1.
Memphis, Tennessee
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Memphis is a city in the southwestern corner of the U. S. state of Tennessee and the county seat of Shelby County. The city is located on the fourth Chickasaw Bluff, south of the confluence of the Wolf, Memphis had a population of 653,450 in 2013, making it the largest city in the state of Tennessee. It is the largest city on the Mississippi River, the third largest in the greater Southeastern United States, the greater Memphis metropolitan area, including adjacent counties in Mississippi and Arkansas, had a 2014 population of 1,317,314. This makes Memphis the second-largest metropolitan area in Tennessee, surpassed by metropolitan Nashville, Memphis is the youngest of Tennessees major cities, founded in 1819 as a planned city by a group of wealthy Americans including judge John Overton and future president Andrew Jackson. A resident of Memphis is referred to as a Memphian, and the Memphis region is known, particularly to media outlets, as Memphis and the Mid-South. Occupying a substantial bluff rising from the Mississippi River, the site of Memphis has been a location for human settlement by varying cultures over thousands of years. The historic Chickasaw Indian tribe, believed to be their descendants, French explorers led by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle and Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto would encounter the Chickasaw in that area, in the 16th century. J. D. L. Chickasaw Bluffs, located on the Mississippi River at the present day location of Memphis, spain and the United States vied for control of this site, which was a favorite of the Chickasaws. The United States gained the right to navigate the Mississippi River, the Spanish dismantled the fort, shipping its lumber and iron to their locations in Arkansas. Captain Isaac Guion led an American force down the Ohio River to claim the land, by this time, the Spanish had departed. The forts ruins went unnoticed twenty years later when Memphis was laid out as a city, the city of Memphis was founded on May 22,1819 by John Overton, James Winchester and Andrew Jackson. They named it after the ancient capital of Egypt on the Nile River, Memphis developed as a trade and transportation center in the 19th century because of its flood-free location high above the Mississippi River. Located in the delta region along the river, its outlying areas were developed as cotton plantations. The cotton economy of the antebellum South depended on the labor of large numbers of African-American slaves. Through the early 19th century, one million slaves were transported from the Upper South, Many were transported by steamboats along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. This gave planters and cotton brokers access to the Atlantic Coast for shipping cotton to England, the citys demographics changed dramatically in the 1850s and 1860s under waves of immigration and domestic migration. Due to increased immigration since the 1840s and the Great Famine, ethnic Irish made up 9.9 percent of the population in 1850, but 23.2 percent in 1860, when the total population was 22,623. They had encountered considerable discrimination in the city but by 1860 and they also gained many elected and patronage positions in the Democratic Party city government, and an Irish man was elected as mayor before the Civil War
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Martin Luther King Jr.
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Martin Luther King Jr. was an American Baptist minister and activist who was a leader in the Civil Rights Movement. He is best known for his role in the advancement of civil rights using nonviolent civil disobedience based on his Christian beliefs, King became a civil rights activist early in his career. He led the 1955 Montgomery bus boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957, with the SCLC, King led an unsuccessful 1962 struggle against segregation in Albany, Georgia, and helped organize the 1963 nonviolent protests in Birmingham, Alabama. King also helped to organize the 1963 March on Washington, where he delivered his famous I Have a Dream speech, on October 14,1964, King received the Nobel Peace Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolent resistance. In 1965, he helped to organize the Selma to Montgomery marches, in the final years of his life, King expanded his focus to include opposition towards poverty and the Vietnam War, alienating many of his liberal allies with a 1967 speech titled Beyond Vietnam. In 1968, King was planning a national occupation of Washington, D. C. to be called the Poor Peoples Campaign, Kings death was followed by riots in many U. S. cities. Ray, who fled the country, was arrested two months later at London Heathrow Airport, King was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal. Martin Luther King Jr. Day was established as a holiday in numerous cities and states beginning in 1971, hundreds of streets in the U. S. have been renamed in his honor, and a county in Washington State was also renamed for him. The Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, King was born on January 15,1929, in Atlanta, Georgia, to the Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr. and Alberta Williams King. It was during this time he chose to be called Martin Luther King in honor of the German reformer Martin Luther, King had Irish ancestry through his paternal great-grandfather, as well as African ancestry. King was a child, between an older sister, Willie Christine King, and a younger brother, Alfred Daniel Williams King. King sang with his choir at the 1939 Atlanta premiere of the movie Gone with the Wind. His mother was an accomplished organist and choir leader, and she took him to various churches to sing and he received attention for singing I Want to Be More and More Like Jesus. King later became a member of the choir in his church. King said that his father regularly whipped him until he was fifteen, King saw his fathers proud and fearless protests against segregation, such as King Sr. When King was a child, he befriended a boy whose father owned a business near his familys home. When the boys were six, they started school, King had to attend a school for African Americans, King lost his friend because the childs father no longer wanted the boys to play together. King suffered from depression throughout much of his life, in his adolescent years, he initially felt resentment against whites due to the racial humiliation that he, his family, and his neighbors often had to endure in the segregated South
4.
Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.
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Martin Luther King Jr. was an American clergyman and civil rights leader who was fatally shot at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee, on April 4,1968. King was rushed to St. Josephs Hospital, where he was pronounced dead at 7,05 p. m. that evening and he was a prominent leader of the Civil Rights Movement and Nobel Peace Prize laureate who was known for his use of nonviolence and civil disobedience. James Earl Ray, a fugitive from the Missouri State Penitentiary, was arrested on June 8,1968, in London at Heathrow Airport, extradited to the United States, and charged with the crime. On March 10,1969, Ray entered a plea of guilty and was sentenced to 99 years in the Tennessee State Penitentiary. Ray later made attempts to withdraw his guilty plea and be tried by a jury. The King family and others believe that the assassination was carried out by a conspiracy involving the U. S. government, as alleged by Loyd Jowers in 1993, in 1999 the King family filed a wrongful death lawsuit against Jowers for the sum of $10 million. During closing arguments, the Kings attorney asked the jury to award damages of $100, during the trial both the family and Jowers presented evidence alleging a government conspiracy. The government agencies accused could not defend themselves or respond because they were not named as defendants, based on the evidence, the jury concluded that Jowers and others were part of a conspiracy to kill King and awarded the Kings $100. The allegations and the finding of the Memphis jury were later rejected by the United States Department of Justice in 2000 due to lack of evidence, King received frequent death threats due to his prominence in the Civil Rights Movement. He had confronted the risk of death and made that part of his philosophy. He taught that murder could not stop the struggle for equal rights, after the assassination of President Kennedy in 1963, King told his wife Coretta, This is what is going to happen to me also. I keep telling you, this is a sick society, King traveled to Memphis, Tennessee, in support of striking African American city sanitation workers. The workers had staged a walkout on February 11,1968, to protest unequal wages, at the time, Memphis paid black workers significantly lower wages than whites. Several sanitation workers had been killed on the job due to working conditions. In addition, unlike workers, black workers received no pay if they stayed home during bad weather, consequently, most blacks were compelled to work even in driving rain. On April 3, King returned to Memphis to address a gathering at the Mason Temple and his airline flight to Memphis was delayed by a bomb threat but he made his planned speech. King delivered the speech, now known as the Ive Been to the Mountaintop address, as he neared the close, he referred to the bomb threat, And then I got to Memphis. And some began to say the threats, or talk about the threats that were out
5.
Tennessee State Museum
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Tennessee State Museum is a large museum in Nashville depicting the history of the U. S. state of Tennessee. Starting from pre-colonization and going into the 20th century, the museum interprets the Frontier, the age of President Andrew Jackson, the museum includes an area of more than 60,000 square feet of permanent exhibits and a hall with changing exhibitions covering 10,000 feet. The total ground area of the museum is 120,000 feet on three floors, the museums collection of uniforms, weapons, and battle flags from the Civil War is one of the largest in the nation. The museum is situated in the floors of the James K. Polk building in downtown Nashville. The earliest record of a museum in the city date to 1817 when a portrait artist, Ralph E. W. Earl, the state museum opened in 1937 in the War Memorial Building, after being authorized by the General Assembly. It decided that the state needed a museum to deal with various collections from the state, most of the museum operations moved to the James K. Polk Building in 1981, which it shares with the Tennessee Performing Arts Center. The museum displays a variety of paintings, silver, weapons, larger exhibits include reproductions of a historic print shop, a painting gallery, and a grist mill. The state museum features a store offering handmade crafts, jewelry. The Military Museum, focused on wars, is still housed in the War Memorial Building across the street. Its exhibits range from Tennessee participation in the battles of the Spanish–American War to World War II. Museum operations and policies are overseen by the Douglas Henry State Museum Commission, the State Building Commission in 2013 revived plans for a new state museum. Made up of top officials and constitutional officers, in August 2013 it approved $475,000 for planning this project. There have been discussions that the museum would be sited east of the Bicentennial Park Mall, the commission hired a museum consultant to create a master plan, this would include the program for the building, a site analysis, and conceptual operating plan and funding plan. The museum also owns the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee, part of the non-profit and it leases the motel to the Lorraine Motel Civil Rights Museum Foundation on a long-term basis to be operated as part of the museum complex. Under the terms of its 20-year lease made in 2007, the Tennessee State Museum reserves responsibility for maintenance of the Lorraine Motel. The Foundation owns and operates the buildings and properties associated with the complex. Certain parts of the motel have been preserved for their historic aspects related to Martin Luther King, official museum homepage Tennessee State Library and Archives
6.
Smithsonian Affiliations
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Any 5013 nonprofit or publicly operated educational entity can apply to become a Smithsonian Affiliate. The Smithsonian Affiliations program was established in 1996 by Smithsonian Secretary I. C, in 1993, the “Commission on the Future of the Smithsonian Institution” introduced the first proposal for initiatives promoting strategic, collections-based partnerships at the Institution. To Educate More of the Nation’s People, “Build collaborative partnerships with other museums, research centers, significant emphasis was placed on the benefits that partnerships with outside museums would create for the Institution. In 1996, during his year as Secretary, Heyman observed several challenges facing the Institution. In addition, the Institution began to see increased interest from outside museums for partnerships, Heyman responded to these challenges by creating the Smithsonian Affiliations program to oversee and manage collections-based partnerships with other museums. As stated by the minutes from the Smithsonian Board of Regents meeting housed in the Smithsonian Institution Archives, there is no value in being just the largest if we do not share the Smithsonian with as many people as possible. It means making sure those who travel to Washington can somehow experience and enjoy the Smithsonian. ”Michael Heyman “ challenge is extending the reach of our collections to communities, museums. The Board of Regents in September strengthened the policy to share our collections with others. ”Michael Heyman The program was received by museums across the country. The end of the fiscal year 1997 recognized 21 organizations as Affiliates, as of 2014 there are nearly 200 Affiliates. On October,21,2016, The National Civil Rights Museum in Memphis, Smithsonian Affiliations considers membership proposals from organizations that will advance the Smithsonian Institutions mission and strategic plan. Successful applicants are non-profit or publicly operated organizations whose missions are directed toward advancing research, knowledge, and education in science, history, and the arts. To qualify as an Affiliate, an organization must prove that it is able to care for, protect. Strong applicants are organizations that are fiscally sound and capable of developing, installing, Affiliates are also responsible for maintaining an annual membership fee. To become an Affiliate, organizations must submit an application package to Smithsonian Affiliations, applicants are required to provide documentation that confirms IRS status as a 5013 entity and a narrative detailing how the agreement will be mutually beneficial. Applications must also include a copy of the mission statement, an organizational chart, an annual report. Once approved, Affiliates are required to sign a Smithsonian Affiliations Agreement form and are assigned a National Outreach Manager to oversee loans, all loan agreements are set for defined period of time. Affiliate organizations participate in a number of training, outreach. Smithsonian Affiliations Visiting Professional Program, Professionals of Affiliate organizations receive training from Smithsonian officials while visiting and working in Washington, the Smithsonian Affiliations program supports, develops, and organizes a number of collaborative programs to promote education in science, art, history, and culture
7.
