1.
United States Statutes at Large
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Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law or private law, and designated and numbered accordingly. At the end of a Congress session, slip laws are compiled into Statutes at Large and they are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws, and codification. Today, large portions of slip laws denominated as public laws are now drafted as amendments to the United States Code. Once enacted into law, an Act will be published in the Statutes at Large and will add to, modify, provisions of a public law that contains only enacting clauses, effective dates, and similar matters are not generally codified. Private laws also are not generally codified, some portions of the United States Code have been enacted as positive law and other portions have not been so enacted. Publication of the United States Statutes at Large began in 1845 by the firm of Little, Brown. During Little, Brown and Companys time as publisher, Richard Peters, George Minot, in 1874, Congress transferred the authority to publish the Statutes at Large to the Government Printing Office under the direction of the Secretary of State. 633, was enacted July 30,1947 and directed the Secretary of State to compile, edit, index,980, was enacted September 23,1950 and directed the Administrator of General Services to compile, edit, index, and publish the Statutes at Large. Since 1985 the Statutes at Large have been prepared and published by the Office of the Federal Register of the National Archives, sometimes very large or long Acts of Congress are published as their own volume of the Statutes at Large. For example, the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 was published as volume 68A of the Statutes at Large. Volumes 1 to 18 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Library of Congress Volumes 1 to 64 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Congressional Data Coalition via LEGISWORKS
2.
Militia Act of 1903
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It also provided federal funds to the National Guard to pay for equipment and training, including annual summer encampments. During the nineteenth century, the militia in each U. S. state, under these laws, the question of state versus federal control of the militia was unresolved. As a result, the government could not rely on the militia for national defense. Because the issue of state versus federal control was not resolved and these units of United States Volunteers were not militia, though often they consisted of militia units which had volunteered en masse, nor were they part of the regular Army. This solution was employed during the Mexican–American War, and in the Union Army during the American Civil War, during the Spanish–American War some volunteer units were organized, most notably the 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry Regiment, nicknamed Rough Riders. The federal government also mobilized several National Guard units which volunteered en masse and were accepted as volunteer units. As a result of the problems identified during the Spanish–American War, Secretary of War Elihu Root and other leaders took steps to reform the Army. Roots allies included Charles Dick, Congressman from Ohio and Chairman of the House Militia Affairs Committee, Dick was a veteran of the Spanish–American War and a longtime National Guard member who attained the rank of Major General as commander of the Ohio National Guard. Dick championed the Militia Act of 1903, which known as the Dick Act. The Dick Act included $2 million for National Guard units to modernize equipment, the National Guard in each state was also required to carry out a uniform schedule of weekend or weeknight drills and annual summer training camps. In addition, the War Department agreed to fund the attendance of Guard officers at Army schools, the War Department also agreed to organize joint Army-National Guard exercises and training encampments. In return, the government gained greater control over the National Guard. The President of the United States was empowered to call up the National Guard for up to nine months to repel invasion, suppress rebellion, Guardsmen had to answer a presidential call or face court-martial. States had to organize, equip, and train their units in accordance with the policies and procedures of the regular Army, if Guard units failed to meet Army standards, they would lose federal recognition and federal funding. The Dick Act was amended several times, in 1908, The nine-month limit on federal service was dropped, and the President was empowered to set the length of federal service. In addition, the 1908 law stated that during a mobilization the National Guard had to be federalized before the Army could organize volunteer units. The 1908 law also included the creation of the Division of Militia Affairs as the Army agency responsible for overseeing federal training and administrative requirements for the National Guard. The National Defense Act of 1916 doubled the number of required drill periods from 24 to 48, in addition, the War Department was enabled to centrally plan for the National Guards authorized strength, and the number and types of National Guard units in each state
3.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
4.
National Guard of the United States
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All members of the National Guard of the United States are also members of the militia of the United States as defined by 10 U. S. C. National Guard units are under the control of the state. The majority of National Guard soldiers and airmen hold a civilian job full-time while serving part-time as a National Guard member, local militias were formed from the earliest English colonization of the Americas in 1607. The first colony-wide militia was formed by Massachusetts in 1636 by merging small older local units, the various colonial militias became state militias when the United States became independent. The title National Guard was used from 1824 by some New York State militia units, National Guard became a standard nationwide militia title in 1903, and specifically indicated reserve forces under mixed state and federal control from 1933. The first muster of militia forces in what is today the United States took place on September 16,1565, appropriately enough, this muster occurred in the shadow of an oncoming hurricane. This Spanish militia tradition and the English tradition that would be established to the north would provide the nucleus for Colonial defense in the New World. The militia tradition continued with the first permanent English settlements in the New World, Jamestown Colony and Plymouth Colony both had militia forces, which initially consisted of every able bodied adult male. By the mid-1600s every town had at least one militia company, as a result of the Spanish–American War, Congress was called upon to reform and regulate the training and qualification of state militias. The first national laws regulating the militia were the Militia acts of 1792, in 1903, with passage of the Dick Act, the predecessor to the modern-day National Guard was formed. It required the states to divide their militias into two sections, the law recommended the title National Guard for the first section, known as the organized militia, and Reserve Militia for all others. During World War I, Congress passed the National Defense Act of 1916, Congress also authorized the states to maintain Home Guards, which were reserve forces outside the National Guards being deployed by the Federal Government. The National Guard of the states, territories, and the District of Columbia serves as part of the first-line of defense for the United States. C. Where the National Guard operates under the President of the United States or his designee, the governors exercise control through the state adjutants general. The National Guard may be called up for duty by the governors to help respond to domestic emergencies and disasters, such as hurricanes, floods. The National Guard is administered by the National Guard Bureau, which is a joint activity of the Army, the National Guard Bureau provides a communication channel for state National Guards to the DoD. S. C. The National Guard Bureau is headed by the Chief of the National Guard Bureau, prior to 2008, the functions of Agricultural Development Teams were within Provincial Reconstruction Teams of the US Government. Today, ADTs consist of soldiers and airmen from the Army National Guard, today, ADTs bring an effective platform for enhanced dialogue, building confidence, sharing interests, and increasing cooperation amongst the disparate peoples and tribes of Afghanistan
5.
Reserve Officers' Training Corps
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The Reserve Officers Training Corps are a group of college-based officer training programs for training commissioned officers of the United States Armed Forces. ROTC officers serve in all branches of the U. S. armed forces, under ROTC, a student may receive a competitive, merit-based scholarship, covering all or part of college tuition, in return for an obligation of active military service after graduation. The U. S. Coast Guard offers a program to ROTC under a different name. The students participate in regular drills during the year. Some of the training that is offered to cadets in the Army ROTC program are, Airborne, Air Assault, Mountain Warfare, WHINSEC. Army ROTC units are organized as brigades, battalions, and companies, Air Force ROTC units are detachments with the students organized into wings, groups, squadrons, and flights. Army and Air Force ROTC students are referred to as cadets, Navy ROTC units are organized as battalions, and also include NROTC students under Marine Option who will eventually be commissioned as officers in the Marine Corps. Marine NROTC students may be formed in a company when the program includes sufficient numbers. All Navy ROTC students are referred to as midshipmen, the term of obligatory service varies based on the type of commission the cadet or midshipman receives, as well as any scholarship contract signed. They can serve as duty or in a reserve status. Additionally, a cadet on active duty can receive either a regular appointment or a reserve appointment and this affects the required years, as well as how many must be completed on active duty, in an active reserve capacity, or in the Individual Ready Reserve. Under federal law, graduates of an ROTC scholarship program incur an active duty service obligation. Recipients incur an eight-year MSO if they accept a commission and serve in a reserve component, finally, recipients incur at least a six-year MSO and up to an eight-year ADSO if they accept a commission and serve in a reserve component with at least two years of active duty. Army ROTC students who receive an Army ROTC scholarship or enter the Army ROTC Advanced Course must agree to complete a period of service. This can include three active duty, with the balance in the IRR. The service obligation for a Navy ROTC student is five years in the Navy, the active-duty service obligation for an Air Force ROTC student is four years, or eight years for Combat Systems Officers, or six years Air Battle Management officers, or ten years for pilots. The concept of ROTC in the United States began with the Morrill Act of 1862 which established the land-grant colleges, part of the federal governments requirement for these schools was that they include military tactics as part of their curriculum, forming what became known as ROTC. The college from which ROTC originated is Norwich University in Northfield, Norwich was founded in 1819 at Norwich, Vermont, as the American Literary, Scientific and Military Academy
6.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
7.
