was a Roman fort protecting the crossing of Dere Street over the River Swale, Catterick is thought to be the site of the Battle of Catraeth mentioned in the Welsh language poem Y Gododdin. This was fought between Celtic British or Brythonic kingdoms and the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Bernicia, paulinus of York performed baptisms nearby in the River Swale. Catterick is mentioned in the Domesday Book as Catrice, the manor was held by Earl Edwin at the time of the Norman invasion, and was afterwards was granted to Count Alan of Brittany. Thereafter the demesne manor was held by the lords of Richmond, the manor has been held by John of Gaunt in the 14th century and the Earls of Salisbury in the 15th century. The manor was held for a while by Sir John Conyers from 1484, during the reign of Queen Mary I, the manor was granted to the youngest daughter of Henry Pole, 1st Baron Montagu, whose son Francis Barrington inherited the honour. The Barrington family passed the manor to Richard Braithwaite whose descendants inherited the manor, Other lords of the manor included the Lawson family, who held it into the late 19th century. Pallet Hill, just to the north of the church, is the site of the earthwork remains of a motte. It is thought to have built by King Stephen in the mid 12th century to control the Great North Road. It has been designated a Scheduled Ancient Monument, to the south of the village on the south side of the A1/A6163 interchange, is the site of a small Roman roadside settlement and cemetery on Bainesse farm. It has been designated a Scheduled Ancient Monument, in later times, Catterick prospered as a coaching town where travellers up the Great North Road would stop overnight and refresh themselves and their horses, todays Angel Inn was once a coaching inn. A mile to the south-east are the earthworks of Killerby Castle. Catterick was an ancient parish, extending into three wapentakes of the North Riding of Yorkshire. It included the townships of Appleton, Bolton upon Swale, Brough, Colburn, Ellerton upon Swale, Hipswell, Hudswell, Killerby, Kiplin, Scorton, Scotton, Uckerby, all these places became separate civil parishes in 1866. In 1914 Catterick Camp was established 4.7 miles west of the village, in the ancient parish of Catterick but in the parishes of Hipswell
22.
Imperial War Museum North
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Imperial War Museum North is a museum in the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford in Greater Manchester, England. One of five branches of the Imperial War Museum, it explores the impact of modern conflicts on people and it is the first branch of the Imperial War Museum to be located in the north of England. The area is now home to the Lowry cultural centre and the MediaCityUK development, the museum building was designed by architect Daniel Libeskind and opened in July 2002, receiving 470,000 visitors in its first year of opening. It was recognised with awards or prize nominations for its architecture and is an example of Deconstructivist architecture. The museum features a permanent exhibition of chronological and thematic displays, the museum also hosts a programme of temporary exhibitions in a separate gallery. Since opening, the museum has operated a volunteer programme. As part of a museum, Imperial War Museum North is financed by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. During the 1990s, the Imperial War Museum sought to open a branch in the north of England, seventy-one sites were offered for consideration by 36 local councils. One such council was that of Hartlepool, in County Durham, in 1992 the Teesside Development Corporation offered the museum, on behalf of Hartlepool council, a total of £14.4 million towards construction and running costs. However, the National Audit Office later reported that the Corporations offer breached government rules, in January 1999 the then Culture Secretary Chris Smith launched a project to construct the new museum in Trafford, Greater Manchester. By 1945 the area employed 75,000 people, the area was consequently heavily bombed, particularly during the Manchester Blitz, when 684 people were killed in raids over two nights in December 1940. By the time of Chris Smiths announcement, the museum had already received outline planning permission, an architectural competition for the new museum was held in 1997, with the winning design being that of Berlin-based architect Daniel Libeskind. Born in Łódź, Poland, in 1946, Libeskinds family had suffered during the Second World War, at the museums opening, Libeskind said that he sought to create a building. Which emotionally moved the soul of the visitor toward an unexpected realization. Libeskind envisaged a constellation composed of three interlocking shards with each shard being a remnant of a globe shattered by conflict. These shards in turn represented air, earth and water, the 55 m high air shard, provides the museums entranceway and a viewing balcony above the Manchester Ship Canal with views of the Manchester skyline. The construction of the tower leaves viewers exposed to the elements and one reviewer considered that it reflected the aerial perspective of modern warfare, the earth shard houses the museums exhibition spaces, while the water shard accommodates a cafe with views of the canal. Originally budgeted at £40 million, the museum was completed for £28.5 million after anticipated National Lottery funding was not forthcoming
23.