Racial segregation in the United States
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Legal segregation of schools was stopped in the U. S. by federal enforcement of a series of Supreme Court decisions after Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. All legally enforced public segregation was abolished by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and it passed after demonstrations during the Civil Rights Movement resulted in public opinion turning against enforced segregation. De facto segregation—segregation in fact, without sanction of law—persists in varying degrees to the present day, the contemporary racial segregation seen in the United States in residential neighborhoods has been shaped by public policies, mortgage discrimination, and redlining, among other factors. Hypersegregation is a form of segregation that consists of the geographical grouping of racial groups. Most often, this occurs in cities where the residents of the city are African Americans. As a result, Federal occupation troops in the South assured blacks the right to vote, the Reconstruction amendments asserted the supremacy of the national state and the formal equality under the law of everyone within it. However it did not prohibit segregation in schools, when the Republicans came to power in the Southern states after 1867, they created the first system of taxpayer-funded public schools. Southern Blacks wanted public schools for their children but they did not demand racially integrated schools, almost all the new public schools were segregated, apart from a few in New Orleans. After the Republicans lost power in the mid-1870s, conservative whites retained the school systems. Almost all private academies and colleges in the South were strictly segregated by race, the American Missionary Association supported the development and establishment of several historically black colleges, such as Fisk University and Shaw University. In this period, a handful of northern colleges accepted black students, Northern denominations and their missionary associations especially established private schools across the South to provide secondary education. They provided an amount of collegiate work. Tuition was minimal, so churches supported the colleges financially, in 1900 churches—mostly based in the North—operated 247 schools for blacks across the South, with a budget of about $1 million. They employed 1600 teachers and taught 46,000 students, prominent schools included Howard University, a federal institution based in Washington, Fisk University in Nashville, Atlanta University, Hampton Institute in Virginia, and many others. Most new colleges in the 19th century were founded in northern states, Jim Crow segregation began somewhat later, in the 1880s. Disfranchisement of the began in the 1890s. By 1910, Segregation was firmly established across the South and most of the border region, the legitimacy of laws requiring segregation of blacks was upheld by the U. S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson,163 U. S.537. Plessy thus allowed segregation, which became standard throughout the southern United States, everyone was supposed to receive the same public services, but with separate facilities for each race
8.
Stax Records
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Stax Records is an American record label, originally based in Memphis, Tennessee. Founded in 1957 as Satellite Records, the changed its name to Stax Records in 1961. It was a factor in the creation of Southern soul. Stax also released gospel, funk, jazz, and blues recordings, while renowned for its output of African-American music, the label was founded by two white siblings and business partners, Jim Stewart and his sister Estelle Axton. It featured several popular ethnically integrated bands and an integrated team of staff and artists unprecedented in that time of racial strife and tension in Memphis. Over the next five years, Bell expanded the labels operations significantly, in order to compete with Staxs main rival, Motown Records in Detroit. During the mid-1970s, a number of factors, including a distribution deal with CBS Records, caused the label to slide into insolvency. In 1977, Fantasy Records acquired the post-1968 Stax catalogue and selected pre-1968 recordings, beginning in 1978, Stax began signing new acts and issuing new material, as well as reissuing previously recorded Stax material. However, by the early 1980s no new material was being issued on the label, after Concord Records acquired Fantasy in 2004, the Stax label was reactivated, and is today used to issue both the 1968–1975 catalog material and new recordings by current R&B and soul performers. Atlantic Records continues to hold the rights to the vast majority of the 1959–1968 Stax material, Stax Records, originally named Satellite Records, was founded in Memphis in 1957 by Jim Stewart, initially operating in a garage. Satellites early releases were country music, rockabilly records or straight pop numbers, in 1958, Stewarts sister Estelle Axton began her financial interest in the company. Taking a considerable risk, she mortgaged her family home to invest $2500 in the company. The company set up a recording studio in Brunswick, Tennessee. Around this time, Stewart was introduced to rhythm and blues music by staff producer Chips Moman. In the summer of year, Satellite released its first record by a rhythm and blues act, Fool in Love, by the Veltones. However, Satellite remained primarily a country and pop label for the year or so. While promoting Fool in Love, Stewart met with Memphis disc jockey and R&B singer Rufus Thomas and it went on to sell between thirty and forty thousand copies, becoming Satellites biggest hit to that time. With the success of Cause I Love You, Stewart made a deal giving Atlantic first choice on releasing Satellite recordings
9.
Ray Charles
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Ray Charles Robinson, known professionally as Ray Charles, was an American singer-songwriter, musician, and composer. Among friends and fellow musicians he preferred being called Brother Ray and he was often referred to as The Genius. Charles was blind from the age of seven and he pioneered the genre of soul music during the 1950s by combining blues, rhythm and blues, and gospel styles into the music he recorded for Atlantic Records. He also contributed to the integration of music, rhythm and blues and pop music during the 1960s with his crossover success on ABC Records. While he was with ABC, Charles became one of the first black musicians to be granted artistic control by a record company. Charles cited Nat King Cole as an influence, but his music was also influenced by country, jazz, blues. In the late forties, he became friends with Quincy Jones and their friendship would last till the end of Charless life. Frank Sinatra called him the true genius in show business. In 2002, Rolling Stone ranked Charles number ten on its list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time, Billy Joel observed, This may sound like sacrilege, but I think Ray Charles was more important than Elvis Presley. Robinson was the son of Bailey Robinson, a laborer, at the time, she was a teenage orphan making a living as a sharecropper. They lived in Greenville, Florida, with Robinsons mother and his wife, the Robinson family had informally adopted Aretha, and she became known as Aretha Robinson. When she, scandalously, became pregnant by Bailey, she briefly left Greenville late in the summer of 1930 to be family members in Albany, Georgia. After that, mother and child returned to Greenville, and Aretha and he was deeply devoted to his mother and later recalled her perseverance, self-sufficiency, and pride as guiding lights in his life. His father abandoned the family, left Greenville, and took another wife elsewhere, in his early years, Charles showed a fondness about mechanical objects and would often watch his neighbors working on their cars and farm machinery. Charles and his mother were always welcome at the Red Wing Cafe, pitman would also care for Rays brother George, to take the burden off Aretha. George drowned in Arethas laundry tub when he was four years old, Charles started to lose his sight at the age of four or five, and was completely blind by the age of seven, apparently as a result of glaucoma. Destitute, uneducated and still mourning the loss of George, Aretha used her connections in the community to find a school that would accept a blind African-American student. Despite his initial protest, Charles attended school at the Florida School for the Deaf, Charles further developed his musical talent at school, and was taught to play the classical piano music of J. S
10.
Lionel Hampton
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Lionel Leo Hampton was an American jazz vibraphonist, pianist, percussionist, bandleader and actor. Hampton worked with musicians from Teddy Wilson, Benny Goodman, and Buddy Rich to Charlie Parker, Charles Mingus. In 1992, he was inducted into the Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame, Lionel Hampton was born in 1908 in Louisville, Kentucky, and was raised by his mother. Shortly after he was born, he and his moved to her hometown Birmingham. He spent his childhood in Kenosha, Wisconsin, before he and his family moved to Chicago, Illinois. As a youth, Hampton was a member of the Bud Billiken Club, an alternative to the Boy Scouts of America, during the 1920s—while still a teenager—Hampton took xylophone lessons from Jimmy Bertrand and started playing drums. Hampton was raised Roman Catholic, and started out playing fife, Lionel Hampton began his career playing drums for the Chicago Defender Newsboys Band while still a teenager in Chicago. He moved to California in 1927 or 1928, playing drums for the Dixieland Blues-Blowers and he made his recording debut with The Quality Serenaders led by Paul Howard, then left for Culver City and drummed for the Les Hite band at Sebastians Cotton Club. One of his trademarks as a drummer was his ability to do stunts with multiple pairs of such as twirling and juggling without missing a beat. During this period he began practicing on the vibraphone, in 1930 Louis Armstrong came to California and hired the Les Hite band, asking Hampton if he would play vibes on two songs. So began his career as a vibraphonist, popularizing the use of the instrument in the process, invented ten years earlier, the vibraphone is essentially a xylophone with metal bars, a sustain pedal, and resonators equipped with electric-powered fans that add vibrato. While working with the Les Hite band, Hampton also occasionally did some performing with Nat Shilkret, during the early 1930s, he studied music at the University of Southern California. In 1934 he led his own orchestra, and then appeared in the Bing Crosby film Pennies From Heaven alongside Louis Armstrong, also in November 1936, the Benny Goodman Orchestra came to Los Angeles to play the Palomar Ballroom. The Trio and Quartet were among the first racially integrated jazz groups to perform before audiences, while Hampton worked for Goodman in New York, he recorded with several different small groups known as the Lionel Hampton Orchestra, as well as assorted small groups within the Goodman band. In 1940 Hampton left the Goodman organization under amicable circumstances to form his own big band, Hamptons orchestra became popular during the 1940s and early 1950s. His third recording with them in 1942 produced a version of Flying Home. The selection became popular, and so in 1944 Hampton recorded Flyin Home #2 featuring Arnett Cobb, the song went on to become the theme song for all three men. Guitarist Billy Mackel first joined Hampton in 1944, and would perform, in 1947, Hamp performed Stardust at a Just Jazz concert for producer Gene Norman, also featuring Charlie Shavers and Slam Stewart, the recording was issued by Decca
11.