United States Army Aviation Branch
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The United States Army Aviation Branch is the administrative organization within the United States Army responsible for doctrine, manning and configuration for all aviation units. The Army would develop a new concept of using the helicopter that would show promise during the Korean War. Army Aviation traces its origins back to the American Civil War, both Union and Confederate forces used hydrogen-filled balloons to direct artillery fire, marking the beginning of U. S. military aeronautics and of aerial support of Army ground forces. The Army also used balloons during the Spanish–American War and World War I, Army Aviation began in 1909 with the Army’s acquisition of its first heavier-than-air aircraft, an airplane built to Army specifications by the Wright brothers. During World War I, the Armys aircraft strength grew from a few dozen to more than 11,000 planes, the Army Air Service was created in May 1918. After World War I, General William Mitchell and other Air Service leaders spoke out forcefully in favor of an independent air force, since they envisioned aviation as a separate striking force, capable of independent operations, they opposed its remaining an arm of the ground forces. Although Congress as well as most Army leaders rejected Mitchells argument, the Air Service did become a combat arm, equal in status to the infantry, cavalry. During the 1930s, many Army Air Corps leaders became preoccupied with strategic air operations, like Billy Mitchell before them, they advocated using air power independently of the Army ground forces to destroy enemy targets behind the lines of combat. This Air Corps emphasis on strategic operations disturbed some ground forces leaders, aerial support was particularly vital for artillery fire adjustment. The Army experimented with using small aircraft for artillery fire adjustment and other functions in maneuvers at Camp Beauregard. The tests were repeated on a scale in the Army maneuvers in Louisiana, Tennessee, Texas. The Armys Grasshoppers, as these light planes came to be called, proved to be more effective than the larger Air Corps planes used for the same purposes. It was this new World War II-era phenomenon with its few small single-engine spotter planes, organic Army Aviation, Organic Army Aviation first entered into combat in November 1942 on the coast of North Africa. After the creation of the Army Air Forces, the Army Ground Forces retained the use of aircraft for artillery forward observation. First use of the helicopter in combat is credited to the USAAF 1st Air Commando Group in Burma in 1943, the 1ACG operated six Sikorsky R-4 helicopters primarily for air rescue and medical evacuation. When the United States Air Force was established as a service in 1947. The Korean War and Vietnam War proved the capabilities of these aviation assets to perform a variety of missions not covered by the Air Force. The Korean War provided new challenges and opportunities for Army Aviation, Organic Army Aviation had acquired its first helicopters, thirteen H-13 Sioux, in 1947, shortly before the U. S. Air Force became independent of the Army
8.
Gunpowder
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Gunpowder, also known as black powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It is a mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate, the sulfur and charcoal act as fuels, and the saltpeter is an oxidizer. Black powder firearms are in limited use today in hunting, shooting, Black powder has been replaced for most industrial uses by high explosives such as dynamite. Black powder is assigned the UN number UN0027 and has a class of 1. 1D. It has a point of approximately 427–464 °C. The specific flash point may vary based on the composition of the gunpowder. Gunpowders specific gravity is 1. 70–1.82 or 1. 92–2.08, Gunpowder is classified as a low explosive because of its relatively slow decomposition rate and consequently low brisance. Low explosives deflagrate at subsonic speeds, whereas high explosives detonate, ignition of the powder packed behind a bullet must generate enough pressure to force it from the muzzle at high speed, but not enough to rupture the gun barrel. Gunpowder thus makes a good propellant, but is suitable for shattering rock or fortifications. Gunpowder was widely used to fill artillery shells and in mining and civil engineering to blast rock until the half of the 19th century. Black powder is used as a delay element in various munitions where its slow-burning properties are valuable. The spread of gunpowder across Asia from China is widely attributed to the Mongols, the earliest record of a written formula for gunpowder appears in the 11th century Song dynasty text, Wujing Zongyao. This discovery led to the invention of fireworks and the earliest gunpowder weapons in China, in the centuries following the Chinese discovery, gunpowder weapons began appearing in the Muslim world and Europe. The technology spread from China through the Middle East or Central Asia, the earliest Western accounts of gunpowder appear in texts written by English philosopher Roger Bacon in the 13th century. The most ardent protagonists were Nathaniel Halhad, Johann Backmann, Quintin Craufurd, however, due to lack of sufficient proof, these theories have not been widely accepted. A major problem confronting the study of the history of gunpowder is ready access to sources close to the events described. The translation difficulty has led to errors or loose interpretations bordering on artistic licence, early writings potentially mentioning gunpowder are sometimes marked by a linguistic process where old words acquired new meanings. For instance, the Arabic word naft transitioned from denoting naphtha to denoting gunpowder, saltpeter was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and there is strong evidence of the use of saltpeter and sulfur in various largely medicinal combinations
9.
Preparedness Movement
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Wood advocated a summer training school for reserve officers to be held in Plattsburg, New York. The movement was opposed by President Woodrow Wilson, who believed the United States should be in a position of armed neutrality. Several organizations were formed around the Preparedness Movement and held parades, after the Lusitania was sunk by German U-boats on May 7,1915 and Pancho Villa launched his raid against Columbus, New Mexico, Wilsons attitude changed. Congress passed the National Defense Act of 1916 in June 1916 to authorize an increase in the size of the military. In 1915, a strong movement emerged. It argued that the United States needed to build up strong naval and land forces for defensive purposes. A representative leader was Paul D. Cravath, one of New Yorks foremost corporation lawyers, for Cravath, in his mid-fifties when the war began, the conflict served as an epiphany, sparking an interest in international affairs that dominated his remaining career. Fiercely Anglophile, he strongly supported US intervention in the war, reform to them meant UMT or universal military training, i. e. conscription. They proposed a service program under which the 600,000 men who turned 18 every year would be required to spend six months in military training. The small regular army would serve as a training agency. Antimilitarists and pacifists — strong in Protestant churches and womens groups — protested the plan would make the US resemble Germany, advocates retorted that military service was an essential duty of citizenship, and that without the commonality provided by such service the nation would splinter into antagonistic ethnic groups. One spokesman promised that UMT would become a melting pot. Furthermore, they promised, the discipline and training would make for a paid work force. Suggestions by labor unions that talented working class youth be invited to Plattsburg were ignored, the preparedness movement was distant not only from the working classes but also from the middle class leadership of most of small town America. The National Guard on the hand was securely rooted in state and local politics. The guard was one of the few institutions that accepted African-Americans on an equal footing with whites. The Democratic Party saw the movement as a threat. Roosevelt, Root and Wood were prospective Republican presidential candidates, more subtly, the Democrats were rooted in localism that appreciated the National Guard, and the voters were hostile to the rich and powerful in the first place
10.