Catterick Garrison
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Catterick Garrison is a major garrison and town three miles south of Richmond in the Richmondshire district of North Yorkshire, England. On 12 August 1914, the order was issued for the construction of the camp, the original intention for Catterick was to be a temporary camp to accommodate two complete divisions with around 40,000 men in 2,000 huts. The base was originally named Richmond Camp until being changed to Catterick Camp in 1915, construction was undertaken by John Laing & Son and by the mid-1930s most of the camps facilities were complete. During the Second World War the camp was again used to house prisoners of war. The town is divided between two civil parishes, the southern part of the town, south of a small stream known as Leadmill Gill, is in the civil parish of Scotton. The northern part forms the part of the civil parish of Hipswell. Each parish has its own parish council, the town is also within the Richmond parliamentary constituency, which has been represented since 2015 by Conservative Rishi Sunak. Catterick Garrison is located on the A6136 road, connecting Richmond with the A1 road at Catterick Village,4.7 miles to the east. Regular bus services to Richmond and Darlington are operated by Arriva North East, duchess of Kent Hospital is the local military hospital and medical centre that was opened on 6 October 1976. It was a replacement to the old hospital that was in existence before the Second World War, foxglove Covert, a local nature reserve was the first of its kind in North Yorkshire and the first to be located on Ministry of Defence land in the UK. It covers 100 acres of moorland edge, and was opened in 1992, in 2013 a £25 million development scheme for a new town centre was unveiled, to be built on a former sports ground, owned by the MoD. The plan includes space for retail outlets, a cinema, a 60-bedroom hotel and several dining establishments and bars, Primary education is provided by Carnagill Community Primary School, built in 1966, Wavell School and Le Cateau Community Primary School. There are other schools, not within the garrison area itself such as Colburn Community Primary School. Pupils then receive education at Risedale Sports and Community College. Alternatively, children may attend school at Richmond School and Sixth Form College. Darlington College also has a campus at Catterick Garrison, the three garrison churches are dedicated to St. Joan of Arc, St Aidan, and the Garrison Memorial Church of St Martin and St Oswald. Catterick Garrison Cemetery, located on the side of St Johns Churchyard in Hipswell, was opened by the War Office in 1930 to serve the camp. Among its graves are 42 Commonwealth service personnel of the Second World War and they include, Under Army 2020, the list will be modified and the units based at Catterick will be, 4th Infantry Brigade and Headquarters North East The Light Dragoons – Light Cavalry
24.
Heritage Lottery Fund
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The Heritage Lottery Fund was established in the United Kingdom under the National Lottery etc. The Fund opened for applications in 1994, although HLF is branded as though a body in its own right, it is administered by a pre-existing non-departmental public body – the Board of Trustees of the National Heritage Memorial Fund. The turnover of HLF is considerably larger than the work of the NHMF. Decisions about policies and large applications are made by the Trustees of the NHMF, there are also decision-making committees in the English regions, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Head office is in London, with offices in nine English regions and in Scotland, Wales. The Heritage Lottery Fund offers a range of different grant programmes from £3,000 to over £5 million
25.
Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)
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The Ministry of Defence is the British government department responsible for implementing the defence policy set by Her Majestys Government and is the headquarters of the British Armed Forces. The MoD states that its objectives are to defend the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and its interests and to strengthen international peace. The MoD also manages day-to-day running of the forces, contingency planning. As rearmament became a concern during the 1930s, Stanley Baldwin created the position of Minister for Coordination of Defence. Winston Churchill, on forming his government in 1940, created the office of Minister of Defence to exercise control over the Chiefs of Staff Committee. The post was held by the Prime Minister of the day until Clement Attlees government introduced the Ministry of Defence Act of 1946, the new ministry was headed by a Minister of Defence who possessed a seat in the Cabinet. These departments merged in 1964, the functions of the Ministry of Aviation Supply merged into the Ministry of Defence in 1971. The Ministers in the Ministry of Defence are as follows, The Ministers and Chiefs of the Defence Staff are supported by a number of civilian, scientific, the Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Defence is the senior civil servant at the MoD. His or her role is to ensure the MoD operates effectively as a department of the government, Permanent Under-Secretary of State, Stephen Lovegrove—commencing April 2016 Defence Equipment & Support CEO - Tony Douglas — commencing 2016 Chief Scientific Adviser, Professor Vernon C. He is supported by the Vice Chief of the Defence Staff, vice-Chief of the Defence Staff, General Sir Gordon Messenger, Royal Marines. First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff, Admiral Sir Philip Jones, Royal Navy Chief of the General Staff, General Sir Nick Carter, the Surgeon General, represents the Defence Medical Services on the Defence Staff, and is the clinical head of that service. These forces must be capable of representing Britain as lead nation in any coalition operations, the ability, at longer notice, to deploy forces in a large-scale operation while running a concurrent small-scale operation. The MoD has since been regarded as a leader in elaborating the post-Cold War organising concept of defence diplomacy, the UK is establishing air and naval bases in the Persian Gulf, located in the UAE and Bahrain. A presence in Oman is also being considered, the Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 included £178 billion investment in new equipment and capabilities. The review set a policy with four primary missions for the Armed Forces, Defend and contribute to the security and resilience of the UK. Contribute to improved understanding of the world through strategic intelligence and the defence network. Reinforce international security and the capacity of our allies, partners. Conduct operations to restore peace and stability, conduct major combat operations if required, including under NATO Article 5
26.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
27.
London Evening Standard
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The London Evening Standard is a local, free daily newspaper, published Monday to Friday in tabloid format in London. It is the dominant local/regional evening paper for London and the area, with coverage of national and international news. In October 2009, the paper ended a 180-year history of paid circulation and became a free newspaper, the newspaper was founded by barrister Stanley Lees Giffard on 21 May 1827, as the Standard. The early owner of the paper was Charles Baldwin, under the ownership of James Johnstone, The Standard became a morning paper from 29 June 1857. The Evening Standard was published from 11 June 1859, by the end of the 19th century, the evening edition eclipsed its morning counterpart. Both The Standard and the Evening Standard were acquired by C. Arthur Pearson in 1904, in May 1915, Edward Hulton purchased the Evening Standard from Davison Dalziel. Dalziel had purchased both papers in 1910, and closed The Standard, the paper, in 1916. Hulton introduced the gossip column Londoners Diary, originally billed as a written by gentlemen for gentlemen. It became a staunchly Conservative paper, harshly attacking Labour in 1945 in a campaign that backfired. In the 1960s, the paper was now upstaged by The Evening News, during the decade, the paper also began to publish the comic strip Modesty Blaise that bolstered the papers sales throughout the 1970s. In 1987 the Evening News was briefly revived to compete with Robert Maxwells London Daily News, in 1988 it incorporated the byline Incorporating the Evening News, which remained until the papers sale in 2009. A few years earlier,12 percent of the paper was sold to Justin Shaw, Associated News keeps the remaining 24 percent. In November 2009, it was announced that the London Evening Standard would drop its midday News Extra edition from 4 January 2010 with the first edition being the West End Final, previously there were three editions each weekday, excluding Bank holidays. The first, News Extra, went to print at 10,00 am and was available around 11 am in central London, slightly later in more outlying areas. The page changes were indicated by stars in the bottom corner of each page. In January 2010, circulation was increased to 900,000, in May 2009, the newspaper launched a series of poster ads, each of which prominently featured the word Sorry in the papers then-masthead font. These ads offered various apologies for past editorial approaches, such as Sorry for losing touch, none of the posters mentioned the Evening Standard by name, although they featured the papers Eros logo. Ex-editor Veronica Wadley criticised the Pravda-style campaign saying it humiliated the papers staff, the campaign was designed by McCann Erickson
28.