Aretha Franklin
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Aretha Louise Franklin is an American singer, songwriter and musician. Franklin began her career singing gospel at her father, minister C. L. Franklins church as a child, in 1960, at the age of 18, Franklin embarked on a secular career, recording for Columbia Records but only achieving modest success. Following her signing to Atlantic Records in 1967, Franklin achieved commercial acclaim and success with such as Respect, A Natural Woman. These hits and more helped her to gain the title The Queen of Soul by the end of the 1960s decade, in 1998, Franklin won international acclaim for singing the opera aria Nessun dorma, at the Grammys of that year replacing Luciano Pavarotti. Later that same year, she scored her final Top 40 recording with A Rose Is Still a Rose, Franklin has won a total of 18 Grammy Awards and is one of the best-selling artists of all time, having sold over 75 million records worldwide. Franklin has been honored throughout her career including a 1987 induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and she was inducted to the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005. In August 2012, Franklin was inducted into the GMA Gospel Music Hall of Fame, Aretha Louise Franklin was born in Memphis, Tennessee, the daughter of Barbara and Clarence LaVaughn Franklin. Her father, who went by the nickname, C. L. was an itinerant preacher originally from Shelby, Mississippi, while her mother was a piano player. Alongside Franklin, her parents had three children while both C. L. and Barbara had children from outside their marriage. The family relocated to Buffalo, New York when Franklin was two, before her fifth birthday, C. L. Franklin permanently relocated the family to Detroit, Michigan where he took over the pastorship of New Bethel Baptist Church. Franklins mother died on March 7,1952, before Franklins tenth birthday, several women, including Franklins grandmother Rachel, and Mahalia Jackson took turns helping with the children at the Franklin home. During this time, Franklin learned how to play piano by ear, Franklins fathers emotionally driven sermons resulted in him being known as the man with the million-dollar voice and earning thousands of dollars for sermons in various churches across the country. Just after her mothers death, Franklin began singing solos at New Bethel, debuting with the hymn, Jesus, Be a Fence Around Me. Four years later, when Franklin was 14, her father began managing her and he helped his daughter get signed to her first recording deal with J. V. B. Records, where her first album, Songs of Faith, was issued in 1956, two singles were released to gospel radio stations including Never Grow Old and Precious Lord, Take My Hand. Franklin sometimes traveled with The Caravans and The Soul Stirrers during this time and developed a crush on Sam Cooke, after turning 18, Franklin confided to her father that she aspired to follow Sam Cooke to record pop music. Serving as her manager, C. L. agreed to the move and helped to produce a demo that soon was brought to the attention of Columbia Records. Franklin was signed as a five-percent artist, during this period, Franklin would be coached by choreographer Cholly Atkins to prepare for her pop performances
12.
Ethel Waters
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Ethel Waters was an American singer and actress. She frequently performed jazz, big band, and pop music, on the Broadway stage and in concerts and her notable recordings include Dinah, Stormy Weather, Taking a Chance on Love, Heat Wave, Supper Time, Am I Blue. Cabin in the Sky, Im Coming Virginia, and her version of the spiritual His Eye Is on the Sparrow, Waters was the second African American, after Hattie McDaniel, to be nominated for an Academy Award. She was also the first African-American woman to be nominated for an Emmy Award and he played no role in raising Ethel. Soon after she was born, her mother married Norman Howard, Ethel used the surname Howard as a child, before reverting to her fathers name. She was raised in poverty by her grandmother, Sally Anderson, Waters never lived in the same place for more than 15 months. She said of her childhood, I never was a child. I never was cuddled, or liked, or understood by my family, Waters grew tall, standing 5 9½ in her teens. According to the historian and archivist Rosetta Reitz, Waterss birth in the North. Waters married at the age of 13, but her husband was abusive, on her 17th birthday, she attended a costume party at a nightclub on Juniper Street. She was persuaded to sing two songs and impressed the audience so much that she was offered work at the Lincoln Theatre in Baltimore. She later recalled that she earned the rich sum of ten dollars a week, after her start in Baltimore, Waters toured on the black vaudeville circuit. As she described it later, I used to work from nine until unconscious, despite her early success, she fell on hard times and joined a carnival, traveling in freight cars along the carnival circuit and eventually reaching Chicago. She did not last long with them, though, and soon headed south to Atlanta, Smith demanded that Waters not compete in singing blues opposite her. Waters conceded and sang ballads and popular songs, around 1919, Waters moved to Harlem and there became a celebrity performer in the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s. Her first Harlem job was at Edmonds Cellar, a club with a black patronage and she acted in a blackface comedy, Hello 1919. The jazz historian Rosetta Reitz pointed out that by the time Waters returned to Harlem in 1921, in 1921, Waters became the fifth black woman to make a record, for the tiny Cardinal Records. She later joined Black Swan Records, where Fletcher Henderson was her accompanist, Waters later commented that Henderson tended to perform in a more classical style than she preferred, often lacking the damn-it-to-hell bass
13.
Otis Redding
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Otis Ray Redding, Jr. was an American singer, songwriter, record producer, arranger, and talent scout. He is considered one of the greatest singers in the history of American popular music and his singing style influenced many other soul artists of the 1960s. During his lifetime, his recordings were produced by Stax Records, based in Memphis, Tennessee, in 1958, he joined Johnny Jenkinss band, the Pinetoppers, with whom he toured the Southern states as a singer and driver. An unscheduled appearance on a Stax recording session led to a contract and his first single, These Arms of Mine, Stax released Reddings debut album, Pain in My Heart, two years later. Initially popular mainly with African-Americans, Redding later reached a wider American pop music audience, along with his group, he first played small gigs in the American South. He later performed at the popular Los Angeles night club Whisky a Go Go and toured Europe, performing in London, Paris and he also performed at the Monterey Pop Festival in 1967. Shortly before his death in a crash, Redding wrote. The song became the first posthumous number-one record on both the Billboard Hot 100 and R&B charts, the album The Dock of the Bay was the first posthumous album to reach number one on the UK Albums Chart. Already on the verge of bankruptcy, the label soon discovered that Atlantic Records owned the rights to his song catalog. Redding received many accolades, including the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award and induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In addition to The Dock of the Bay, Respect and Try a Little Tenderness are among his best-known songs, Redding was born in Dawson, Georgia, the fourth of six children, and the first son, of Otis Redding, Sr. and Fannie Mae Redding. Redding senior was a sharecropper and then worked at Robins Air Force Base, near Macon, when Otis was three the family moved to Tindall Heights, a predominantly African-American public housing project in Macon. At an early age, Redding sang in the Vineville Baptist Church choir and learned guitar, from age 10, he took drum and singing lessons. At Ballard-Hudson High School, he sang in the school band, every Sunday he earned $6 by performing gospel songs for Macon radio station WIBB. His passion was singing, and he often cited Little Richard, Redding said that he would not be here without Little Richard and that he entered the music business because of Richard – he is my inspiration. I used to sing like Little Richard, his Rock n Roll stuff and my present music has a lot of him in it. At age 15, Redding left school to help support his family, his father had contracted tuberculosis and was often hospitalized. He worked as a digger, as a gasoline station attendant
14.
The Staple Singers
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The Staple Singers were an American gospel, soul and R&B singing group. Roebuck Pops Staples, the patriarch of the family, formed the group with his children Cleotha, Pervis, yvonne replaced her brother when he was drafted into the U. S. Army, and again in 1970. They are best known for their 1970s hits Respect Yourself, Ill Take You There, If Youre Ready, and Lets Do It Again, while the family name is Staples, the group used Staple commercially. Roebuck moved from Mississippi to Chicago after his marriage, and worked in steel mills, the family began appearing in Chicago-area churches in 1948. Their first public singing appearance was at the Mount Zion Church, Chicago, where Roebucks brother and they signed their first professional contract in 1952. During their early career recorded in an acoustic gospel-folk style with various labels, United Records, Vee-Jay Records, Checker Records, Riverside Records. Uncloudy Day was an influence on Bob Dylan, who said of it in 2015. Id think about them even at my school desk. Mavis looked to be about the age as me in her picture. Her singing just knocked me out. And Mavis was a great singer—deep. And even at the age, I felt that life itself was a mystery. It was on Epic that the Staple Singers developed a more accessible to mainstream audiences, with Why. In 1968, the Staple Singers signed to Stax Records and released two albums with Steve Cropper—Soul Folk in Action and Well Get Over, Pervis returning for these, the first Stax hit was Heavy Makes You Happy in early 1971. Their late 1971 recording of Respect Yourself, written by Luther Ingram and Mack Rice, peaked at No.2 on the Billboard R&B chart, both sold over one million copies, and were each awarded a gold disc by the RIAA. The songs theme of self-empowerment had universal appeal, released in the immediately following the intense American civil rights movement of the 1960s. In 1972 Ill Take You There topped both Billboard charts, in 1973 If Youre Ready reached No.9 on the Hot 100 and No.1 on the R&B chart. In 1976 they collaborated with The Band for their film The Last Waltz, however, they were not able to regain their momentum, releasing only occasional minor hits. Their 1984 album Turning Point featured their final Top 40 hit, in 1994, they again performed the song The Weight with country music artist Marty Stuart for MCA Nashvilles Rhythm, Country and Blues compilation, somewhat re-establishing an audience. The song Respect Yourself was used by Spike Lee in the soundtrack to his movie Crooklyn, in 1999, the group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Pops Staples died of complications from a concussion suffered in December 2000, in 2005, the group was awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award
15.
Wilson Pickett
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Adrenaline is the debut studio album by American alternative metal band Deftones, released in 1995 by Maverick Records. A hidden track on the album, Fist, was produced by Ross Robinson, regarding the recording, drummer Abe Cunningham said, At the time we did the first record – which I really like and think is good – you can tell the band was really young. Wed been playing most of songs for quite a while. Frontman Chino Moreno felt that Adrenaline was recorded really fast,7 Words was released as the first single from the album on December 17,1995. Bored was issued as the single on April 4,1996. Music videos were released for 7 Words, Bored, Root,9, the latter song was also featured in the film Law Abiding Citizen. In 1995, Jon Wiederhorn of Pulse stated Adrenaline pitches between gloom-saturated melodies and explosive riffs, lashing out like a sleep-deprived paranoiac awakened by noisy neighbors. The rhythms are crisp and crafty and the vocals resonate both fury and sensitivity in a way similar to, but far more blatantly metallic than Nirvana. Critic Katherine Turman wrote in January 1996 that If this is heavy metal is evolving into. He also noted there is a bit of sameness in Chino Morenos whispered vocal melodies. In the book The Rough Guide to Heavy Metal, author Essi Berelian wrote that the album stands as one of the best examples of nu-metal. In critic Tim Karans 20th anniversary assessment for Diffuser, he wrote, For those who were swept up in the burgeoning movement, Adrenaline was a landmark. While the album was unsuccessful, extensive touring and word-of-mouth promotion built the band a dedicated fanbase. When asked what he attributed the success to, bassist Chi Cheng responded, One word. Weve been together for almost eight years, on the road for two and we do it with honesty and integrity – and the kids can tell, the album was certified gold by the RIAA on July 7,1999 in recognition of 500,000 units sold. It was eventually certified platinum on September 23,2008 in recognition of 1,000,000 units sold, note Fist is currently misspelled First on several digital editions, as well as Japanese copies. On Rhapsody, it is oddly titled Opus 11, Deftones Chino Moreno – lead vocals Stephen Carpenter – guitar Chi Cheng – bass, backing vocals Abe Cunningham – drums
16.