Pancho Villa
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Francisco Pancho Villa was a Mexican Revolutionary general and one of the most prominent figures of the Mexican Revolution. As commander of the División del Norte in the Constitutionalist Army, given the areas size and mineral wealth, it provided him with extensive resources. Villa was also provisional Governor of Chihuahua in 1913 and 1914, Villa can be credited with decisive military victories leading to the ousting of Victoriano Huerta from the presidency in July 1914. Villa then fought his erstwhile leader in the coalition against Huerta, Villa was in alliance with southern revolutionary Emiliano Zapata, who remained fighting in his own region of Morelos. The two revolutionary generals briefly came together to take Mexico City after Carranzas forces retreated from it, later, Villas heretofore undefeated División del Norte engaged the military forces of Carranza under Carrancista general Álvaro Obregón and was defeated in the 1915 Battle of Celaya. Villa was again defeated by Carranza,1 November 1915, at the Second Battle of Agua Prieta 1 November 1915, after which Villas army collapsed as a significant military force. Villa subsequently led a hit and run raid against the small U. S. -Mexican border town in the Battle of Columbus 9 March 1916, the U. S. government sent U. S. Army General John J. In 1923, as elections approached, he re-involved himself in Mexican politics. Shortly thereafter he was assassinated, most likely on the orders of Obregón, after his death, he was excluded from the pantheon of revolutionary heroes until the Sonoran generals Obregón and Calles, whom he battled during the Revolution, were gone from the political stage. Villas exclusion from the narrative of the Revolution might have contributed to his continued posthumous popular acclaim. He was celebrated during the Revolution and long afterward by corridos, movies about his life, in 1976, his remains were reburied in the Monument to the Revolution in Mexico City in a huge public ceremony not attended by his widow Luz Corral. Villa told a number of conflicting stories about his early life, according to most sources, he was born on 5 June 1878, and named José Doroteo Arango Arámbula at birth. His father was a sharecropper named Agustín Arango, and his mother was Micaela Arámbula and he grew up at the Rancho de la Coyotada, one of the largest haciendas in the state of Durango. The familys residence now houses the Casa de Pancho Villa historic museum in San Juan del Rio, Doroteo later claimed to be the son of the bandit Agustín Villa, but according to at least one scholar, the identity of his real father is still unknown. He wasthe oldest of five children, as a child, he received some education from a local church-run school, but was not proficient in more than basic literacy. He quit school to help his mother after his father died and he became a bandit at some point early on, but also worked as a sharecropper, muleskinner, butcher, bricklayer, and foreman for a U. S. railway company. However, the veracity of this story is questionable, eventually, he became a member of a bandit band headed by Ignacio Parra, one of the most famous bandits in Durango at the time. As a bandit, he went by the name Arango, in 1902, the rurales, the crack rural police force of President Porfirio Díaz, arrested Pancho for stealing mules and for assault
11.
Columbus, New Mexico
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Columbus is a village in Luna County, New Mexico, United States, about three miles north of the Mexican border. The population was 1,765 at the 2000 census, Columbus was established in 1891 just across the Mexican border from Palomas, Chihuahua, Mexico, and named after 15th century explorer Christopher Columbus. In 1902, the village was moved three miles north when the El Paso and Southwestern Railroad built its Columbus Station and this Station is now converted into a museum run by the Columbus Historical Society. Around 1905, it was a small town with a community of a hundred residents. By this time, Columbus had only one store, a saloon. In time, a school was built, and Perrow G. Mosely established the Columbus News. By 1915, the town had seven hundred residents, the Columbus State Bank was built, four hotels were constructed, several stores, at that time, Columbus also possessed rich silver, copper, lead, and zinc deposits. Villas army burned a part of the town and killed seven or eight soldiers and 10 residents before retreating back into Mexico, United States President Woodrow Wilson responded to the Columbus raid by sending 10,000 troops under Brigadier General John J. Pershing to Mexico to pursue Villa. This was known as the Punitive Mexican Expedition or Pancho Villa Expedition, the expedition was eventually called off after failing to find Villa, who had successfully escaped. Camp Furlong activity was greatly reduced, the army decided to close their camp, and the El Paso and Southwestern Railroad stopped service in Columbus. After all these events the economy naturally faded over time, in the 1990s Columbus started to rise again, with the development of city and state parks, museums, RV parks, and all the history involving the city. A few artists showed up, and Columbus became a place to visit or perhaps to live. In July 2011, Columbus dissolved its police force after a scandal that involved its village officials. The mayor, a trustee, a former police chief. The case was prosecuted by the United States Attorney from El Paso, Texas before United States District Court Judge Robert Brack in Las Cruces, of the 11 people charged, ten pleaded guilty, with one person still at large. Sentences ranged from five years in prison to two years probation. Columbus is located at 31°49′51″N 107°38′30″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 2.8 square miles, all land. The village is three miles north of the international border between the United States of America and Mexico
12.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
13.
James Hay (politician)
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James Hay was an American politician from Virginia. He was a member of the United States Congress and a judge on the United States Court of Claims, born in Millwood, Virginia, Clarke County, Hay attended private schools and the University of Pennsylvania at Philadelphia. Hay married Constance Tatum of Dayton, Virginia on October 1,1878 and he moved to Madison, Virginia in June 1879 and continued the practice of law. Hay was Commonwealths Attorney from 1883 to 1896 and member of the Virginia House of Delegates from 1885 to 1889, hays first wife died in 1886. On June 9,1891 he married Frances Gordon of Richmond, Virginia, Hay served in the Senate of Virginia from 1893 to 1897, was a member of the Democratic State committee in 1888, and was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1888. Hay was elected as a Democrat to the Fifty-fifth and to the nine succeeding Congresses and served from March 4,1897, following his resignation from Congress, he was appointed judge of the United States Court of Claims by President Woodrow Wilson on July 15,1916. Hays second wife died in 1920, on June 14,1921 he married his secretary, Eloise M. Cave, of Madison, Virginia. Hay served at the court until December 1,1927, when he resigned and he died in Madison, Virginia, and was buried in Cedar Hill Cemetery, Rapidan, Virginia. 1896, Hay was elected to the U. S. House of Representatives with 55. 81% of the vote, defeating Republican Robert J. Walker, NtD J. Samuel Harrisberger, and Independent John F. Forsyth. 1898, Hay was re-elected with 77. 05% of the vote,1900, Hay was re-elected with 63. 35% of the vote, defeating Republican C. M. 1902, Hay was re-elected with 64. 68% of the vote,1904, Hay was re-elected with 64. 65% of the vote, defeating Republican Charles M. Kelzel. 1908, Hay was re-elected with 62. 85% of the vote,1910, Hay was re-elected with 57. 96% of the vote, defeating Republican John Paul and Independent Hugh S. Lupton. 1912, Hay was re-elected with 71. 54% of the vote, defeating Republican George N. Earman,1914, Hay was re-elected with 86. 96% of the vote, defeating Republican E. C. Garrison. Herring, George C. Jr. “James Hay and the Preparedness Controversy, 1915-1916. ”Journal of Southern History 30, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. The United States Court of Claims, a history / pt.1, the judges, 1855-1976 / by Marion T. Bennett / pt.2. Origin, development, jurisdiction, 1855-1978 / W. Cowen, P. Nichols, committee on the Bicentennial of Independence and the Constitution of the Judicial Conference of the United States
14.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
15.
Julius Kahn (congressman)
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Julius Kahn was a United States Congressman who was succeeded by his wife Florence Prag Kahn after his death. Kahn was born in Kuppenheim, in the Grand Duchy of Baden and he immigrated to the United States with his parents, who settled in California in 1866. After studying law in San Francisco, he was elected a member of the State Assembly in 1892 and he has been described by the American Jerusalem as among the most influential Jews in San Francisco—as well as national–civic life, from the middle of the 19th century into the 1930s. He was elected as a Republican to the 56th and 57th Congresses, during his time in the House of Representatives he was noted as an advocate of military preparedness. He helped draft and secure the passage of the National Defense Act of 1916, the Selective Service Act of 1917, and he served as chairman of Committee on Military Affairs. At the time of his death, he had been re-elected to the 69th Congress and his wife, Florence Prag Kahn, succeeded him in Congress and served until 1937. He was buried in the Home of Peace Cemetery in Colma, a well-known playground in San Francisco was named in his honor. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
16.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
17.
Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
18.
William Oxley Thompson
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William Oxley Thompson, D. D. born in Cambridge, Ohio, was the fifth President of The Ohio State University. Thompson was educated at Muskingum College and Western Theological Seminary, an ordained minister, Thompson spent the first half of his career in Presbyterian ministry. Upon his first wifes death in 1885 he turned to higher education and he was appointed president of Miami University in Oxford, Ohio in 1891 and served until 1899 when he resigned to become president of The Ohio State University. He is known for being involved in education and social lives. Thompsons tenure at Ohio State was marked by two seminal events, the Eagleson law mandated that only Ohio State, among Ohios public universities, would be allowed to offer doctoral education or conduct basic research. In 1926, Thompson was elected Moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America Pollard, william Oxley Thompson, Evangel of Education. Columbus, Ohio, Ohio State University Press
19.
