1.
United States Department of Education
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The United States Department of Education, also referred to as the ED for Education Department, is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government. Recreated by the Department of Education Organization Act and signed into law by President Jimmy Carter on October 17,1979, the Department of Education Organization Act divided the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare into the Department of Education and the Department of Health and Human Services. The Department of Education is administered by the United States Secretary of Education and it has approximately 4,400 employees and an annual budget of $68 billion. The agencys official abbreviation is ED, because DOE instead refers to the United States Department of Energy and it is also often abbreviated informally as DoEd. The Department of Education does not establish schools or colleges and this has been left to state and local school districts. The Departments mission is, to student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence. For 2006, the ED discretionary budget was $56 billion and the mandatory budget contained $23 billion, in 2009 it received additional ARRA funding of $102 billion. As of 2011, the budget is $70 billion. A previous Department of Education was created in 1867 but was demoted to an Office in 1868. As an agency not represented in the cabinet, it quickly became a relatively minor bureau in the Department of the Interior. In 1939, the bureau was transferred to the Federal Security Agency, in 1953, the Federal Security Agency was upgraded to cabinet-level status as the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. In 1979, President Carter advocated for creating a cabinet-level Department of Education, carters plan was to transfer most of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfares education-related functions to the Department of Education. Carter also planned to transfer the education-related functions of the departments of Defense, Justice, Housing and Urban Development, however, many see the department as constitutional under the Commerce Clause, and that the funding role of the Department is constitutional under the Taxing and Spending Clause. The National Education Association supported the bill, while the American Federation of Teachers opposed it, as of 1979, the Office of Education had 3,000 employees and an annual budget of $12 billion. Congress appropriated to the Department of Education an annual budget of $14 billion and 17,000 employees when establishing the Department of Education, once in office, President Reagan succeeded significantly to reduce the budget. In the 1982 State of the Union Address, he pledged, after the Newt Gingrich-led revolution in 1994 had taken control of both Houses of Congress, federal control of and spending on education soared. The GOP platform read, The Federal government has no authority to be involved in school curricula or to control jobs in the market place. This is why we will abolish the Department of Education, end federal meddling in our schools, during his 1996 presidential run, Senator Bob Dole promised, Were going to cut out the Department of Education
2.
Indianapolis
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Indianapolis, is the capital and largest city of the U. S. state of Indiana and the seat of Marion County. It is in the East North Central region of the Midwestern United States, with an estimated population of 853,173 in 2015, Indianapolis is the second most populous city in the Midwest, after Chicago, and 14th largest in the U. S. The city is the economic and cultural center of the Indianapolis metropolitan area, home to 2 million people and its combined statistical area ranks 26th, with 2.4 million inhabitants. Indianapolis covers 372 square miles, making it the 16th largest city by area in the U. S. The city grew beyond the Mile Square, as completion of the National Road and advent of the railroad solidified the position as a manufacturing. Indianapolis is within a single-day drive of 70 percent of the nations population, Indianapolis has developed niche markets in amateur sports and auto racing. The city is perhaps best known for hosting the worlds largest single-day sporting event. The city is notable as headquarters for the American Legion and home to a significant collection of monuments dedicated to veterans and war dead, the most in the U. S. outside of Washington, D. C. Since the 1970 city-county consolidation, known as Unigov, local government administration has operated under the direction of an elected 25-member city-county council, Indianapolis is considered a high sufficiency global city. In 1816, the year Indiana gained statehood, the U. S. Congress donated four sections of land to establish a permanent seat of state government. Two years later, under the Treaty of St. Marys and this tract of land, which was called the New Purchase, included the site selected for the new state capital in 1820. The availability of new lands for purchase in central Indiana attracted settlers. Although many of these first European and American setters were Protestants, few African Americans lived in central Indiana before 1840. The first European Americans to permanently settle in the area that became Indianapolis were either the McCormick or Pogue families, on January 11,1820, the Indiana General Assembly authorized a committee to select a site in central Indiana for the new state capital. The state legislature approved the site, adopting the name Indianapolis on January 6,1821, in April, Alexander Ralston and Elias Pym Fordham were appointed to survey and design a town plan for the new settlement. Indianapolis became a seat of county government on December 31,1821, a combined county and town government continued until 1832, when Indianapolis incorporated as a town. Indianapolis became an incorporated city effective March 30,1847, Samuel Henderson, the citys first mayor, led the new city government, which included a seven-member city council. In 1853, voters approved a new city charter provided for an elected mayor
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Puerto Rico
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Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea. It is an archipelago that includes the island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona, Culebra. The capital and most populous city is San Juan and its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The islands population is approximately 3.4 million, Puerto Ricos rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned traditional cuisine, and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the ethnic, cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African captives, and Canarian. In the Spanish imperial imagination, Puerto Rico played a secondary, in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States, however, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U. S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the level and may not vote for president. However, Congress approved a constitution, allowing U. S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017, with only Statehood, in early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12. 4% unemployment, the debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, the terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also known in Spanish as la isla del encanto. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The islands name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931, the ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, the first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland
5.