Single room occupancy
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Single room occupancy is a form of housing in which one or two people are housed in individual rooms within a multiple-tenant building. The term is used in Canadian and American cities. SRO tenants typically share bathrooms and/or kitchens, while some SRO rooms may include kitchenettes, bathrooms, although many are former hotels, SROs are primarily rented as permanent residences. Single room occupancies are often a form of housing for low-income. The term originated in New York City, probably in the 1930s, SROs exist in many American cities, and are most common in larger cities. In many cases, the buildings themselves were formerly hotels in or near a central business district. Many of these buildings were built in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the United States saw a decrease in single room occupancy housing during the period of 1960s and 1970s urban decay. For example, in Chicago 81% of the SRO housing stock disappeared between 1960 and 1980, many SRO buildings face strong development pressure for conversion to more profitable uses. Some cities have regulated the conversion of SROs to other uses in order to prevent landlords from forcibly evicting SRO tenants, San Francisco passed an SRO Hotel Conversion Ordinance in 1980, which restricts the conversion of SRO hotels to tourist use. SROs are prominent in the Tenderloin, Mission District and Chinatown communities, in San Francisco, the city may take over particularly squalid SROs, and renovate them for the disadvantaged. Landlords who intend to convert SROs may try to convince their tenants to sign releases, the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development subsidizes SRO rehabilitation to combat homelessness, under the McKinney–Vento Homeless Assistance Act of 1987. After a rash of fires destroyed many SROs in San Francisco and left one thousand tenants homeless. The smaller size and limited amenities in SROs generally make them a more affordable housing option, the rents of many poor tenants may be paid in full or in part by charitable, state, or federal programs, giving incentive to landlords to accept such tenants. Depending on the sensibilities of the landlords and the quality of the properties, some have been run in dormitory fashion. Others have been cage hotels, in which a room is split into many smaller ones with corrugated steel or sheetrock dividers. ISBN 978-1497536012 by SRO Housing Corporation / Julia Robinson Shimizu Down And Out, hirschoff Living Downtown, The History of Residential Hotels in the United States by Paul Groth Merrifield, Andy. Dialectical Urbanism, Social Struggles in the Capitalist City, New York, Monthly Review Press,2002. Chapter Six describes SROs in New York City
17.
WDIA
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WDIA is a radio station based in Memphis, Tennessee. Active since 1947, it became the first radio station in the United States that was programmed entirely for African Americans. It featured black radio personalities, its success in building an audience attracted radio advertisers suddenly aware of a new market among black listeners. The station had a influence on music, hiring musicians early in their careers. The station started the WDIA Goodwill Fund to help and empower black communities, owned by iHeartMedia, Inc. the stations studios are located in Southeast Memphis, and the transmitter site is in North Memphis. WDIA went on the air June 7,1947, from studios on Union Avenue, the owners, John Pepper and Dick Ferguson, were both white, and the format was a mix of country and western and light pop. The station did not do well, nat D. Williams, a syndicated columnist and high-school teacher, started Tan Town Jubilee in October 1948. This was the first radio program in the United States to appeal to black listeners, after a switch to all-black programming, WDIA became the citys top station. In June 1954 WDIA was licensed to increase its power to 50,000 watts and its powerful signal reached the Mississippi Delta’s dense African-American population and was heard from the Missouri Bootheel to the Gulf Coast. WDIA reached 10% of the African-American population in United States, future WJLB strong jock, Martha Jean “The Queen” Steinberg became known as Princess Premium Stuff. Ernest Brazzell gave crop advice, and Robert Thomas became a DJ named “Honeyboy” after he won an amateur competition. Among other notable personalities were Maurice Hot Rod Hulbert, Theo Bless My Bones Wade, and Ford Nelson, WDIA is known for its community efforts throughout the years. A. C. Williams, a disc jockey for the station. Originally, the fund provided transportation to school for disabled black children, later the fund expanded to include college scholarships, establish boy clubs, provide 125 Little League Teams to Memphis and neighboring communities, and help provide low cost supplemental housing. We have raised over $900,000 over the years, A. C. Williams says, many music legends got their start by working at WDIA, including B. B. King and Rufus Thomas. Elvis Presley was greatly influenced by the station, B. B. King joined WDIA in early 1949. He had a daily 15-minute show, promoting first a patent medicine called Pep-Ti-Kon, and later Lucky Strike cigarettes, the next year he took a DJ position on an afternoon show previously hosted by Maurice Hot Rod Hulbert. King credits his days on the station for building his audience and launching his career, Williams ended his show in 1972 following a stroke
18.
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
19.
Nashville, Tennessee
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Nashville is the capital of the U. S. state of Tennessee and the county seat of Davidson County. It is located on the Cumberland River in the central part of the state. The city is a center for the music, healthcare, publishing, banking and transportation industries and it is known as a center of the country music industry, earning it the nickname Music City, U. S. A. Since 1963, Nashville has had a consolidated city-county government which includes six municipalities in a two-tier system. Nashville is governed by a mayor, vice-mayor, and 40-member Metropolitan Council, thirty-five of the members are elected from single-member districts, five are elected at-large. Reflecting the citys position in government, Nashville is home to the Tennessee Supreme Courts courthouse for Middle Tennessee. According to 2015 estimates from the U. S. Census Bureau, the balance population, which excludes semi-independent municipalities within Nashville, was 654,610. The 2015 population of the entire 13-county Nashville metropolitan area was 1,830,345, the 2015 population of the Nashville-Davidson–Murfreesboro–Columbia combined statistical area, a larger trade area, was 1,951,644. The town of Nashville was founded by James Robertson, John Donelson, and it was named for Francis Nash, the American Revolutionary War hero. Nashville quickly grew because of its location, accessibility as a port on the Cumberland River, a tributary of the Ohio River. By 1800, the city had 345 residents, including 136 African American slaves and 14 free blacks, in 1806, Nashville was incorporated as a city and became the county seat of Davidson County, Tennessee. In 1843, the city was named the permanent capital of the state of Tennessee, by 1860, when the first rumblings of secession began to be heard across the South, antebellum Nashville was a prosperous city. The citys significance as a port made it a desirable prize as a means of controlling important river. In February 1862, Nashville became the first state capital to fall to Union troops, the state was occupied by Union troops for the duration of the war. Within a few years after the Civil War, the Nashville chapter of the Ku Klux Klan was founded by Confederate veteran John W. Morton, meanwhile, the city had reclaimed its important shipping and trading position and developed a solid manufacturing base. The post–Civil War years of the late 19th century brought new prosperity to Nashville and these healthy economic times left the city with a legacy of grand classical-style buildings, which can still be seen around the downtown area. Circa 1950 the state approved a new city charter that provided for the election of city council members from single-member districts. This change was supported because at-large voting diluted the minority populations political power in the city and they could seldom gain a majority of the population to support a candidate of their choice
20.
McKissack & McKissack
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McKissack & McKissack is an American architecture and engineering firm based for many years in Nashville, Tennessee, and now based in New York City and Washington, D. C. Founded in 1905, it was the first African-American-owned architectural firm in the United States and is the oldest minority-owned architecture, the firm was founded by brothers Moses McKissack III and Calvin Lunsford McKissack, natives of Pulaski, Tennessee. Their father and grandfather were trained builders, Moses McKissack entered the architecture trade by working as an apprentice to a builder in Pulaski who hired him in 1890 to assist with architectural designs, drawings and construction work. His formal education was obtained at the Pulaski Colored High School, Calvin McKissack was educated at Barrows School in Springfield, Massachusetts, and Fisk University in Nashville, which he attended from 1905 to 1909. Both brothers obtained architectural degrees through a correspondence course, between 1895 and 1905, Moses McKissack built houses in Decatur, Alabama, and Mount Pleasant and Columbia, Tennessee. In 1905, he received a commission to build a new house for the dean of architecture and he opened his first architectural office in Nashville and quickly picked up additional jobs designing and building other homes in the West End. The firms first major project was design of the Carnegie Library on the Fisk University campus, by 1920, Moses McKissack had acquired design clients throughout Nashville. Between 1918 and 1922 he designed more than one dozen residences in Nashville and Belle Meade, in 1915, he returned to Tennessee, becoming superintendent of industries and a teacher of architectural drawing at the Tennessee Agricultural and Industrial State Normal School. After Tennessee instituted a law for architects in 1921, the McKissack brothers became two of the first registered architects in the state. After they passed easily, the state authorities balked at giving them licenses, in 1922, Calvin McKissack resigned his job with the teachers organization and the brothers established the partnership of McKissack & McKissack. In 1924, the National Baptist Convention, U. S. A, after the building was completed in 1925, the McKissack firm moved its offices into that building, where they remained for many years. In 1927 the McKissacks designed the library of Tennessee State University in Nashville. Around 1940, the firm began to expand outside Tennessee, architectural licensing boards in some other states were skeptical of the qualifications of black architects. Tennessee authorities responded to their concerns with a statement that McKissack and McKissack was, the firm received licenses from Alabama in 1941 and from Georgia, South Carolina, Florida, and Mississippi in 1943. In 1942, the McKissack won a $5.7 million U. S. federal government contract to design and build Tuskegee Army Airfield, home to the Tuskegee Airmens 99th Pursuit Squadron, in Tuskegee, Alabama. At the time, this was the largest federal contract ever awarded to a black-owned company, Calvin McKissack remained with the firm until his death in 1968. William DeBerry McKissack, the youngest son of Moses III, then succeeded his uncle as president of the firm. After suffering a stroke, he retired due to illness, and his wife, Leatrice Buchanan McKissack, became executive officer. C
21.
HVAC
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Heating, ventilation and air conditioning is the technology of indoor and vehicular environmental comfort. Its goal is to provide comfort and acceptable indoor air quality. HVAC system design is a subdiscipline of mechanical engineering, based on the principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, Refrigeration is sometimes added to the fields abbreviation as HVAC&R or HVACR, or ventilating is dropped as in HACR. Ventilation removes unpleasant smells and excessive moisture, introduces outside air, keeps interior building air circulating, ventilation includes both the exchange of air to the outside as well as circulation of air within the building. It is one of the most important factors for maintaining acceptable indoor air quality in buildings, methods for ventilating a building may be divided into mechanical/forced and natural types. HVAC systems can be used in domestic and commercial environments. HVAC systems can provide ventilation, reduce air infiltration, and maintain pressure relationships between spaces, the means of air delivery and removal from spaces is known as room air distribution. In modern buildings the design, installation, and control systems of functions are integrated into one or more HVAC systems. For very small buildings, contractors normally estimate the capacity, engineer, for larger buildings, building service designers, mechanical engineers, or building services engineers analyze, design, and specify the HVAC systems. Specialty mechanical contractors then fabricate and commission the systems, Building permits and code-compliance inspections of the installations are normally required for all sizes of building. HVAC is based on inventions and discoveries made by Nikolay Lvov, Michael Faraday, Willis Carrier, Edwin Ruud, Reuben Trane, James Joule, William Rankine, Sadi Carnot, heaters are appliances whose purpose is to generate heat for the building. This can be done via central heating, such a system contains a boiler, furnace, or heat pump to heat water, steam, or air in a central location such as a furnace room in a home, or a mechanical room in a large building. The heat can be transferred by convection, conduction, or radiation, heaters exist for various types of fuel, including solid fuels, liquids, and gases. Another type of source is electricity, normally heating ribbons composed of high resistance wire. This principle is used for baseboard heaters and portable heaters. Electrical heaters are used as backup or supplemental heat for heat pump systems. The heat pump gained popularity in the 1950s in Japan and the United States, heat pumps can extract heat from various sources, such as environmental air, exhaust air from a building, or from the ground. In the case of heated water or steam, piping is used to transport the heat to the rooms, most modern hot water boiler heating systems have a circulator, which is a pump, to move hot water through the distribution system
22.