Army Headquarters (United Kingdom)
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Army Headquarters is a British Army command formation based at Andover. The equivalent in the Royal Navy is Navy Command Headquarters at Portsmouth, until 31 October 2011, British Army forces were commanded by a four star named Commander-in-Chief, Land Forces. Under a major army reorganisation effective 1 November 2011 the Chief of the General Staff took direct command of the Army through a new structure known as Army Headquarters. Army Headquarters, which started to take responsibility for more than 2,000 military, the British Army is now commanded by the Chief of the General Staff
29.
Chief of the General Staff (United Kingdom)
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Chief of the General Staff has been the title of the professional head of the British Army since 1964. The CGS is a member of both the Chiefs of Staff Committee and the Army Board, prior to 1964 the title was Chief of the Imperial General Staff. Since 1959, the post has been subordinate to the Chief of the Defence Staff. The current Chief of the General Staff is General Sir Nick Carter – having succeeded his predecessor, the title was also used for five years between the demise of the Commander-in-Chief of the Forces in 1904 and the introduction of Chief of the Imperial General Staff in 1909. The post was held by General Sir Neville Lyttelton and, briefly. Throughout the existence of the post the Chief of the General Staff has been the First Military Member of the Army Board, Chief of the Defence Staff First Sea Lord / Chief of the Naval Staff Chief of the Air Staff Deputy Chief of the General Staff
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Joint Helicopter Command
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Joint Helicopter Command is a tri-service organisation uniting battlefield military helicopters of the British Armed Forces for command and coordination purposes. Joint Helicopter Command reports to Army Headquarters at Andover, Joint Helicopter Commands largest operation to date has been Operation Telic, the invasion of Iraq. Following the invasion, Joint Helicopter Command maintained units in Iraq, in support of British, another detachment was also maintained in Afghanistan, as part of Operation Herrick. As of 2006, Joint Helicopter Command had 243 aircraft available for operations, the following types were deployed to Iraq under JHF, Boeing Chinook HC2s. The following types were deployed to Afghanistan under JHF, AgustaWestland Apache AH1s, Westland Lynx AH7, AH9 & AH9As. Britten-Norman Defender Westland Gazelle JHC is commanded by an officer from either the Royal Navy. The Royal Air Force Yearbook 2008, fairford, UK, The Royal Air Force Charitable Trust Enterprises. Official website Joint Helicopter Command - British Army Joint Helicopter Command - Royal Navy
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Structure of the British Army
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The structure of the British Army is broadly similar to that of the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force, with a single command based at Andover known as Army Headquarters. As the top-level budget holder, this organisation is responsible for providing forces at operational readiness for employment by the Permanent Joint Headquarters, the command structure is hierarchical with divisions and brigades controlling groupings of units from an administrative perspective. Major Units are regiment or battalion-sized with minor units being either company sized sub-units or platoons, all units within the service are either Regular or Army Reserve, or a combination with sub-units of each type. Naming conventions of units differ for traditional British historical reasons, creating a significant opportunity for confusion, an infantry regiment is an administrative and ceremonial organisation only, and may include several battalions. For operational tasks, a group will be formed around a combat unit. An example would be a squadron of tanks attached to an infantry battle group, together with a reconnaissance troop, artillery battery. Since the 1957 Defence Review, the structure of the Army has consistently shrunk, however, the 2015 Review indicated no change from the personnel number targets set in 2010. Through a major army reorganisation effective 1 November 2011, the Chief of the General Staff took direct command of the Army through a new structure, based at Andover and known as Army Headquarters. Reporting to the Chief of the General Staff are, the Commander Land Forces, the Adjutant-General, the Commander Land Forces commands 1st Division, 3rd Division and Theatre Troops. He also commands the garrisons in the mainland UK through HQ Support Command based in Aldershot, the Chief of the General Staff is the Standing Joint Commander, responsible for overall command of Military Aid to Civil Power within mainland United Kingdom. A command is a formation that handles a specific task or region. Previously the Army had regional commands in the UK, including Aldershot Command, Eastern Command, Northern Command, Scottish Command, Southern Command, in addition, there were functional commands, such as Anti-Aircraft Command, and overseas commands, such as Middle East Command. Gradually, these were consolidated into a command in the UK, Headquarters UK Land Forces. Eventually, both were merged into Land Command, from 1995, UK commands and later districts were replaced by regenerative divisions. 