United States Virgin Islands
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The United States Virgin Islands, officially the Virgin Islands of the United States, are a group of islands in the Caribbean that are an insular area of the United States. The islands are part of the Virgin Islands archipelago and are located in the Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles. The U. S. Virgin Islands consist of the islands of Saint Croix, Saint John, and Saint Thomas. The total land area of the territory is 133.73 square miles, the territorys capital is Charlotte Amalie on the island of Saint Thomas. Previously the Danish West Indies of the Kingdom of Denmark–Norway, they were sold to the United States by Denmark in the Treaty of the Danish West Indies of 1916. They are classified by the U. N. as a Non-Self-Governing Territory, the U. S. Virgin Islands are organized under the 1954 Revised Organic Act of the Virgin Islands and have since held five constitutional conventions. The Fifth Constitutional Convention of the U. S. Virgin Islands met in October 2012 to address these concerns, in 2010 the population was 106,405, and mostly Afro-Caribbean. Tourism and related categories are the economic activity, employing a high percentage of the civilian non-farm labor force that totalled 42,752 persons in 2016. Private sector jobs made up 71 percent of the total workforce, the average private sector salary was $34,088 and the average public sector salary was $52,572. In a May 2016 report, some 11,000 people were categorized as being involved in some aspect of agriculture in the first half of 2016, at that time, there were approximately 607 manufacturing jobs and 1,487 natural resource and construction jobs. The single largest employer was the government, in mid February 2017, the USVI was facing a financial crisis due to a very high debt level of $2 billion and a structural budget deficit of $110 million. The U. S. Virgin Islands were originally inhabited by the Ciboney, Carib, the islands were named by Christopher Columbus on his second voyage in 1493 for Saint Ursula and her virgin followers. Over the next two hundred years, the islands were held by many European powers, including Spain, Great Britain, the Netherlands, France, and Denmark-Norway. The Danish West India Company settled on Saint Thomas in 1672, settled on Saint John in 1694, the islands became royal Danish colonies in 1754, named the Danish West Indian Islands. Sugarcane, produced by labor, drove the islands economy during the 18th and early 19th centuries. The Danish West India and Guinea Company are also credited with naming the island St. John, the Danish crown took full control of Saint John in 1754 along with St. Thomas and St. Croix. Sugarcane plantations such as the famous Annaberg Sugar Plantation were established in great numbers on St. John because of the intense heat, the establishment of sugarcane plantations also led to the buying of more slaves from Africa. In 1733 St. John was the site of one of the first significant slave rebellions in the New World when Akwamu slaves from the Gold Coast took over the island for six months, the Danish were able to defeat the enslaved Africans with help from the French in Martinique
6.
Chairman
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The chairman is the highest officer of an organized group such as a board, a committee, or a deliberative assembly. The person holding the office is elected or appointed by the members of the group. The chair presides over meetings of the group and conducts its business in an orderly fashion. When the group is not in session, the officers duties include acting as its head, its representative to the outside world. In some organizations, this position is called president, in others, where a board appoints a president. Other terms sometimes used for the office and its holder include chair, chairperson, chairwoman, presiding officer, president, moderator, facilitator, the chairman of a parliamentary chamber is often called the speaker. The term chair is used in lieu of chairman, in response to criticisms that using chairman is sexist. In his 1992 State of the Union address, then-U. S, president George H. W. Bush used chairman for men and chair for women. A1994 Canadian study found the Toronto Star newspaper referring to most presiding men as chairman, the Chronicle of Higher Education uses chairman for men and chairperson for women. An analysis of the British National Corpus found chairman used 1,142 times, chairperson 130 times, the National Association of Parliamentarians does not approve using chairperson. In World Schools Style debating, male chairs are called Mr. Chairman, the FranklinCovey Style Guide for Business and Technical Communication, as well as the American Psychological Association style guide, advocate using chair or chairperson, rather than chairman. The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style suggests that the forms are gaining ground. It advocates using chair to refer both to men and to women, the word chair can refer to the place from which the holder of the office presides, whether on a chair, at a lectern, or elsewhere. During meetings, the person presiding is said to be in the chair and is referred to as the chair. Major dictionaries state that the word derives from chair and man, some authorities, however, including Riddicks Rules of Procedure, suggest that the second part of chairman derives from the Latin manus, and thus claim gender-neutrality for the word. Vladimir Lenin, for example, officially functioned as the head of Soviet Russia not as tsar or as president, note in particular the popular standard method for referring to Mao Zedong, Chairman Mao. In the absence of the chairman and vice chairman, groups sometimes elect a chairman pro tempore to fill the role for a single meeting. In some organizations that have titles, deputy chairman ranks higher than vice chairman, as there are often multiple vice chairs
7.