Strike action
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Strike action, also called labor strike, labour strike, or simply strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances, Strikes became common during the Industrial Revolution, when mass labor became important in factories and mines. In most countries, strike actions were made illegal, as factory owners had far more power than workers. Most Western countries partially legalized striking in the late 19th or early 20th centuries, Strikes are sometimes used to pressure governments to change policies. Notable examples are the 1980 Gdańsk Shipyard or 1981 Warning Strike, official publications have typically used the more neutral words work stoppage or industrial dispute. The first historically certain account of action was towards the end of the 20th dynasty. The artisans of the Royal Necropolis at Deir el-Medina walked off their jobs because they had not been paid, the Egyptian authorities raised the wages. An early predecessor of the strike may have been the secessio plebis in ancient Rome. In the Outline Of History, H. G. Wells characterized this event as the strike of the plebeians, the plebeians seem to have invented the strike. The strike action became a feature of the political landscape with the onset of the Industrial Revolution. For the first time in history, large numbers of people were members of the working class, they lived in cities. By the 1830s, when the Chartist movement was at its peak, in 1842 the demands for fairer wages and conditions across many different industries finally exploded into the first modern general strike. Instead of being a spontaneous uprising of the masses, the strike was politically motivated and was driven by an agenda to win concessions. Probably as much as half of the industrial work force were on strike at its peak – over 500,000 men. The local leadership marshalled a growing working class tradition to organize their followers to mount an articulate challenge to the capitalist. Friedrich Engels, an observer in London at the time, wrote, by its numbers, this class has become the most powerful in England, the English proletarian is only just becoming aware of his power, and the fruits of this awareness were the disturbances of last summer. Karl Marx has condemned the theory of Proudhon criminalizing strike action in his work The Poverty of Philosophy, in 1937 there were 4,740 strikes in the United States. This was the greatest strike wave in American labor history, the number of major strikes and lockouts in the U. S. fell by 97% from 381 in 1970 to 187 in 1980 to only 11 in 2010
23.
Rosa Parks
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Rosa Louise McCauley Parks was an activist in the Civil Rights Movement, whom the United States Congress called the first lady of civil rights and the mother of the freedom movement. On December 1,1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, Parks refused to obey bus driver James F. Blakes order to give up her seat in the section to a white passenger, after the white section was filled. Parks was not the first person to resist bus segregation, Parks act of defiance and the Montgomery Bus Boycott became important symbols of the modern Civil Rights Movement. She became an icon of resistance to racial segregation. At the time, Parks was secretary of the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP and she had recently attended the Highlander Folk School, a Tennessee center for training activists for workers rights and racial equality. She acted as a private citizen tired of giving in, although widely honored in later years, she also suffered for her act, she was fired from her job as a seamstress in a local department store, and received death threats for years afterwards. Shortly after the boycott, she moved to Detroit, where she found similar work. From 1965 to 1988 she served as secretary and receptionist to John Conyers and she was also active in the Black Power movement and the support of political prisoners in the US. After retirement, Parks wrote her autobiography and continued to insist that the struggle for justice was not over, in her final years, she suffered from dementia. Upon her death in 2005, she was the first woman and her birthday, February 4, and the day she was arrested, December 1, have both become Rosa Parks Day, commemorated in California and Missouri, and Ohio and Oregon. Rosa Parks was born Rosa Louise McCauley in Tuskegee, Alabama, on February 4,1913, to Leona, a teacher, and James McCauley, a carpenter. She was of African ancestry, though one of her great-grandfathers was Scots-Irish and she was small as a child and suffered poor health with chronic tonsillitis. When her parents separated, she moved with her mother to Pine Level, just outside the state capital and she grew up on a farm with her maternal grandparents, mother, and younger brother Sylvester. They all were members of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, an independent black denomination founded by free blacks in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. McCauley attended rural schools until the age of eleven, as a student at the Industrial School for Girls in Montgomery, she took academic and vocational courses. Bus and train companies enforced seating policies with separate sections for blacks, School bus transportation was unavailable in any form for black schoolchildren in the South, and black education was always underfunded. Parks recalled going to school in Pine Level, where school buses took white students to their new school and black students had to walk to theirs. But to me, that was a way of life, we had no choice, the bus was among the first ways I realized there was a black world and a white world
24.
Montgomery bus boycott
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Gayle, took effect, and led to a United States Supreme Court decision that declared the Alabama and Montgomery laws requiring segregated buses to be unconstitutional. Many important figures in the Civil Rights Movement took part in the boycott, including Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. the local background for the Montgomery bus boycott lies in growing abuse and humiliation of the black passengers by white bus drivers due to three main reasons. First, drivers increasingly abused passengers due to their own frustrations over labor disputes, third, the 1954 Brown decision also resulted in increased animosity of bus drivers towards blacks -- many of whom joined the White Citizens Councils. On February 25,1953, the Baton Rouge, Louisiana city-parish council passed Ordinance 222, however, the ordinance was largely unenforced by the city bus drivers. The drivers later went on strike after city authorities refused to arrest Rev. T. J, Jemison for sitting in a front row. Four days after the strike began, Louisiana Attorney General and former Baton Rouge mayor Fred S. LeBlanc declared the ordinance unconstitutional under Louisiana state law and this led Rev. Jemison to organize what historians believe to be the first bus boycott of the civil rights movement. The boycott ended after eight days when an agreement was reached to only retain the first two front and back rows as racially reserved seating areas. On March 2,1955, Colvin was handcuffed, arrested, at the time, Colvin was an active member in the NAACP Youth Council, a group to which Rosa Parks served as Advisor. Colvins legal case formed the core of Browder v. Gayle, but neither the Supreme Courts Morgan ruling nor the ICCs Keys ruling addressed the matter of Jim Crow travel within the individual states. Under the system of segregation used on Montgomery buses, the ten front seats were reserved for whites at all times, the ten back seats were supposed to be reserved for blacks at all times. The middle section of the bus consisted of sixteen unreserved seats for whites, whites filled the middle seats from the front to back, and blacks filled seats from the back to front until the bus was full. If other black people boarded the bus, they were required to stand, when Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat for a white person, she was sitting in the first line of the middle section. Often when boarding the buses, black people were required to pay at the front, get off, occasionally, bus drivers would drive away before black passengers were able to reboard. National City Lines owned the Montgomery Bus Line at the time of the Montgomery bus boycott, Rosa Parks was a seamstress by profession, she was also the secretary for the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP. Twelve years before her history-making arrest, Parks was stopped from boarding a city bus by driver James F. Blake, Parks vowed never again to ride a bus driven by Blake. As a member of the NAACP, Parks was an investigator assigned to cases of sexual assault, in 1945, she was sent to Abbeville, Alabama, to investigate the gang rape of Recy Taylor. The protest that arose around the Taylor case was the first instance of a civil rights protest. In 1955, Parks completed a course in Race Relations at the Highlander Folk School in Tennessee where nonviolent civil disobedience had been discussed as a tactic, on December 1,1955, Parks was sitting in the frontmost row for black people
25.
The Henry Ford
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The Henry Ford is a large indoor and outdoor history museum complex and a National Historic Landmark in the Detroit suburb of Dearborn, Michigan, USA. The Henry Ford Museum of American Innovation and Greenfield Village is the largest indoor-outdoor museum complex in the United States and is visited by 1.6 million people each year and it is one of the largest such collections in the nation. Henry Ford said of his museum, I am collecting the history of our people as written into things their hands made and used. When we are through, we shall have reproduced American life as lived, the Edison Institute was dedicated by President Herbert Hoover to Fords longtime friend Thomas Edison on October 21,1929 – the 50th anniversary of the first successful incandescent light bulb. The attendees included Marie Curie, George Eastman, John D. Rockefeller, Will Rogers, Orville Wright, the dedication was broadcast on radio with listeners encouraged to turn off their electric lights until the switch was flipped at the Museum. The Edison Institute was, at first, a site for educational purposes only. It was originally composed of the Henry Ford Museum, Greenfield Village, the Henry Ford is sited between the Ford Dearborn Development Center and several Ford engineering buildings with which it shares the same style gates and brick fences. In 1970, the museum purchased what it believed to be a 17th-century Brewster Chair, created for one of the Pilgrim settlers in the Plymouth Colony, in September 1977, the chair was determined to be a modern forgery created in 1969 by Rhode Island sculptor Armand LaMontagne. The museum retains the piece as a tool on forgeries. The Henry Ford Museum of American Innovation began as Henry Fords personal collection of historic objects, a model of the nuclear-powered Ford Nucleon automobile An Oscar Mayer Wienermobile The 1961 Lincoln Continental, SS-100-X that President John F. Kennedy was riding in when he was assassinated. The rocking chair from Fords Theatre in which President Abraham Lincoln was sitting when he was shot, a ten-person safety bicycle made in 1896. A collection of several fine 17th- and 18th-century violins including a Stradivarius, Thomas Edisons alleged last breath in a sealed tube. The bus on which Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat, fokker Trimotor airplane that flew the first flight over the North Pole. Bill Elliotts record-breaking race car clocking in at over 212 MPH at Talladega in 1987 Fairbottom Bobs, the Automotive Hall of Fame, adjacent to the Henry Ford Museum. A working fragment of the original Holiday Inn Great Sign A Chesapeake & Ohio Railway 2-6-6-6 Allegheny-class steam locomotive built by Lima Locomotive Works in Lima, the Allegheny was the most powerful steam locomotive ever built. The Research Center also contains the Ford Motor Archives, to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the sinking of the RMS Titanic, the Henry Ford Museum exhibited a vast array of artifacts and media documenting the Titanics voyage and demise. The exhibit was hosted from 31 March to 30 September 2012, Greenfield Village, the outdoor living history museum section of the Henry Ford complex, was dedicated in 1929 and opened to the public in June 1933. It was the first outdoor museum of its type in the nation, patrons enter at the gate, passing by the Josephine Ford Memorial Fountain and Benson Ford Research Center
26.