2nd Division, 4th Division, 5th Division and London District acted as regional commands within the UK reporting to Commander Regional Forces, scotland District was absorbed by 2nd Division in 2000. 2nd, 4th and 5th Divisions were replaced by Support Command on 1 November 2011, London District includes many units with significant ceremonial roles. The guard at Horse Guards is normally drawn from the Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment, the Honourable Artillery Company carries out public duties in the City of London. The HAC and the Kings Troop, Royal Horse Artillery provide gun salutes in London, a corps, in the sense of a field fighting formation, is a formation of two or more divisions, potentially 50,000 personnel or more
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British military rifles
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The origins of the modern British military rifle are within its predecessor the Brown Bess musket. While a musket was largely inaccurate over 80 yards, due to a lack of rifling, the use in volley or in mass firing by troops meant that rate of fire took precedence over accuracy. Early rifles were non-standard and frequently used adaptations from components of the Brown Bess and it was not until the late 19th century that the rifle fully supplanted the musket as the primary weapon of the infantryman. Civilian rifles had on occasions been used by marksmen during the English Civil War. In the 1750s, a few German rifles were used by British light infantry regiments in the French, in January 1776,1,000 rifles were ordered to be built for the British Army. A pattern by gunsmith William Grice, based on German rifles in use by the British Army, was approved for issue as the Pattern 1776 Infantry Rifle. The barrel is 30.5 inches with hook breech in.62 calibre, eight hundred were delivered through four Birmingham producers, William Grice, Mathias Barker, Galton & Sons and Bejamin Willets. Two hundred more were obtained from Hannover and this weapon was issued to the light company of each regiment in the British Army during the American Revolution, these were probably present at most battles in the conflict. Also in 1776, Major Patrick Ferguson patented his breech-loading Ferguson rifle, the Baker rifle was a muzzle-loading flintlock weapon used by the British Army in the Napoleonic Wars, notably by the 95th Rifles and the 5th Battalion, 60th Regiment of Foot. This rifle was a weapon for its day with reported kills being taken at 100 to 300 yards away. The rifle was in service in the British Army until the 1840s, the Mexican Army under Santa Anna used British Baker Rifles during the 1836 Texas-Mexican War. The Brunswick rifle was a.704 calibre muzzle-loading percussion rifle manufactured for the British Army at the Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield in the early 19th century. The weapon was introduced to replace the Baker rifle and weighed from over 9 and 10 pounds without its bayonet attached, depending on the pattern. The weapon was difficult to load but remained in production for about 50 years and was used in both the United Kingdom and assorted colonies and outposts throughout the world, the Brunswick had a two-groove barrel designed to accept a belted round ball. There are four variants of the British Brunswick Rifle. The first rifle produced in whole to a set pattern at Enfield was the Baker rifle, Brunswick rifles were also produced there, but prior to 1851, rifles were considered speciality weapons and served alongside the muskets which were issued to regular troops. Relatively few of these were produced since a new design was adopted two years. The rifle used the lock and bayonet mount from the Pattern 1842, the new Minie ammunition allowed much faster loading so that rifles were no longer slower to load than smoothbore muskets
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Recruitment in the British Army
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The British Army came into being with the unification of the Kingdoms of England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1754. The new British Army incorporated Regiments that had existed in England and Scotland. The army was small by the government during peacetime, mainly due to the fear that the army would be unduly influenced by the Crown or used to depose the government. The Bill of Rights of 1689 specifies that Parliamentary authority is needed to maintain an army in peacetime. For much of the 18th century, the army was recruited in a variety of places. These mercenaries were hired out by other rulers on contracted terms, other regiments were formed of volunteers such as French Huguenots. By 1709, during the War of the Spanish Succession, the British Army totalled 150,000 men, the rest of the army consisted of natives of the British Isles who, apart from the officers, were mainly recruited from the poorest sections of