President (corporate title)
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The President is a leader of an organization, company, community, club, trade union, university or other group. In many organizations, it is the legally recognized highest titled corporate officer, the president may also be the chairman. The relationship between the president and the Chief Executive Officer varies, depending on the structure of the specific organization, in a similar vein to the Chief Operating Officer, the title of corporate President as a separate position is also loosely defined. The powers of the president vary widely across organizations and such powers come from specific authorization in the bylaws, originally, the term president was used to designate someone who presided over a meeting, and was used in the same way that foreman or overseer is used now. It has now come to mean chief officer in terms of administrative or executive duties. In addition to the administrative or executive duties in organizations, the president has the duties of presiding over meetings, in committees or small boards, the president votes along with the other members. However, in assemblies or larger boards, the president should vote only when it can affect the result, at a meeting, the president only has one vote. The powers of the president vary widely across organizations, the amount of power given to the president depends on the type of organization, its structure, and the rules it has created for itself. If the president exceeds the given authority, engages in misconduct, or fails to perform the duties, such procedures may include censure, suspension, or removal from office. The rules of the organization would provide details on who can perform these disciplinary procedures. Usually, whoever appointed or elected the president has the power to discipline this officer, some organizations may have a position of President-Elect in addition to the position of President. Generally the membership of the organization elects a President-Elect and when the term of the President-Elect is complete, some organizations may have a position of Immediate Past President in addition to the position of President. In those organizations, when the term of the President is complete, the organization can have such a position only if the bylaws provide it. The duties of such a position would also have to be provided in the bylaws, riding Shotgun, The Role of the COO. National Association of Parliamentarians®, Education Committee, independence, MO, National Association of Parliamentarians®
8.
Agriculture
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Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time
9.
Education
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Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has an effect on the way one thinks, feels. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy, in most regions education is compulsory up to a certain age. Etymologically, the education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō from ēducō which is related to the homonym ēdūcō from ē-. Education began in prehistory, as trained the young in the knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation, story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be learned through imitation. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom, plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, there, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE476, after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education, some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous, founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek, around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age, formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system, such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces, student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more
10.
Virginia Tech
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Through its Corps of Cadets ROTC program, Virginia Tech is also designated as one of six senior military colleges in the country. Under the 1891–1907 presidency of John M. McBryde, the school organized its academic programs into a traditional four-year college, the evolution of the schools programs led to a name change in 1896 to Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College and Polytechnic Institute. The Agricultural and Mechanical College portion of the name was popularly omitted almost immediately, in 1944, in 1923, VPI changed a policy of compulsory participation in the Corps of Cadets from four years to two years. In 1931, VPI began teaching classes at the Norfolk Division of the College of William and this program eventually developed into a two-year engineering program that allowed students to transfer to VPI for their final two years of degree work. In 1943, VPI merged with nearby Radford State Teachers College, which became VPIs womens division, today, Radford University enrolls more than 9,900 students and offers more than 150 undergraduate and graduate programs. During Hahns tenure, not only did the university graduate its first Rhodes Scholar, lewis, Class of 1963, the requirement for male students to participate in the Corps of Cadets for two years was dropped. Beginning in the fall 1973, women could participate in the corps, in 1970, the state legislature allowed VPI university status and gave it the present legal name, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. However, diplomas and transcripts still spell out the formal name, similarly, the abbreviation VT is far more common today than either VPI or VPI&SU. The early decades of this century have seen expansion across the universitys institutions in both physical and population sizes, former President Charles Steger brought Virginia Tech an allopathic medical school in 2007. The Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine and Research Institute was created with a partnership with the Carilion Clinic. These years also brought about the development of the universitys professional schools of graduate education. Virginia Tech brought in over a half-billion in research expenditures in 2014, on April 16,2007, Virginia Tech student Seung-Hui Cho fatally shot 32 faculty members and students, wounding 17 others before killing himself on campus. The massacre is the deadliest mass shooting on a college campus, although it was at the time the deadliest mass shooting committed by a lone gunman in U. S. history, it has since been surpassed by the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting. These colleges/schools include, Virginia Tech received a number of nearly 22,500 applications for the fall 2015 freshman class. The typical student offered admission had a grade point average of 4.00. The average cumulative SAT score was 1250, with a middle range ranging from 1160 to 1340, of the 5,518 students who accepted the offers of admission,18 percent accepted under the Early Decision Plan. The Office of Undergraduate Admissions is located within the Visitor and Undergraduate Admissions Center, once admitted, Honors students are required to maintain a 3.5 GPA in order to remain in the program. For the 2013–14 academic year, the Graduate School at Virginia Tech enrolled 6,723 graduate students in its masters, the Pamplin College of Business, received 381 applications for its incoming Evening MBA program, and offered admission to 142
11.