Dearborn, Michigan
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Dearborn is a city in the State of Michigan. It is located in Wayne County and is part of the Detroit metropolitan area, Dearborn is the eighth largest city in the State of Michigan. As of the 2010 census, it had a population of 98,153 and it later grew into a manufacturing hub for the automotive industry. The city was the home of Henry Ford and is the headquarters of the Ford Motor Company. It has a campus of the University of Michigan as well as Henry Ford Community College, Dearborn has The Henry Ford, the United States largest indoor-outdoor museum complex and Metro Detroits leading tourist attraction. Dearborn residents are primarily of European or Middle Eastern heritage, descendants of 19th, Middle Eastern ancestries make up the largest ethnic grouping with Lebanese, Yemeni, Iraqi, Syrian and Palestinian groups present. The primary European ethnicities are German, Polish, Irish and Italian, the area had been inhabited for thousands of years by varying indigenous peoples. Historical tribes belonged mostly to the Algonquian-language family, although the Huron were Iroquoian speaking, French colonists had a trading post and developed Detroit during the colonial period, trading with numerous regional tribes. This settlement was ceded to Britain in 1763 after its victory in the Seven Years War, the Dearborn area was settled permanently by Europeans in 1786, after the American Revolutionary War. The town of Dearborn was incorporated in 1893, in 1927 it was established as a city. Its current borders result from a 1928 consolidation vote that merged Dearborn and neighboring Fordson, the area between the two towns was, and still remains in part, undeveloped. Once farm land, this was bought by Henry Ford for his estate, Fair Lane, the open land is planted with sunflowers and often with Henry Fords favorite soybeans. The Arab American National Museum opened in Dearborn in 2005, the first museum in the devoted to Arab-American history. Arab Americans in Dearborn include ethnic Lebanese Christians who immigrated in the twentieth century to work in the auto industry as well as more recent Arab immigrants from other nations. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 24.5 square miles. The Rouge River runs through the city with an artificial waterfall/low head dam on the Henry Ford estate to power its powerhouse, the Upper, Middle, and Lower Branches of the river come together in Dearborn. The river is widened and channeled near the Rouge Plant to allow freighter access. Fordson Island is an 8.4 acre island about three miles inland from the Detroit River on the River Rouge, Fordson Island is the only major island in a tributary to the Detroit River
27.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
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Brown v. Board of Education
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The decision overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. Handed down on May 17,1954, the Warren Courts unanimous decision stated that educational facilities are inherently unequal. As a result, de jure segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This ruling paved the way for integration and was a victory of the Civil Rights Movement. For much of the sixty years preceding the Brown case, race relations in the United States had been dominated by racial segregation, racial segregation in education varied widely from the 17 states that required racial segregation to the 16 in which it was prohibited. Brown was influenced by UNESCOs 1950 Statement, signed by a variety of internationally renowned scholars. This declaration denounced previous attempts at scientifically justifying racism as well as morally condemning racism, another work that the Supreme Court cited was Gunnar Myrdals An American Dilemma, The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. Myrdal had been a signatory of the UNESCO declaration, the research performed by the educational psychologists Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark also influenced the Courts decision. The Clarks doll test studies presented substantial arguments to the Supreme Court about how segregation affected black schoolchildrens mental status, the plaintiffs were thirteen Topeka parents on behalf of their 20 children. The suit called for the district to reverse its policy of racial segregation. The plaintiffs had been recruited by the leadership of the Topeka NAACP, notable among the Topeka NAACP leaders were the chairman McKinley Burnett, Charles Scott, one of three serving as legal counsel for the chapter, and Lucinda Todd. The named plaintiff, Oliver L. Brown, was a parent, a welder in the shops of the Santa Fe Railroad, an assistant pastor at his church. He was convinced to join the lawsuit by Scott, a childhood friend, as directed by the NAACP leadership, the parents each attempted to enroll their children in the closest neighborhood school in the fall of 1951. They were each refused enrollment and directed to the segregated schools, linda Brown Thompson later recalled the experience in a 2004 PBS documentary. Like I say, we lived in a neighborhood and I had all of these playmates of different nationalities. And so when I found out that day that I might be able to go to their school, I was just thrilled, you know. And I remember walking over to Sumner school with my dad that day and going up the steps of the school, and I remember going inside and my dad spoke with someone and then he went into the inner office with the principal and they left me out. To sit outside with the secretary, and while he was in the inner office, I could hear voices and hear his voice raised, you know, as the conversation went on
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Malcolm X
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Malcolm X, born Malcolm Little and later also known as el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz, was an African-American Muslim minister and human rights activist. He has been called one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history, Malcolm X was effectively orphaned early in life. His father was killed when he was six and his mother was placed in a hospital when he was thirteen. In 1946, at age 20, he went to prison for larceny, while in prison, Malcolm X became a member of the Nation of Islam, and after his parole in 1952, quickly rose to become one of the organizations most influential leaders. He served as the face of the controversial group for a dozen years. In his autobiography, Malcolm X wrote proudly of some of the achievements the Nation made while he was a member. The Nation promoted black supremacy, advocated the separation of black and white Americans, by March 1964, Malcolm X had grown disillusioned with the Nation of Islam and its leader Elijah Muhammad. Expressing many regrets about his time with them, which he had come to regard as largely wasted and he continued to emphasize Pan-Africanism, black self-determination, and black self-defense. In February 1965, he was assassinated by three members of the Nation of Islam, Malcolm Little was born May 19,1925, in Omaha, Nebraska, the fourth of seven children of Grenada-born Louise Helen Little and Georgia-born Earl Little. Earl was an outspoken Baptist lay speaker, and he and Louise were admirers of Pan-African activist Marcus Garvey, Malcolm X later said that white violence killed three of his fathers brothers. Because of Ku Klux Klan threats—Earls UNIA activities were spreading trouble—the family relocated in 1926 to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, there the family was frequently harassed by the Black Legion, a white racist group. When the family home burned in 1929, Earl accused the Black Legion, when Little was six, his father died in what was officially ruled a streetcar accident, though his mother Louise believed Earl had been murdered by the Black Legion. Rumors that white racists were responsible for his fathers death were widely circulated, as an adult, he expressed conflicting beliefs on the question. To make ends meet Louise rented out part of her garden, in 1937 a man Louise had been dating—marriage had seemed a possibility—vanished from her life when she became pregnant with his child. In late 1938 she had a breakdown and was committed to Kalamazoo State Hospital. The children were separated and sent to foster homes, Malcolm and his siblings secured her release 24 years later. Malcolm Little excelled in high school but dropped out after a white teacher told him that practicing law. Later Malcolm X recalled feeling that the world offered no place for a career-oriented black man
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Associated Press
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The Associated Press is an American multinational nonprofit news agency headquartered in New York City that operates as a cooperative, unincorporated association. The AP is owned by its contributing newspapers and radio and television stations in the United States, all of which stories to the AP. Most of the AP staff are members and are represented by the Newspaper Guild, which operates under the Communications Workers of America. As of 2007, news collected by the AP was published and republished by more than 1,700 newspapers, in addition to more than 5,000 television, the photograph library of the AP consists of over 10 million images. The AP operates 243 news bureaus in 120 countries and it also operates the AP Radio Network, which provides newscasts twice hourly for broadcast and satellite radio and television stations. Many newspapers and broadcasters outside the United States are AP subscribers, as part of their cooperative agreement with the AP, most member news organizations grant automatic permission for the AP to distribute their local news reports. The AP employs the inverted pyramid formula for writing that enables the news outlets to edit a story to fit its available publication area without losing the storys essentials. Cutbacks at rival United Press International in 1993 left the AP as the United States primary news service, although UPI still produces and distributes stories and photos daily. Other English-language news services, such as the BBC, Reuters, some historians believe that the Tribune joined at this time, documents show it was a member in 1849. The New York Times became a member shortly after its founding in September 1851, initially known as the New York Associated Press, the organization faced competition from the Western Associated Press, which criticized its monopolistic news gathering and price setting practices. The revelations led to the demise of the NYAP and in December 1892, when the AP was founded, news became a salable commodity. The invention of the press allowed the New York Tribune in the 1870s to print 18,000 papers per hour. During the Civil War and Spanish–American War, there was a new incentive to print vivid, Melville Stone, who had founded the Chicago Daily News in 1875, served as AP General Manager from 1893 to 1921. He embraced the standards of accuracy, impartiality, and integrity, the cooperative grew rapidly under the leadership of Kent Cooper, who built up bureau staff in South America, Europe and, the Middle East. He introduced the telegraph typewriter or teletypewriter into newsrooms in 1914, in 1935, AP launched the Wirephoto network, which allowed transmission of news photographs over leased private telephone lines on the day they were taken. This gave AP a major advantage over other media outlets. While the first network was only between New York, Chicago, and San Francisco, eventually AP had its network across the whole United States, in 1945, the Supreme Court of the United States held in Associated Press v. The decision facilitated the growth of its main rival United Press International, AP entered the broadcast field in 1941 when it began distributing news to radio stations, it created its own radio network in 1974
31.