society. Each regiment was responsible for the recruitment of its own troops and this was emphasized by a popular play of the time called The Recruiting Officer. Other powers were given by the British government to allow the enlistment of vagrants. The armys recruiting methods and treatment of its soldiers would remain the same for the rest of the 18th century, during the American Revolutionary War, a policy similar to the Navys Press Gangs was introduced. Two acts were passed, the Recruiting Act 1778 and the Recruiting Act 1779, for some men this would have been for being drunk and disorderly. The chief advantages of these acts was in the number of volunteers brought in under the apprehension of impressment, to avoid impressment, some recruits incapacitated themselves by cutting off the thumb and forefinger of the right hand. Both acts were repealed in 1780, the British Government also released criminals and debtors from prison on the condition they joined the army. Three entire regiments during the American Revolution were raised from this early release programme, of the Volunteer recruits, some would find they had been enticed to take the Kings shilling under false pretenses and many men would find they had signed to a lifetime in the army. After the defeat of Great Britain by the American revolutionaries, the British Army fell into dereliction, morale and discipline were low, the Army was neglected as never before and its total strength in 1793 stood at 40,000 men. The United Kingdoms struggle with France during the Napoleonic wars required the British Army to expand rapidly, ordinary recruiting methods failed to supply the number of men required to fill the Army ranks. The main methods used for recruiting were, private individuals were recruited for their own interests, volunteers from the militia, generals called for conscription for the first time in British History, although this was never enacted for the regular army. Competition from civilian occupations was intense and highlighted in the disparity in pay, where a private could earn 7s per week in 1806, however soldiers would expect to supplement this meagre income with promotion and loot on campaign
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British Army officer rank insignia
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Listed in the table below are the insignia—emblems of authority—of the British Army. Badges for field officers were first introduced in 1810 and the insignia was moved to the epaulettes in 1880, although these insignia apply across the British Army there is variation is the precise design and colours used and it can take some time to become familiar with them all. Those in the ranks of Captain, Lieutenant and Second Lieutenant are often referred to as Subalterns and those of Brigadier, Colonel, Lt. Colonel and Major are considered to be of Field Officers. All above these are considered to be of General officer rank, of interest is the British pronunciation of Lieutenant which is a corruption of the standard french pronunciation and can cause confusion when working with soldiers from other nations. Before 1767, there were no definite badges for Field Marshals, in 1767, the British Army issued an order to distinguish Field Marshals and different graded General officers by the combination of chevron-shaped ess pattern laces on the sleeve. Field Marshal, Evenly spaced six laces, Lieutenant General, Six laces in threes. Major General, Four laces in twos, during the Napoleonic wars, Field Marshals wore oak-leaf embroidered collar and cuff, and shoulder cord instead of previous pattern. It was continued till the end of 1830, at the beginning of 1831, new rank distinction was ordered for Field Marshals and General officers. Field Marshal, Cross baton and wreath designed device was on epaulettes, General, Cross baton and sword with crown designed device on the epaulettes and buttons were evenly spaced. Lieutenant General, Cross baton and sword with crown designed device on the epaulettes, Major General, Cross baton and sword with crown designed device on the epaulettes and buttons were in twos. Brigadier General, No device on the epaulettes and buttons were in two, after the Crimean War, War Office ordered different rank badges for British General, staff and Regimental officers. It was the first complete set of badges to be used by the British Army. Field Marshal, Two rows of one inch wide oak-leaf designed lace on the collar with crossed baton above the wreath in silver, General, Two rows of one inch wide oak-leaf designed lace on the collar with Crown and star in silver. Lieutenant General, Two rows of one inch wide oak-leaf designed lace on the collar with Crown in silver, Major General, Two rows of one inch wide oak-leaf designed lace on the collar with Star in silver. Brigadier General, Two rows of half inch wide staff pattern lace on the collar with Crown, in 1868, Brigadier Generals were ordered to wear the same collar as other General officers, but no device in the collar. In 1880, War Office ordered to move rank badges from collar to shoulder, Field Marshal, Crossed batons above the wreath of oak-leaf. On the top of the wreath a crown, General, Crossed baton and sword with Crown and star. Lieutenant General, Crossed baton and sword with Crown, Major General, Crossed baton and sword with Star