Ohio State University
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The Ohio State University, commonly referred to as Ohio State or OSU, is a large, primarily residential, public university in Columbus, Ohio. Founded in 1870 as a land-grant university and ninth university in Ohio with the Morrill Act of 1862, Hayes, and in 1878 the Ohio General Assembly passed a law changing the name to The Ohio State University. It has since grown into the third-largest university campus in the United States, along with its main campus in Columbus, Ohio State also operates a regional campus system with regional campuses in Lima, Mansfield, Marion, Newark, and Wooster. Ohio State athletic teams compete in Division I of the NCAA and are known as the Ohio State Buckeyes, athletes from Ohio State have won 100 Olympic medals. The university is a member of the Big Ten Conference for the majority of sports, the Ohio State mens ice hockey program competes in the Big Ten Conference, while its womens hockey program competes in the Western Collegiate Hockey Association. In addition, the OSU mens volleyball team is a member of the Midwestern Intercollegiate Volleyball Association, OSU is one of only 14 universities that plays Division I FBS football and Division I ice hockey. As of August 2015, the university had awarded a total of 714,512 degrees, alumni and former students have gone on to prominent careers in government, business, science, medicine, education, sports, and entertainment. Championed by the Republican stalwart Governor Rutherford B, Hayes, the Ohio State University was founded in 1870 as a land-grant university under the Morrill Act of 1862 as the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College. The school was originally within a community on the northern edge of Columbus. The university opened its doors to 24 students on September 17,1873, in 1878, the first class of six men graduated. The first woman graduated the following year, also in 1878, in light of its expanded focus, the Ohio legislature changed the name to the now-familiar The Ohio State University, with The as part of its official name. Ohio State began accepting students in the 1880s, and in 1891. It would later acquire colleges of medicine, dentistry, optometry, veterinary medicine, commerce, in 1916, Ohio State was elected into membership in the Association of American Universities. Michael V. Drake, former chancellor of the University of California, Irvine, in an attack against the campus on November 28,2016, an unrelated fluorine leak was called in for Watts Hall, resulting in the evacuation of the building to an outside courtyard. As firetrucks began to depart, Abdul Razak Ali Artan drove into the crowd, then emerged, the attack was stopped in under two minutes by OSU Police Officer Alan Horujko, who witnessed the attack after responding to the reported gas leak, and who shot and killed Artan. The universitys Buckeye Alert system was triggered and the campus was placed on lockdown, Ten were transported to local hospitals and one suspect was killed according to multiple sources. Local law enforcement and the FBI launched an investigation, according to authorities, Artan was inspired by terrorist propaganda from the Islamic State and radical Muslim cleric Anwar al-Awlaki. Ohio States 1, 764-acre main campus is about 2.5 miles north of the citys downtown, the historical center of campus is the Oval, quad of about 11 acres
20.
Engineer
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Engineers design materials, structures, and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety, and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium, the work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgement and the ability to supervise the technical, he/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice, much of an engineers time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure and they also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects, Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines, numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering and materials engineering include ceramic, metallurgical, mechanical engineering cuts across just about every discipline since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as vehicles, or in one type of technology. Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time, that is, research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers’ work, technical work, social work, computer-based work, information behaviours. Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that engineers spend 62. 92% of their time engaged in work,40. 37% in social work. The time engineers spend engaged in activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies, typically engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. When developing a product, engineers work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers, a mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators
21.
William Abram Mann
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William Abram Mann was a general officer in the United States Army. He served as the commander of the 17th Infantry Brigade in the Spanish–American War of 1898, after he retired from military service, he became an executive at Equitable Trust Company of New York. He resided in Washington D. C. until his death on October 8,1934 and he had a troop carrier named after him, that was commissioned in 1943 and served in World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. Mann was born on July 31,1854, in Altoona, Pennsylvania and graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1875 and he served in the western United States throughout the 1870 and 1880s, mostly in assignments with the 7th Cavalry. As part of the 17th Infantry Regiment, he took part in the Sioux Indian campaign of 1890 to 1891, Mann served with the 17th Infantry Regiment in the Spanish–American War, participating in the Battle of El Caney and the Siege of Santiago. He received a Silver Star for gallantry in action at El Caney, Mann also served in the Philippines in 1899 and the early 1900s. He graduated from the Army War College in 1905, from 1907 to 1909 Mann commanded the 6th Infantry Regiment at Fort William Henry Harrison, Montana, also temporarily commanding the Department of Dakota on several occasions. From 1910 to 1911 he commanded the Recruit Depot, at Jefferson Barracks, in 1911 he was assigned to the Armys General Staff, and from 1912 to 1913 he was Chief of Staff for the Eastern Department in New York City. He served as Chief of Staff for the division based in Texas City, in 1917 he was named to head the Armys Militia Bureau, receiving promotion to Major General. General Mann left the Militia Bureau and was succeeded by Jesse McI, Mann became the first commander of the 42nd Infantry Division, nicknamed the Rainbow Division, which was composed of National Guard units from 26 states and the District of Columbia. Mann led the Rainbow Division to France, but did not pass his physical exam and he then returned to the U. S. and commanded the Department of the East until he reached mandatory retirement age in late 1918. After leaving the military Mann became an executive at Equitable Trust Company of New York, in retirement Mann resided in Washington, D. C. and he died there on October 8,1934. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, Section 3, Site 1996, the General Mann was commissioned in 1943, used in World War II, the Korean War and the Vietnam War, and remained in service until 1965. Mann to Command Eastern Department, Hartford Courant, January 3,1918 Gen. S, General W. A. Mann Association web site, http, //www. ussgenwamann. org/ Maneuver and Firepower, The Evolution of Divisions and Separate Brigades, by John B. Wilson, United States Army Center of Military History,1998, Chapter 3, end note 31
22.
National Guard Bureau
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It was created by the Militia Act of 1903. The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008, elevated the National Guard to a joint function of the Department of Defense. This act also elevated the Chief of the National Guard Bureau from Lieutenant General to General with the appointment of General Craig R. McKinley, the National Guard Bureau holds a unique status as both a staff and operation agency. United States Secretary of War Elihu Root militated for reform of the guard, in annual reports of 1901 of 1903. The Militia Act of 1792 was obsolete, the resulting Militia Act of 1903 became law. It gave federal status to the militia and required the militia of the States to conform to Regular Army organization. It dramatically increased funding of the militia, between 1903 and 1916, the federal government spent $53 million on the Guard, more than the total of the previous hundred years. The 1903 act authorized the creation of a section responsible for National Guard affairs. The Division remained a part of the Office of the Secretary of War until July 25,1910 when the Chief was directed to report directly to the Army Chief of Staff. The Division continued to perform under the jurisdiction of the Chief of Staff until the passage of the National Defense Act of June 3,1916. Then the Division of Militia Affairs became the Militia Bureau of the War Department, the National Defense Act of 1916 is the most important piece of legislation in the history of the National Guard. It transformed the militia from individual state forces into a Reserve Component of the U. S. Army—and made the term National Guard mandatory. The act stated that all units would have to be recognized. It increased the number of training days to 15, increased the number of yearly drills to 48. The 1916 act transformed the Division of Militia Affairs into a separate Militia Bureau, increasing its autonomy, eight new civilian positions were authorized, something which the various Chiefs had been requesting for years, the number of military assigned to the Bureau had grown to 13. The National Defense Act also authorized the President to assign two National Guard officers to duty with the Militia Bureau, the inclusion of National Guard officers in the Militia Bureau was an important step towards creating a centralized planning organization for the National Guard headed by its own officers. The first National Guard officer assigned to the Bureau was Major Louis C. Wilson of Texas in 1916, thus the National Guard Bureau was charged with the responsibility of maintaining high standards in the National Guard. Prior to 1910 the Chief of the Militia Bureau was a Regular Army officer and this situation changed on June 4,1920, when Congress passed an amendment to the National Defense Act of 1916
23.