Downtown Memphis, Tennessee
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It is home to the Memphis Redbirds, the AAA affiliate of the St. Louis Cardinals, and the Memphis Grizzlies NBA team. Downtown is the oldest part of the city and includes the riverfront, the founders of Memphis dedicated the riverfront to the public now and forever as long as the public use continued. The land overlooking the riverfront was originally planned to become a public promenade to be called Mississippi Row, the upper riverfront became the site of the river landing where steamboats were loaded with cotton and other goods in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Between 1844 and 1886 the river landing was paved with limestone and this created what is today the largest intact Mississippi River landing still in existence, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The explosion of the steamboat Sultana in 1865 near Memphis was one of the worst marine disasters in history, there are several historic residences downtown, particularly in the Victorian Village neighborhood. Other historic homes include the Hunt-Phelan House, the Magevney House, the Burkle home and the Hunt Phelan House were reputed to have been part of the underground railroad by which escaped slaves made their way to freedom prior to the Civil War. In 1959, the Memphis Downtown Airport was opened on Mud Island, the one-runway airport could be reached by a pontoon-boat ferry and was used mostly by businessmen and shoppers. The Downtown Airport was closed in 1970 and it was replaced in the 1990s by the new urbanist Harbor Town development. The Downtown Memphis skyline contains the tallest buildings in the city, the administrative core of Memphis and Shelby County is also located in Downtown Memphis. These include the Memphis City Hall, and the Federal Building, located on North Main Street, Downtown Memphis also contains the Memphis branch of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. Downtown Core is the heart of the business district and includes the majority of office space, retail, entertainment. It is a regional destination for entertainment, dining, and tourism and includes attractions such as Beale Street, FedExForum, AutoZone Park. The Memphis Riverfront stretches from the Meeman-Shelby Forest State Park in the north, the River Walk is a park system along the Mississippi River that connects the Mississippi River Greenbelt Park in the north, to Tom Lee Park in the south. Interstates I-40, I-55, I-69 and I-240 all run directly through downtown, the new Interstate 22 is about 10 miles away from Downtown. MATA operates the North End Terminal, its hub for Memphis public bus service, at the corner of Main Street. The majority of fixed bus routes operates by MATA terminate at the North End Terminal, the MATA Trolley is a heritage streetcar system that operates three lines in downtown along Main Street, Riverside Drive, and Madison Avenue. It consists of twenty four stations and has a ridership of approximately 2,500. Connections between MATA public bus and Main Street trolley line can be made at the North End Terminal, amtraks City of New Orleans passenger train runs through Downtown Memphis twice a day, stopping at Central Station
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South Main Arts District, Memphis
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The South Main Arts District in Memphis, Tennessee makes up the southern portion of Downtown Memphis. It is located along South Main Street, two great points of historical interest in Memphis reside in this area. One is the National Civil Rights Museum, the other is the historic restaurant the Arcade, located on the south corner of South Main and G. E. It is the oldest coffee shop and one of the oldest family owned restaurants in Memphis, elvis used to hang out at the Arcade and it has become a favorite among filmmakers, several movies have had scenes filmed at the diner-styled restaurant. On the last Friday of each month, an event called Art Trolley Tour is put on by the owners of the South Main businesses and art galleries. From 6-9pm, this includes free MATA trolley service up and down Main Street, open art galleries, several notable locations and buildings are located in the South Main district. Some of the films featuring scenes from the South Main district are, The Firm — Tom Cruise,21 Grams Hustle and Flow Walk the Line — The scenes shown on Beale Street are actually South Main, somewhat dressed up and slightly CGI enhanced. Black Snake Moan — While most of the movie was shot in the Pyramid and my Blueberry Nights — Filmed inside Ernestine and Hazels and the Arcade Restaurant, as well as several exterior shots along South Main and G. E. Nothing But the Truth — Scenes were shot at the Arcade Restaurant, mystery Train — Not only shot in Memphis, but the front entrance of the Arcade Restaurant is depicted on the movie poster. Great Balls of Fire Elizabethtown — Scenes shown in the National Civil Rights Museum, Ernestine and Hazels, lovely By Surprise — Scene filmed in the Arcade Restaurant. The Client National Register of Historic Places listings in Shelby County, Tennessee Official Site Arcade Restaurant National Civil Rights Museum
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Mississippi River
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The Mississippi River is the chief river of the largest drainage system on the North American continent. Flowing entirely in the United States, it rises in northern Minnesota, with its many tributaries, the Mississippis watershed drains all or parts of 31 U. S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth longest and fifteenth largest river in the world by discharge, the river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries, most were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the way of life as first explorers, then settlers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. Formed from thick layers of the silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country. In recent years, the river has shown a shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta. The word itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe name for the river, see below in the History section for additional information. In addition to historical traditions shown by names, there are at least two measures of a rivers identity, one being the largest branch, and the other being the longest branch. Using the largest-branch criterion, the Ohio would be the branch of the Lower Mississippi. Using the longest-branch criterion, the Middle Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson-Beaverhead-Red Rock-Hellroaring Creek River would be the main branch and its length of at least 3,745 mi is exceeded only by the Nile, the Amazon, and perhaps the Yangtze River among the longest rivers in the world. The source of this waterway is at Browers Spring,8,800 feet above sea level in southwestern Montana and this is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase Trans-Mississippi as used in the name of the Trans-Mississippi Exposition. It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, the New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway, the Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca,1,475 feet above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, however, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams. From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river
34.
James Earl Ray
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James Earl Ray was a convicted murderer who assassinated Martin Luther King Jr. on April 4,1968 in Memphis, Tennessee. Ray was convicted on his 41st birthday after entering a guilty plea to forgo a jury trial, had he been found guilty by jury trial, he would have been eligible for the death penalty. Sentenced to life in prison, he recanted his confession. In 1998, Ray died in prison of complications due to chronic hepatitis C infection and he had served 29 years in prison at the time of his death. Ray was born to a family on March 10,1928, in Alton, Illinois. He had Welsh, Ulster Scots, and Irish ancestry, and was raised Catholic, Ray left school at the age of fifteen. He joined the U. S. Army at the close of World War II and his first conviction for criminal activity, a burglary in California, came in 1949. In 1952 he served two years for the robbery of a taxi driver in Illinois. In 1955, he was convicted of fraud after stealing money orders in Hannibal, Missouri. He served four years at Leavenworth Federal Penitentiary, in 1959 he was caught stealing $120 in an armed robbery of a St. Louis Kroger store. Ray was sentenced to twenty years in prison for repeated offenses and he escaped from the Missouri State Penitentiary in 1967 by hiding in a truck transporting bread from the prison bakery. Following his escape, Ray stayed on the move throughout the United States and Canada, going first to St. Louis and then on to Chicago, Toronto, Montreal, and Birmingham. When he got to Alabama, Ray stayed long enough to buy a 1966 Ford Mustang and he then drove to Mexico, stopping in Acapulco before settling down in Puerto Vallarta on October 19,1967. While in Mexico, Ray, using the alias Eric Starvo Galt, using mail-ordered equipment, he filmed and photographed local prostitutes. Frustrated with his results and jilted by the prostitute with whom he had formed a relationship, Ray returned to the United States, arriving in Los Angeles on November 19,1967. While in L. A. Ray attended a bartending school. His chief interest, however, was the George Wallace presidential campaign, Ray harbored a strong prejudice against black people and was quickly drawn to Wallaces segregationist platform. He spent much of his time in Los Angeles volunteering at the Wallace campaign headquarters in North Hollywood and he considered emigrating to Rhodesia, where a white minority régime had unilaterally assumed independence from the United Kingdom in 1965
35.
Memphis sanitation strike
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The Memphis sanitation strike began in February 1968 in Memphis, Tennessee. They then did not turn out for work on the following day and they also sought to join the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees Local 1733. Memphiss mayor, Henry Loeb, declared the strike illegal and refused to meet with black leaders. Heavily redacted files released in 2012 suggest that FBI monitored the strike, on Monday February 12, most of the citys sanitation and sewage workers did not show up for work. Some of those who did show up walked off when they found out about the apparent strike, mayor Loeb, infuriated, refused to meet with the strikers. The workers marched from their hall to a meeting at the City Council chamber, there. Loeb led the workers to an auditorium, where he asked them to return to work. They laughed and booed him, then applauded union leaders who spoke, at one point, Loeb grabbed the microphone from AFSCME International organizer Bill Lucy and shouted Go back to work. Storming out of the soon after. By 15 February, piles of trash were noticeable, and Loeb began to hire strikebreakers and these individuals were white and traveled with police escorts. They were not well received by the strikers, and the strikers assaulted the strikebreakers in some cases, as of 21 February 1968, the sanitation workers established a daily routine of meeting at noon with nearly a thousand strikers and then marching from Clayborn Temple to downtown. The marchers faced police brutality in the forms of mace, tear gas, Rev. Lawsons comments embody the message behind the iconic placards from the sanitation workers’ strike, I Am A Man. On the evening of 26 February, Clayborn Temple held over a thousand supporters of the movement, Rev. Ralph Jackson charged the crowd to not rest until justice and jobs prevailed for all black Americans. That night they raised $1,600 from to support the Movement, — Sanitation Workers’ Prayer recited by Reverend Malcolm Blackburn The local news media were generally favorable to Loeb, portraying union leaders as meddling outsiders. The Commercial Appeal wrote editorials praising the mayor for his toughness, newspapers and television stations generally portrayed the mayor as calm and reasonable, and the protesters and organizers as unruly and disorganized. The Tri-State Defender, an African American newspaper, and The Souwester and these publications emphasized the brutality of the police reactions to the protestors. From the beginning, strikers refused to erase the racial dimension of the issues at hand, various speakers from the NAACP addressed the strikers in the union hall. Many of these leaders, including Rev. Samuel Kyles, opposed the alliance with union leaders who seemed to be riding the strikers coattails
36.
Freedom Riders
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The Southern states had ignored the rulings and the federal government did nothing to enforce them. The first Freedom Ride left Washington, D. C. on May 4,1961, Boynton outlawed racial segregation in the restaurants and waiting rooms in terminals serving buses that crossed state lines. The ICC failed to enforce its ruling, and Jim Crow travel laws remained in force throughout the South, the Freedom Riders challenged this status quo by riding interstate buses in the South in mixed racial groups to challenge local laws or customs that enforced segregation in seating. The Freedom Rides, and the violent reactions they provoked, bolstered the credibility of the American Civil Rights Movement and they called national attention to the disregard for the federal law and the local violence used to enforce segregation in the southern United States. The Congress of Racial Equality sponsored most of the subsequent Freedom Rides, the Supreme Courts decision in Boynton supported the right of interstate travelers to disregard local segregation ordinances. Southern local and state police considered the actions of the Freedom Riders to be criminal, in some localities, such as Birmingham, Alabama, the police cooperated with Ku Klux Klan chapters and other white people opposing the actions and allowed mobs to attack the riders. Like the Freedom Rides of 1961, the Journey of Reconciliation was intended to test an earlier Supreme Court ruling that banned discrimination in interstate travel. The first Freedom Ride began on May 4,1961, led by CORE Director James Farmer,13 riders left Washington, DC, on Greyhound and Trailways buses. Their plan was to ride through Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, ending in New Orleans, Louisiana, most of the Riders were from CORE, and two were from SNCC. Many were in their 40s and 50s, some were as young as 18. The rest of the team would sit scattered throughout the rest of the bus, one rider would abide by the Souths segregation rules in order to avoid arrest and to contact CORE and arrange bail for those who were arrested. Only minor trouble was encountered in Virginia and North Carolina, but John Lewis was attacked in Rock Hill, some of the Riders were arrested in Charlotte, North Carolina, Winnsboro, South Carolina, and Jackson, Mississippi. The Birmingham, Alabama, Police Commissioner, Bull Connor, together with Police Sergeant Tom Cook, the pair made plans to bring the Ride to an end in Alabama. They assured Gary Thomas Rowe, an FBI informer and member of Eastview Klavern #13, the plan was to allow an initial assault in Anniston with a final assault taking place in Birmingham. On May 14, Mothers Day, in Anniston, a mob of Klansmen, some still in church attire, the driver tried to leave the station, but was blocked until KKK members slashed its tires. The mob forced the bus to stop several miles outside of town. As the bus burned, the mob held the doors shut, sources disagree, but either an exploding fuel tank or an undercover state investigator brandishing a revolver caused the mob to retreat, and the riders escaped the bus. The mob beat the riders after they got out, Only warning shots fired into the air by highway patrolmen prevented the riders from being lynched
37.