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Other ranks (UK)
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In the Royal Navy, these personnel are called ratings. Non-commissioned member is the equivalent term for the Canadian Armed Forces, colloquially, members of the other ranks are known as rankers. The term is considered to exclude warrant officers, and occasionally also excludes NCOs. In the standard rank scale maintained by NATO, other ranks are coded from OR1 to OR9, in British India, a distinction was made between British other ranks and Indian other ranks
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British campaign medals
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British campaign medals are awarded to members of the British Armed Forces, Allied forces and civilians participating in specified military campaigns. Examples include the Defence Medal, for defence in World War II. Trios are made up of one or other of the 1914 or 1914–15 Stars, the British War Medal, the three medals were sometimes irreverently referred to as Pip, Squeak and Wilfred. Pairs are generally for servicemen who joined the war after 1915, occasionally one medal was issued, the British War Medal. Merchant seaman were entitled to the Mercantile Marine Medal and usually the British War Medal as well, the Territorial Force War Medal was awarded to members of the Territorial Force and Territorial Force Nursing Services who served overseas, it is the rarest of the five Great War medals. The Memorial Plaque was issued to the next-of-kin of deceased service personnel, records of WW2 Medals issued to Merchant Seamen from The National Archives
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Uniforms of the British Army
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The uniforms of the British Army currently exist in sixteen categories ranging from ceremonial uniforms to combat dress. Prior to the English Civil War of 1642–51 the only significant instances of uniform dress in British military culture occurred in small bodyguard units, notably the Yeoman of the Guard. During the Civil War the Parliamentary New Model Army adopted a standardised pattern of red clothing. By the end of the 17th century, the English army uniforms colour, was settled on red with few exceptions. The practice of distinguishing regiments by different facings was in use by the early 18th century. In the decades after the end of the Napoleonic Wars, British Army uniforms trended towards extravagance rather than practicality and that trend was reversed during Crimean war with the adoption of looser fitting tunics and more practical headdresses. Red coats were however retained, except in India where drab coloured garments were introduced in 1848, in January 1902 the British army adopted a universal khaki uniform for home service wear, the Service Dress, after experience with lighter khaki drill in India and South Africa. The traditional scarlet, blue and green uniforms were retained for full dress. Details of these colourful uniforms varied greatly between regiments and branches of the army, the early use of camouflage in the form of plain khaki reflected the exigencies of colonial war and the freedom allowed, and taken, by many of the officers who fought it. In 1938, the British Army adopted a revolutionary and practical type of uniform for combat known as Battledress, during the Second World War a handful of British units adopted camouflage patterned clothes, for example the Airborne Forces Denison smock and the windproof suit. In the late 1960s the Disruptive Pattern Material camouflage uniform was adopted across the whole of the British Army and it remained in service, with periodical updates, for the next 40 years. From 2009 it began to be replaced by a new Multi-Terrain Pattern uniform and this Personal Clothing System has been developed for use across the British Armed Services, making use of the latest in clothing technology. Fourteen numbered orders of dress are set out in Army Dress Regulations though individual Regiment, Full Dress is also prescribed for individual regiments, outside the Household Division it is however seldom worn except by regimental drummers, buglers and other limited categories. Note that uniform distinctions can vary greatly from one Regiment or Corps to another, also, while there are officially fifteen different grades, many of these are rarely worn or are being phased out altogether. It uses the Multi-Terrain Pattern camouflage and is mistakenly called MTP uniform. Full dress is the most elaborate and traditional order worn by the British Army and it was withdrawn from general issue in 1914. An example of the latter was the 1937 Coronation when mounted detachments from participating cavalry regiments were issued with full dress uniforms for the occasion. The reason for not generally reintroducing the distinctive full dress between the wars was primarily financial, as the scarlet cloth required expensive red cochineal dye, Full dress is now rarely worn except by the Foot Guards and the Household Cavalry
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