Pancho Villa Expedition
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The Pancho Villa Expedition—now known officially in the United States as the Mexican Expedition but originally referred to as the Punitive Expedition, U. S. The expedition was launched in retaliation for Villas attack on the town of Columbus, New Mexico, the declared objective of the expedition by the Wilson administration was the capture of Villa. The Constitutionalist forces used arms at the town of Parral to resist passage of a U. S. Army column, the U. S. mission was changed to prevent further attacks on it by Mexican troops and to plan for war in the eventuality it broke out. When war was averted diplomatically, the expedition remained in Mexico until February 1917 to encourage Carranzas government to pursue Villa, feeling betrayed, Villa began attacking U. S. nationals and their property in northern Mexico. On November 26,1915, Villa sent a force to attack the city of Nogales and in the course of the ensuing battle, engaged with American forces before withdrawing. On January 11,1916, sixteen American employees of the American Smelting and Refining Company were removed from a train near Santa Isabel, Chihuahua, brigadier General John J. Raids were so commonplace, however, that the rumor was not seen as credible. Ten civilians and eight soldiers were killed in the attack, the raiders burned the town, stole horses and mules, and seized machine guns, ammunition and merchandise, before fleeing back to Mexico. However, Villas soldiers had suffered losses, with at least sixty-seven dead. Many of the casualties were inflicted when the machine gun troop of the 13th Cavalry led by 2nd Lt. John P, about thirteen of Villas wounded later died of their wounds, and five wounded Villistas taken prisoner by the Americans were tried and hanged for murder. Local lore in Columbus holds that the attack may have been caused by a merchant in Columbus who supplied Villa with arms and ammunition. Villa is said to have several thousand dollars in cash for the weapons. The next day, acting on the recommendations of the commanders of his cavalry regiments and this can and will be done in entirely friendly aid to the constituted authorities in Mexico and with scrupulous respect for the sovereignty of that Republic. The 2nd Provisional Cavalry Brigade reached Colonia Dublán after dark on March 17, the entire squadron flew to the advanced camp at Colonia Dublán on March 19–20, losing two aircraft in the process. Pershing immediately sent the 7th Cavalry south just after midnight on March 18 to begin the pursuit, persistent winter weather through early April, particularly bitterly cold nights at high altitude, made both pursuit and logistics more difficult. An additional regiment of cavalry and two of infantry were added to the expedition in late April, bringing its size to 4,800 men. This was the first use of convoys in a U. S. military operation. His headquarters advanced as far as the 1st Aero Squadrons field at Satevó, southeast of Chihuahua City, before falling back at the end of April. Villa had a head start on the pursuit, all but ensuring that his forces would successfully break up into smaller bands
24.
Samuel Pierpont Langley
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Samuel Pierpont Langley was an American astronomer, physicist, inventor of the bolometer and pioneer of aviation. He was born in Roxbury, Boston on 22 August 1834, Langley was the founder of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. In 1888 Langley was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society, by then, the department was in disarray – equipment was broken, there was no library and the building needed repairs. Through the friendship and aid of William Thaw, a Pittsburgh industrial leader, Langley was able to improve the observatory equipment, one of the new instruments was a small transit telescope used to observe the position of the stars as they cross the celestial meridian. He raised money for the department in large part by distributing standard time to cities, up until then, correct time had only occasionally been sent from American observatories for public use. Clocks were manually wound in those days and time tended to be imprecise, exact time had not been especially necessary. It was enough to know that at noon the sun was directly above the head, all that until railroad tracks were installed. As railroads became operational, that unpredictability of time became dangerous, trains ran by a published schedule, but the scheduling was chaotic. If the watches of an engineer and a switch operator differed by even a minute or two, it could mean disaster, two trains could be on the same track at the same time and crash. Using astronomical observations obtained from the new telescope, Langley devised a time standard – including time zones – that became known as the Allegheny Time System. Initially he broadcast time signals to Allegheny city business and the Pennsylvania Railroad, eventually, twice a day, the Allegheny time signals broadcast the correct time via 4713 miles of telegraph lines to all railroads in the US and Canada. Langley used the money from the railroads to finance the observatory, from about 1868, revenues from the Allegheny Time continued to fund the observatory until the US Naval Observatory provided the signals for free in 1883. Once funding was secure, Langley devoted his time at the Observatory initially in researching the sun and he used his draftsman skills to produce hundreds of drawings of solar phenomena, many of which were the first the world had seen. His 1873 remarkably detailed illustration of a sun spot, observed while using the observatorys 13-inch Fitz-Clark refractor became a classic and it is featured on page 21 of his book, The New Astronomy, but was also widely reprinted – in the Americas as well as throughout Europe. In 1886, Langley received the inaugural Henry Draper Medal from the National Academy of Sciences for his contributions to solar physics, in 1898, Langley received the Prix Jules Janssen, the highest award of the Société astronomique de France. Langley attempted to make a working piloted heavier-than-air aircraft and his models flew, but his two attempts at piloted flight were not successful. Langley began experimenting with rubber-band powered models and gliders in 1887 and he built a rotating arm and made larger flying models powered by miniature steam engines. It flew on trial over two hundred yards, and drowned itself in the waters of the Potomac, which was cause of great mirth, Langley took it coolly enough and said to me that, though he would never live till then, I should see the aeroplane established
25.
Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps
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The Aviation Section, Signal Corps, was the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct statutory ancestor of the United States Air Force. The Aviation Section organized the first squadrons of the aviation arm, the Aviation Section, Signal Corps was created by the 63rd Congress on July 18,1914 after earlier legislation to make the aviation service independent from the Signal Corps died in committee. Despite the assignment of Lieutenant Colonel George O, the duties of the section were not resumed following World War I and it was formally disestablished by the creation of the Air Service in 1920. The Aviation Section, Signal Corps was created by the Act of July 18,1914,514, to supersede the Aeronautical Division, an administrative creation of the Signal Corps within the Office of the Chief Signal Officer, as the primary agency for military aviation. Earlier legislation to make the aviation service independent from the Signal Corps died in committee after all officers connected with aviation save one, Captain Paul W. Beck, testified against it. The new law established the purpose and duties of the section, the Aeronautical Division then became the administrative component of the Aviation Section until its abolition in 1918. The first funding appropriation for the Aviation Section was $250,000 for fiscal year 1915, officers on aviation duty who were promoted to permanent captain in their branch arm were automatically returned to the line. This placed them on the level as newly graduated pilots. At its creation, the Aviation Section had 19 officers and 101 enlisted men, the Aeronautical Division, a quasi-headquarters with three officers and 11 enlisted men, issued orders in the name of the Chief Signal Officer. All other personnel of the section were organized on August 5,1914. The impending war was defused by the resignation of Victoriano Huerta on July 15, by December 1914, the Aviation Section consisted of 44 officers,224 enlisted men, and 23 aircraft. Chief Signal Officer Brigadier General George P, the 1st Company, 2nd Aero Squadron was activated on May 12,1915 at San Diego but not manned until December. 31, a Martin T tractor airplane, returned from San Diego to Texas for the time in five years in April 1915. Milling and 2d Lt. Byron Q, Jones, as the Army massed around Brownsville in response to civil war between the forces of Pancho Villa and the Carranza government. On April 20, Milling and Jones became the first American military airmen to come under fire from a hostile force. Beginning in August 1915, the 1st Aero Squadron spent four months at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, Foulois and Milling, now also a captain, disagreed and the JN-2 remained operational until a second crashed on September 5. The aircraft were grounded until October 14, when conversions of the JN-2s to the newer JN-3 began, two copies of which the squadron received in early September. Between November 19 and 26,1915, the six JN-3s of the 1st Aero Squadron at Fort Sill made the first cross-country squadron flight,439 mi to a new airfield built near Fort Sam Houston, Texas
26.
Langley Air Force Base
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Langley Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located adjacent to Hampton and Newport News, Virginia. It was one of thirty-two Air Service training camps established after the entry of the United States into World War I in April 1917, on 1 October 2010, Langley Air Force Base was joined with Fort Eustis to become Joint Base Langley–Eustis. The base was established in accordance with congressional legislation implementing the recommendations of the 2005 Base Realignment, the Air Force mission at Langley is to sustain the ability for fast global deployment and air superiority for the United States or allied armed forces. It was used during World War I as a field, balloon station, observers’ school, photography school, experimental engineering department. It is situated on 3,152 acres of land between the cities of Hampton, NASA LaRC, and the northwest and southwest branches of the Back River, airPower over Hampton Roads is a recurring airshow held at Langley in the spring. Many demonstrations take place, including the F-22 Raptor Demonstration, Aerobatics, and parachute demos. The Wing is composed of the units worldwide, 480th ISR Group, Fort Gordon, Ga. 497th ISR Group, Joint Base Langley–Eustis, Va. 548th ISR Group, Beale Air Force Base. Langley also hosts the Global Cyberspace Integration Center field operating agency, Langley is also home to the F-22 Raptor Demo Team. This team, who travel all over the world performing different maneuvers used in air combat, is used to recruit for the United States Air Force. Performing at airshows and other events, the squadron is the only demonstration team to use the F-22 Raptor. Langley Field was named after Samuel Pierpont Langley, an aerodynamic pioneer, Langley began aerodynamic experiments in 1887 and formed a basis for practical pioneer aviation. He built and saw the first steam model airplane in 1896, both planes were believed to be capable of flight. He also built the first man-carrying gasoline airplane in 1903, which failed to fly on its first attempt and broke apart and crashed on its second. It was, after major modification eleven years later, flown successfully by Glenn Curtiss for a little over 3 seconds, traveling 150 feet through the air in 1914. Langley Field was the first Air Service base built especially for air power, is the oldest continually active air base in the world. In 1916, the National Advisory Council for Aeronautics, predecessor to NASA, established the need for a joint airfield and proving ground for Army, Navy and NACA aircraft. NACA determined that the site must be near water for over-water flying, be flat and relatively clear for expansion and the landing and take-off of aircraft, the Army appointed a board of officers who searched for a location. The officers sometimes posed as hunters and fishermen to avoid land speculation which would arise if the governments interest in purchasing land was revealed
27.
National Academy of Sciences
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The National Academy of Sciences is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering, as a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and continuing achievements in original research. Election to the National Academies is one of the highest honors in the scientific field, members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, … to provide scientific advice to the government whenever called upon by any government department. The Academy receives no compensation from the government for its services, as of 2016, the National Academy of Sciences includes about 2,350 members and 450 foreign associates. It employed about 1,100 staff in 2005, the current members annually elect new members for life. Approximately 200 members have won a Nobel Prize, the National Academy of Sciences is a member of the International Council for Science. Although there is no relationship with state and local academies of science. The National Academies is governed by a 17-member Council, made up of five officers and 12 Councilors, the National Academy of Sciences meets annually in Washington, D. C. which is documented in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, its scholarly journal. The National Academies Press is the publisher for the National Academies, since 2004, the National Academy of Sciences has administered the Marian Koshland Science Museum to provide public exhibits and programming related to its policy work. The museums current exhibits focus on change and infectious disease. The National Academy of Sciences maintains multiple buildings around the United States, the building has a neoclassical architectural style and was built by architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue. The building was dedicated in 1924 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the building is used for lectures, symposia, exhibitions, and concerts, in addition to annual meetings of the NAS, NAE, and NAM. The 2012 Presidential Award for Math and Science Teaching ceremony was held here on March 5,2014, approximately 150 staff members work at the NAS Building. More than 1,000 National Academies staff members work at The Keck Center of the National Academies at 500 Fifth Street in northwest Washington, the Keck Center provides meeting space and houses the National Academies Press Bookstore. The NAS also maintains conference centers in California and Massachusetts, the J. Erik Jonsson Conference Center located at 314 Quissett Avenue in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, is another conference facility. The Act of Incorporation, signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3,1863, created the National Academy of Sciences, many of the original NAS members came from the so-called Scientific Lazzaroni, an informal network of mostly physical scientists working in the vicinity of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was to name Agassiz to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Agassiz was to come to Washington at the governments expense to plan the organization with the others
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Muscle Shoals, Alabama
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Muscle Shoals is the largest city in Colbert County, Alabama, United States. As of the 2010 census, the population of Muscle Shoals was 13,146, the estimated population in 2015 was 13,706. Both the city and the Florence-Muscle Shoals Metropolitan Area are commonly called the Shoals, northwest Alabama Regional Airport serves the Shoals region, located in the northwest section of the state. It was also the site of a community development project by Henry Ford in 1922. Since the 1960s, the city has known for music – developing the Muscle Shoals Sound. There are several explanations on how the city got its name, one is that the city gets its name from a former natural feature of the Tennessee River, namely a shallow zone where mussels were gathered. When the area was first settled, the distinct spelling mussel to refer to a shellfish had not yet fully adopted. Another is that the name comes from the bend of the Tennessee River around the area, the city is one of four municipalities known as the Quad Cities, the others being Florence, Sheffield and Tuscumbia, all in Alabama. Muscle Shoals was a part of the Cherokee hunting grounds dating to at least the eighteenth century. After the American Revolution, the Cherokees were divided over attitudes toward the new U. S. republic and they claimed Muscle Shoals as part of their domain, and when Anglo-Americans attempted to settle the region in the 1780s and 1790s, the Chickamaugas bitterly resisted them. Upper Creeks, residing in what is now north and central Alabama, a major incident occurred in 1790, when U. S. President George Washington sent an expedition under Major John Doughty in an attempt to establish a fort and trading post at Muscle Shoals. This expedition was annihilated by a Chickamauga and Creek party sent to destroy it, and the project was abandoned by Doughty. Anglo-American settlers in Tennessee continued to agitate for control of the region, the site was particularly desirable, as it controlled access to fine cotton-producing land immediately to its south. At Seviers behest, Jackson attempted to persuade Congress and President John Adams to fund a new expedition to control of the site. U. S. officials finally took control of the region in the wake of the U. S. invasion of Creek country during the War of 1812. Jackson and General John Coffee obtained cession of the land from both the Cherokee and Creek by treaty, without permission to do so from the federal government. When Jackson, as President, implemented the policy of Indian Removal, during World War I President Wilson authorized a dam just downstream of Muscle Shoals to help power nitrate plants for munitions. The first plant started producing nitrates two weeks after the armistice, but the dam was not completed until 1924, meanwhile, in 1922 Henry Ford tried to buy the nitrate works and the unfinished dam
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Wilson Dam
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Wilson Dam is a dam spanning the Tennessee River between Lauderdale County and Colbert County in the U. S. state of Alabama. It is one of nine Tennessee Valley Authority dams on the Tennessee River, the dam was declared a National Historic Landmark on November 13,1966. Construction on Wilson Dam began in 1918 and was completed in 1924 under supervision of Hugh L. Cooper, the Wilson Dam actually predates the TVA, but was later placed under the authority of the TVA. The dam is 137 feet high and stretches 4,541 feet across the Tennessee River, the cost to build the dam was almost $47 million. The main lock at Wilson Dam is 110 feet wide by 600 feet long, the lock lift is 94 feet. It is the highest single lift lock east of the Rocky Mountains An auxiliary lock has two 60 feet wide by 300 feet long chambers that operate in tandem, over 3,700 vessels pass through Wilson Dams locks each year. The generating capacity of Wilson dam is 663 megawatts of electricity, the dam is named for former President of the United States Woodrow Wilson
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Tennessee Valley Authority
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The enterprise was a result of the efforts of Senator George W. Norris of Nebraska. TVA was envisioned not only as a provider, but also as an economic development agency that would use federal experts and electricity to rapidly modernize the regions economy. T. V. A. s service area covers most of Tennessee, portions of Alabama, Mississippi, and Kentucky, and small slices of Georgia, North Carolina and it was the first large regional planning agency of the federal government and remains the largest. Under the leadership of David Lilienthal, T. V. A. became a model for Americas governmental efforts to seek in assisting the modernization of agrarian societies in the developing world, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed the Tennessee Valley Authority Act, creating the TVA. During the 1920s and the Great Depression years, Americans began to support the idea of ownership of utilities. The concept of government-owned generation facilities selling to publicly owned distribution utilities was controversial, many believed privately owned power companies were charging too much for power, did not employ fair operating practices, and were subject to abuse by their owners, at the expense of consumers. By forming utility holding companies, the sector controlled 94 percent of generation by 1921. Many private companies in the Tennessee Valley were bought by the federal government, others shut down, unable to compete with the T. V. A. Government regulations were passed to prevent competition with T. V. A. T. V. A. was one of the first federal hydropower agencies, other attempts to create T. V. A. -like regional agencies have failed, such as a proposed Columbia Valley Authority for the Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest. Regional power consumers may benefit from lower-cost electricity supplied from T. V. A. s network of 29 power-producing hydropower facilities, supporters of TVA, though, note that the agencys management of the Tennessee River system without appropriated federal funding saves federal taxpayers millions of dollars annually. Defenders note that TVA is overwhelmingly popular in Tennessee among conservatives and liberals alike, as Barry Goldwater discovered in 1964, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled TVA to be constitutional in Ashwander v. Tennessee Valley Authority,297 U. S.288. The Court noted that regulating commerce among the states regulation of streams. The war powers also authorized the project, the argument before the court was that electricity generation was a by-product of navigation and flood control and therefore could be considered constitutional. In the 1920s a major battle erupted over building a power system in the Tennessee Valley, based on the World War I federal dam at Muscle Shoals. It would generate electricity and produce fertilizer, Senator George Norris of Nebraska blocked a proposal from Henry Ford in 1920 to use the dam to modernize the valley. Norris deeply distrusted privately owned utility companies and he did get Congress to pass the Muscle Shoals Bill, but it was vetoed as socialistic by President Herbert Hoover in 1931. The idea behind the Muscle Shoals Bill in 1933 became a part of the New Deals TVA
31.
National Defense Act of 1920
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The National Defense Act of 1920 was sponsored by United States Representative Julius Kahn, Republican of California. This legislation updated the National Defense Act of 1916 to reorganize the United States Army and decentralize the procurement and acquisitions process for equipment, weapons and it was passed by Congress on June 4,1920. The Organized Reserve included the Officers’ Reserve Corps, Enlisted Reserve Corps, the 1920 Act strengthened the National Guard and Reserve in several ways. First, it directed that the Chief of the Militia Bureau be a National Guard officer as a way to coordinate activities between the Army General Staff and the National Guard. The National Defense Act of 1920 also required the Army to conduct studies and planning for wartime mobilization, the need for specialists in procurement and mobilization planning led to the 1924 creation of the Army Industrial College. The 1920 Act was the basis for the Armys organization through World War II, and remained largely in effect until passage of the National Security Act of 1947
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United States Army Air Service
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The Air Service, United States Army was the military aviation service of the United States between 1918 and 1926 and a forerunner of the United States Air Force. It was established as an independent but temporary branch of the U. S and its life was extended for another year in July 1919, during which time Congress passed the legislation necessary to make it a permanent establishment. The National Defense Act of 1920 assigned the Air Service the status of combatant arm of the line of the United States Army with a general in command. By the end of the war, the Air Service used 45 squadrons to cover 137 kilometers of front from Pont-à-Mousson to Sedan,71 pursuit pilots were credited with shooting down five or more German aircraft while in American service. Overall the Air Service destroyed 756 enemy aircraft and 76 balloons in combat,17 balloon companies also operated at the front, making 1,642 combat ascensions. 289 airplanes and 48 balloons were lost in battle, the Air Service was the first form of the air force to have an independent organizational structure and identity. Although officers concurrently held rank in various branches, after May 1918 their branch designation in official correspondence while on aviation assignment changed from ASSC to AS, after July 1,1920, its personnel became members of the Air Service branch, receiving new commissions. Airmen such as Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell supported the concept, the Armys senior leadership from World War I, the United States Navy, and the majority of the nations political leadership favored integration of all military aviation into the Army and Navy. Aided by a wave of pacifism following the war that drastically cut military budgets, opponents of an independent air force prevailed, the Air Service was renamed the Army Air Corps in 1926 as a compromise in the continuing struggle. The declaration of war against Germany on April 6,1917, putting the United States in World War I, came too quickly to solve emerging engineering and production problems. The reorganization of the Aviation Section had been inadequate in resolving problems in training, leaving the United States totally unprepared to fight an air war in Europe, the Aviation Section consisted of 131 officers,1087 enlisted men, and approximately 280 airplanes. The Board dispatched Major Raynal C, by the time the bill passed, the term Air Service was in widespread if unofficial usage to collectively describe all aspects of Army aviation. Even so, the Aircraft Board in practice had little control over procurement contracts, nor did the Equipment Division of the Signal Corps exercise such control. Though individual areas within the industry responded well, the industry as a whole failed. Efforts to mass produce European aircraft under license largely failed because the aircraft, at the same time the Aeronautical Division of the OCSO was renamed the Air Division with continued responsibility for training and operations but with no influence on acquisition or doctrine. In the end the process in aircraft procurement was badly fragmented. Borglum had exchanged letters with President Wilson, a friend, from which he assumed an appointment to investigate had been authorized. Both the U. S. Senate and the Department of Justice began investigations into possible fraudulent dealings, Kenly brought back from France to be its head, to separate supervision of aviation from the duties of the Chief Signal Officer
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Chemical Corps
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The Chemical Corps is the branch of the United States Army tasked with defending against chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons. The corps was founded as the U. S, Chemical Warfare Service during World War I. Its name was changed to the Chemical Corps in 1946, for most of its history, the Chemical Corps was tasked with delivering chemical weapons rather than defending against them. Discussion of the dates back to the American Civil War. A letter to the War Department dated 5 April 1862 from New York City resident John Doughty proposed the use of shells to drive the Confederate Army from its positions. Doughty included a drawing of the shell with his letter. It is unknown how the military reacted to Doughtys proposal but the letter was unnoticed in a pile of old official documents until modern times, another American, Forrest Shepherd, also proposed a chemical weapon attack against the Confederates. Shepherds proposal involved hydrogen chloride, an attack that would have likely been non-lethal, Shepherd was a well-known geologist at the time and his proposal was in the form of a letter directly to the White House. The earliest predecessors to the United States Army Chemical Corps owe their existence to changes of military technology early in World War I. Despite this early interest, troops were supplied with masks nor trained for offensive gas warfare until the U. S. became involved in World War I in 1917. By 1917, the use of weapons by both the Allied and Central Powers had become commonplace along the Western, Eastern and Italian Fronts. In 1917, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane, directed the Bureau of Mines to assist the Army and Navy in creating a gas war program. After the Director of the Bureau of Mines formally offered the service to the Military Committee of the National Research Council. On 5 July 1917 General John J. Pershing oversaw the creation of a Gas Service Section, the predecessor to the 1st Gas Regiment was the 30th Engineer Regiment. The 30th was activated on 15 August 1917 at Camp American University, Washington, additional War Department orders established a Chemical Service Section that included 47 commissioned officers and 95 enlisted personnel. Despite the conventional training, the public perceived the 30th as dealing mainly with poisonous gas, by the time those in the 30th Engineers arrived in France most of them knew nothing of chemical warfare and had no specialized equipment. The 30th Engineer Regiment was redesignated the First Gas Regiment in 1918 and deployed to assist and support Army gas operations, the Chemical Warfare Service, the predecessor to the Chemical Corps, was officially formed on 28 June 1918 and encompassed the Gas Service and Chemical Service Sections. By 1 November 1918 the CWS included 1,654 commissioned officers and 18,027 enlisted personnel, major General William L. Sibert was appointed as the first director of the CWS on the day it was created
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Chief of the National Guard Bureau
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The Chief of the National Guard Bureau is the head of the National Guard Bureau, which is a joint activity of the Department of Defense, and since 2012 is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The CNGB is a federally recognized commissioned officer who has served at least 10 years of federally recognized active duty in any of the Reserves of the Army or Air Force, the nominee must be confirmed via majority vote from the Senate. The CNGB serves a term of office at the pleasure of the President. By statute, the CNGB is appointed as a general in the Army or Air Force. On June 30,2016, Lieutenant General Joseph L. Lengyel and he was promoted and completed a transfer of authority ceremony with his predecessor on August 2. This positional flag for the Chief of the National Guard Bureau was used from 1998 to 2008, the dark blue represented the Army National Guard, the light blue represented the Air National Guard. The badge in the center is the insignia of the National Guard Bureau. The two triangles in the fly are flight devices and represent the Air National Guard. The version of the flag appears in the information box at the top of the page was adopted in 2008 when the position of Chief of the National Guard Bureau was upgraded to full General. Senior Enlisted Advisor for the National Guard Bureau Biography, Frank J. Grass
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State defense force