Birmingham Civil Rights Institute
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Birmingham Civil Rights Institute is a large interpretive museum and research center in Birmingham, Alabama that depicts the struggles of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s and 1960s. The Institute opened in November 1992, and had more than 25,000 visitors during its first week, the Institute showcases a walking journey through the living institution, which displays the lessons of the past as a positive way to chart new directions for the future. The permanent exhibitions are a self-directed journey through Birminghams contributions to the Civil Rights Movement, multimedia exhibitions focus on the history of African-American life and the struggle for civil rights. The Oral History Project, one of the museums exhibits, documents Birminghams role in the Civil Rights Movement through the voices of movement participants. The museum is an affiliate in the Smithsonian Affiliations program, through this program the museum can acquire long-term loans and is currently hosting the Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service exhibition Let Your Motto Be resistance. The archives of the Institute serve as a resource for educators and researchers. They are a repository for the collection and preservation of civil rights documents and artifacts, the archival information system is computer-linked to the Birmingham Public Library and is a vital component of the Archives Division. The Birmingham Civil Rights Institute is also a community resource for meetings, seminars, a Community Meeting Room is available to local organizations. The museum is a member of the North American Reciprocal Museums program, on May 24,2013, President Barack Obama signed into law H. R. The gold medal was given to the Birmingham Civil Rights Institute to display or loan out to other museums, on March 28,2016, the bill was referred to the Subcommittee on Federal Lands
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International Civil Rights Center and Museum
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The International Civil Rights Center & Museum is located in Greensboro, North Carolina, United States. Its building formerly housed the Woolworths, the site of a non-violent protest in the civil rights movement, Four students from North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University started the Greensboro sit-ins at a whites only lunch counter on February 1,1960. The four students were Franklin McCain, Joseph McNeil, Ezell Blair, Jr. the next day there were twenty students. The Museum is currently supported by earned admissions and Museum Store revenues, the project also receives donations from private donors as a means of continuing its operations. The museum was founded in 1993 and officially opened its doors just fifty years to the day after the movements in Greensboro NC. In 1993, the Woolworths downtown Greensboro store, which had been open since 1939, closed, Greensboro radio station 102 JAMZ, began a petition drive to save the location. Morning radio personality Dr. Michael Lynn broadcast in front of the closed store day, eighteen thousand signatures were gathered on a petition. Rev. Jesse Jackson, Jr. visited the location, endorsed the effort, after three days, the F. W. Woolworth company announced an agreement to maintain the location while financing could be arranged to buy the store. County Commissioner Melvin Skip Alston and City Councilman Earl Jones proposed buying the site, the two founded Sit-in Movement, Inc. a nonprofit organization dedicated to realizing this dream. The group succeeded in purchasing and renovating the property, in 2001, Sit-in Movement Inc. and NC A&T announced a partnership to facilitate the museums becoming a reality. The museum project suffered financial difficulties for a number of years, department of Interior through the National Park Service Agencys Save Americas Treasures program in 2005. In fall 2007, Sit-in Movement, Inc. requested an additional $1.5 million from the City of Greensboro, Greensboro residents twice voted down bond referenda to provide money for the project. The museum claimed it owed $281,805, on August 1, the city council voted not to forgive $800,000 of the debt, using the museum building as collateral was an option. Two weeks later, the city gave the museum until February 2018 to raise more money. As the 50th anniversary of the sit-ins grew closer, efforts increased to complete the project, over $9 million in donations and grants were raised. In addition, the qualified for historic preservation tax credits. Work on the project proceeded, and was completed in time for the 50th anniversary opening, the ICRCM opened on February 1,2010, on the 50th anniversary of the original sit-in, with a ribbon-cutting ceremony. A religious invocation was spoken by Rev. Jesse Jackson, Jr, the three surviving members of the Greensboro Four were guests of honor
39.
Mississippi Civil Rights Museum
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The Mississippi Civil Rights Museum is a proposed museum to be built in Jackson, Mississippi. Its mission is to document, exhibit the history of, the museum secured $20 million in funding from the Mississippi Legislature in April 2011 after Governor Haley Barbour testified in favor of its funding. Ground was broken in 2013 and it is scheduled to open in 2017, according to Mississippi state senator John Horhn, it is the first state-sponsored civil rights museum in the United States. The Mississippi State Historical Museum opened a civil rights exhibit in the mid-1980s, but by 2001, with only two memorials to the civil rights movement in Mississippi, civil rights activists, historians, and tourism officials began planning for a civil rights museum. One of the key promoters was Hattiesburg native Iola Williams. In 2002, The Clarion-Ledger reported that historic Brownlee Gymnasium on the campus of Tougaloo College was under consideration as the site of the museum, in 2003, the Associated Press reported that the abandoned former Council of Federated Organizations building near Jackson State University might also be used. Beginning in 2000, state Senator John Horhn began introducing legislation to fund a state civil rights museum, the bill located the museum at Tougaloo College, but it died each year he introduced it. In 2004, Democratic state Representative Erik R. Fleming also filed legislation to create a civil rights museum. By July, the William Winter Institute for Racial Reconciliation at the University of Mississippi was also backing the project, the bill failed, but Horhn and Fleming reintroduced it in 2005. Although the state House approved $200,000 in planning funds, another attempt in 2006 also failed. Horhn reintroduced his bill later in the session, this leaving the choice of site up to a commission. State Representative John Reeves (a Republican, supported the measure in the House, but this second effort failed as well, despite broad support from legislators and citizens. A third and successful effort was made late in the session by state Senator Hillman Frazier and this measure merely established a legislative study commission, rather than an executive branch committee, and required the legislative committee to issue a report by December 31,2006. The legislative study ran into problems, however, in November 2006, Mississippi Governor Haley Barbour proposed creating a $500,000 state Department of Archives and History commission to develop plans for the civil rights museum. On December 19, the study commission issued its report. It said a $50 million museum should be built in Jackson, the joint committee said the museum should be about 112,500 square feet in size, supported by a private foundation, and that $500,000 should be appropriated to begin planning. Controversy quickly erupted over where the museum should be located, but the House bill died in the state Senate. The Senate supported a bill to only the $500,000 in planning funds requested by the governor
40.
Sermons and speeches of Martin Luther King Jr.
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Martin Luther King Jr. was a prominent African-American clergyman, a civil rights leader, and a Nobel laureate. King himself observed, In the quiet recesses of my heart, I am fundamentally a clergyman, the famous I Have a Dream address was delivered in August 1963 from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D. C. Less well-remembered are the early sermons of that young, 25-year-old pastor who first began preaching at the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama in 1954. As a political leader in the Civil Rights Movement and as a modest preacher in a Baptist church,1953 – The Three Dimensions of a Complete Life. 1954 – Rediscovering Lost Values, February 28,1954,1956 - The Death of Evil Upon the Seashore 1956 – Pauls Letter to American Christians, November 4,1956. 1957 – The Birth of a New Nation, April 7,1957,1957 – Loving Your Enemies, November 17,1957. 1963 – Eulogy for the Martyred Children, September 18,1963,1965 – How Long, Not Long, also known as Our God Is Marching On. 1966 – Guidelines for a Constructive Church, Delivered at Ebenezer Baptist Church, Atlanta, Georgia,1967 – The Three Dimensions Of A Complete Life, Delivered at New Covenant Baptist Church, Chicago, Illinois, on April 9,1967. Pisgah Missionary Baptist Church, Chicago, Illinois, on August 27,1967, -- see Video on YouTube 1968 – The Drum Major Instinct, February 4,1968. 1968 – Remaining Awake Through a Great Revolution, March 31,1968, Delivered at the National Cathedral in Washington, D. C.1968 – Ive Been to the Mountaintop, April 3,1968. 1968 – Why America May Go to Hell, planned to be delivered on April 7,1968, speech given at McFarlin Auditorium, Southern Methodist University March 17,1966, drawn from same sources as April 10,1957 St. Louis, Mo. speech. National Days/National Ways, Historical, Political, And Religious Celebrations Around The World, the Preacher King, Martin Luther King Jr. and the Word That Moved America. Martin Luther King and His Opposition to the Vietnam War - video by Democracy Now, episode 2 -- MLK, A Call to Conscience, -- Tavis Smiley Reports. The second episode of Tavis Smiley Reports examines Martin Luther King Jr. s stand against the Vietnam War, Tavis speaks with scholars and friends of King, including Cornel West, Vincent Harding and Susannah Heschel. March 31,2010 Valeria Franceschi, REMEMBERING THE REVEREND, AN ANALYSIS OF OBAMA’S SPEECHES COMMEMORATING MARTIN LUTHER KING
41.
I Have a Dream
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Delivered to over 250,000 civil rights supporters from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D. C. the speech was a defining moment of the Civil Rights Movement. Beginning with a reference to the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed millions of slaves in 1863, King observes that, one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. Toward the end of the speech, King departed from his text for a partly improvised peroration on the theme I have a dream, prompted by Mahalia Jacksons cry, Tell them about the dream. In this part of the speech, which most excited the listeners and has now become its most famous, King described his dreams of freedom and equality arising from a land of slavery and hatred. Jon Meacham writes that, With a single phrase, Martin Luther King Jr. joined Jefferson, the speech was ranked the top American speech of the 20th century in a 1999 poll of scholars of public address. The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom was partly intended to demonstrate support for the civil rights legislation proposed by President Kennedy in June. Martin Luther King and other leaders therefore agreed to keep their speeches calm, also, King originally designed his speech as a homage to Abraham Lincolns Gettysburg Address, timed to correspond with the 100-year centennial of the Emancipation Proclamation. King had been preaching about dreams since 1960, when he gave a speech to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People called The Negro, King suggests that It may well be that the Negro is Gods instrument to save the soul of America. In 1961, he spoke of the Civil Rights Movement and student activists dream of equality—the American Dream, a dream as yet unfulfilled—in several national speeches and statements, and took the dream as the centerpiece for these speeches. On November 27,1962, King gave a speech at Booker T. Washington High School in Rocky Mount and that speech was longer than the version which he would eventually deliver from the Lincoln Memorial. And while parts of the text had been moved around, large portions were identical, after being rediscovered, the restored and digitized recording of the 1962 speech was presented to the public by the English department of North Carolina State University. Martin Luther King had also delivered a speech in Detroit, in June 1963, when he marched on Woodward Avenue with Walter Reuther and the Reverend C. L. Franklin. The March on Washington Speech, known as I Have a Dream Speech, has shown to have had several versions. It has no single version draft, but is an amalgamation of several drafts, little of this, and another Normalcy Speech, ended up in the final draft. A draft of Normalcy, Never Again is housed in the Morehouse College Martin Luther King Jr. Collection of the Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center, the focus on I have a dream comes through the speechs delivery. Toward the end of its delivery, noted African American gospel singer Mahalia Jackson shouted to King from the crowd, Tell them about the dream, King departed from his prepared remarks and started preaching improvisationally, punctuating his points with I have a dream. The speech was drafted with the assistance of Stanley Levison and Clarence Benjamin Jones in Riverdale, March, a recording of Kings Cobo Hall speech was released by Detroits Gordy Records as an LP entitled The Great March To Freedom. Early in his speech, King alludes to Abraham Lincolns Gettysburg Address by saying Five score years ago, in reference to the abolition of slavery articulated in the Emancipation Proclamation, King says, It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity