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State defense forces are authorized by state and federal law and are under the command of the governor of each state. State defense forces are distinct from their states National Guard in that they cannot become federal entities, all state National Guard personnel can be federalized under the National Defense Act of 1933 with the creation of the National Guard of the United States. This provides the basis for integrating units and personnel of the Army National Guard into the U. S. Army and, since 1947, units and personnel of the Air National Guard into the U. S. Air Force. However, under the law, individual members serving in the state defense force are not exempt from service in the armed forces. Under 32 USC §109, A person may not become a member of a defense force, if he is a member of a reserve component of the armed forces. Nearly every state has laws authorizing state defense forces, and 22 states, plus the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, have active SDFs with different levels of activity, support, State defense forces generally operate with emergency management and homeland security missions. Most SDFs are organized as units, but air and naval units also exist. In 1903, with passage of the Militia Act of 1903 and it required the states to divide their militias into two sections. The law recommended the title National Guard for the first section, known as the organized militia, the Secretary of War was authorized to furnish these Home Guard units with rifles, ammunition, and supplies. This law authorized the War Department to train and arm the new forces that would come to be known as State Guards. Many states took advantage of this law and maintained distinct state military forces throughout the war to defend their own territories, shorelines, Army Air Forces and would now be operationally gained by the newly established Air Force. In 1950, with the outbreak of the Korean War and at the urging of the National Guard, Congress reauthorized the separate state military forces for a time period of two years. These state military forces were authorized military training at federal expense, as well as arms, ammunition, clothing, at the end of the two years, however, they were not reauthorized under federal law. In 1956, Congress finally revised the law and authorized State defense forces permanently under Title 32, Section 109, two years later, Congress amended the law and changed the name from State defense forces to defense forces. By the late 1980s, however, a series of high-profile reports caused several states to shut down or significantly restructure their forces. Meanwhile, in 1990, the Virginia General Assembly launched an investigation, with the end of the Cold War came a general decrease of interest in state defense forces. In 2008, Alaska disarmed its state defense force after an investigation concluded the lack of training intensity or standardization was a legal liability to the state. Another former commander asserted he regularly awarded titles to members of the New York legislature in exchange for their support of budgetary allocations to the force
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Defense Technical Information Center
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The Defense Technical Information Center is the premier repository for research and engineering information for the United States Department of Defense. DTICs Suite of Services is available to DoD personnel, defense contractors, federal government personnel and contractors, the general public can access unclassified, unlimited information, including many full-text downloadable documents, through the public Web site, DTIC Online. DTICs collections contain over 4 million documents including technical reports, research in progress and Independent Research, DTIC also publishes searchable Congressional budget data shortly after its release from Congress. DTIC acquires approximately 25,000 new documents each year, mr. Christopher Thomas is the Administrator. DTICs mission statement is To provide essential, technical research, development, testing, established in June 1945 as the Air Documents Research Center, the agency’s first mission was to collect German air documents. A summarized version of the history of DTIC is available from the organization,1951, CADO becomes the Armed Services Technical Information Agency. 1962, The DoD Scientific and Technical Information Program is established,1963, ASTIA is renamed Defense Documentation Center and becomes a field activity of the Defense Supply Agency. 1972, The Defense Research, Development, Test and Evaluation Online System becomes operational,1979, DDC officially changes its name to Defense Technical Information Center. 1980, DoD Information Analysis Center Program is added to DTIC’s mission,1994, DTIC begins offering products and services via the Internet. 1995, DTIC moves to its current location in the Andrew T. McNamara Headquarters Complex, Fort Belvoir,2008, DTIC Online is launched, providing one Web site to search and access DoD research and engineering information. 2008, DTIC launches DoDTechipedia, DoD’s scientific and technical information wiki and it is a wiki to facilitate increased communication and collaboration among DoD scientists, engineers, program managers, acquisition professionals and operational Warfighters. DoDTechipedia is a knowledge base that reduces duplication of effort and encourages collaboration among program areas. 2009, DTIC launches DefenseSolutions. gov, a portal for potential DoD Contractors to submit solutions to DoD challenges. 2010, DTIC celebrates 65 years of meeting the scientific and technical needs of the DoD community in support of the warfighter. DTIC Online is the gateway to DTIC’s products and services. Access to the unclassified, unlimited information on this site is available to the public free of charge. Free on the Secure Internet Protocol Routing Network, DTIC Online Classified provides access to DTIC’s complete collection of technical reports, in addition, registered users have access to other websites housed on the SIPRNet, including DoDTechipedia Classified. DTIC has leading edge experience in hosting Web sites, DTIC Embedded Librarians provide onsite, direct support to COCOMs during major exercises
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JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
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United States Army Center of Military History
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The United States Army Center of Military History is a directorate within the Office of the Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Army. The center is responsible for the use of history and military records throughout the United States Army. Traditionally, this mission has meant recording the history of the army in both peace and war, while advising the army staff on historical matters. CMH is the organization leading the Army Historical Program. The center traces its lineage back to historians under the Secretary of War who compiled the Official Records of the Rebellion, a similar work on World War I was prepared by the Historical Section of the Army War College. They began publication of the United States Army in World War II series, since then, the Center has produced detailed series on the Armys role in the Korean and Vietnam Wars and has begun a series on the U. S. Army in the Cold War. These works are supplemented by monographs and other publications on a mix of topics and it has expanded its role in the areas of military history education, the management of the armys museum system, and the introduction of automated data-retrieval systems. The centers work with army schools ensures that the study of history is a part of the training of officers, much of this educational work is performed at field historical offices and in army museums. Under the direction of the chief of military history and his principal adviser and those works under way and projected are described in the Army Historical Program, an annual report to the Chief of Staff on the Army’s historical activities. All center publications are listed in the catalog Publications of the United States Army Center of Military History, CMH also serves as a clearinghouse for the oral history programs in the army at all levels of command. It also conducts and preserves its own oral history collections, including those from the Vietnam War, Desert Storm, in addition, the center’s end-of-tour interviews within the Army Secretariat and Staff provide a basis for its annual histories of the Department of the Army. As tangible representations of the mission, military artifacts and art enhance the soldier’s understanding of the profession of arms. CMH manages a system of more than 120 army museums and their holdings, current projects include the establishment of a National Army Museum at Fort Belvoir, Virginia, and a complementary Army Heritage and Educational Center at Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. The Chief of Military History is responsible for ensuring the use of military history in the teaching of strategy, tactics, logistics. This mission includes a requirement that military leaders at all levels be aware of the value of history in advancing military professionalism, in this effort, the chief of military history is assisted by a historical advisory committee that includes leading academic historians and representatives of the army school system. Staff rides enable military leaders to retrace the course of a battle on the ground, as one of the army’s major teaching devices, staff rides are particularly dependent on a careful knowledge of military history. Center historians lead rides directed by the Secretary of the Army and it administers the army’s Command History Program, to provide historical support to army organizations worldwide. To stimulate interest in history in the army and the nation