Tom Vilsack
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Thomas James Tom Vilsack is an American politician who served as the United States Secretary of Agriculture from 2009 until 2017. A member of the Iowa Democratic Party, Vilsack served as the 40th Governor of Iowa from 1999 to 2007. On November 30,2006, he launched his candidacy for nomination for President of the United States by the Democratic Party in the 2008 election. Barack Obama announced Vilsacks selection to be Secretary of Agriculture on December 17,2008 and his nomination was confirmed by the United States Senate by unanimous consent on January 20,2009. Until his January 13,2017 resignation one week prior to the end of Obamas second term as president, Cabinet who had served since Obama took office. Thus Vilsacks departure left no members of Obamas Cabinet who were serving when Obama took office, on July 19,2016, the Washington Post reported that Vilsack was on Hillary Clintons two-person shortlist to be her running mate for that years presidential election. Virginia Senator Tim Kaine was ultimately selected and he was adopted in 1951 by Bud and Dolly Vilsack, who renamed him Thomas. Bud Vilsack was an agent and insurance salesman. Vilsack attended Shady Side Academy, a high school in Pittsburgh. He received a degree in 1972 from Hamilton College in New York. While at Hamilton he joined the Delta Upsilon Fraternity and he received a Juris Doctor in 1975 from Albany Law School of Union University, New York. He married Christie Vilsack in 1973, and moved with her to her hometown of Mount Pleasant, Iowa and this led him to involvement in the local Chamber of Commerce and United Way. He and his wife volunteered in the 1987 presidential campaign of Joe Biden, after the mayor of Mount Pleasant was gunned down in December,1986, Vilsack led a fundraising drive to build a memorial fountain. The deceased mayors father asked Vilsack to run for mayor of Mount Pleasant, he was elected and he was elected to the Iowa Senate in 1992. Following his election, he worked on legislation requiring companies who received state tax incentives to provide better pay and he helped pass a law for workers to receive health coverage when changing jobs, and helped re-design Iowas Workforce Development Department. He also wrote a bill to have the State of Iowa assume a 50% share of local county mental health costs, in 1998, Terry Branstad chose not to seek re-election after sixteen years as governor. The Iowa Republican Party nominated Jim Ross Lightfoot, a former U. S. Representative, Vilsack defeated former Iowa Supreme Court Justice Mark McCormick in the Democratic primary and chose Sally Pederson as his running mate. Lightfoot was the favorite to succeed Branstad and polls consistently showed him in the lead
12.
Kansas City, Missouri
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Kansas City is the largest city in Missouri and the sixth largest city in the Midwest. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the city had an population of 475,378 in 2015. It is the city of the Kansas City metropolitan area. Kansas City was founded in the 1830s as a Missouri River port at its confluence with the Kansas River coming in from the west, on June 1,1850 the town of Kansas was incorporated, shortly after came the establishment of the Kansas Territory. Confusion between the two ensued and the name Kansas City was assigned to them soon thereafter. Most of the city lies within Jackson County, but portions spill into Clay, Cass, along with Independence, it serves as one of the two county seats for Jackson County. Major suburbs include the Missouri cities of Independence and Lees Summit and the Kansas cities of Overland Park, Olathe, and Kansas City. The city is composed of neighborhoods, including the River Market District in the north, the 18th and Vine District in the east. Kansas City is also known for its cuisine, its craft breweries, Kansas City, Missouri was officially incorporated as a town on June 1,1850, and as a city on March 28,1853. The territory straddling the border between Missouri and Kansas at the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri rivers was considered a place to build settlements. The Antioch Christian Church, Dr. James Compton House, the first documented European visitor to Kansas City was Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont, who was also the first European to explore the lower Missouri River. Criticized for his response to the Native American attack on Fort Détroit, Bourgmont lived with a Native American wife in a village about 90 miles east near Brunswick, Missouri, where he illegally traded furs. In the documents, he describes the junction of the Grande Riv des Cansez and Missouri River, French cartographer Guillaume Delisle used the descriptions to make the areas first reasonably accurate map. The Spanish took over the region in the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the French continued their fur trade under Spanish license. After the 1804 Louisiana Purchase, Lewis and Clark visited the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri rivers, in 1831, a group of Mormons from New York settled in what would become the city. They built the first school within Kansas Citys current boundaries, but were forced out by mob violence in 1833, in 1833 John McCoy established West Port along the Santa Fe Trail,3 miles away from the river. In 1834 McCoy established Westport Landing on a bend in the Missouri to serve as a point for West Port. Soon after, the Kansas Town Company, a group of investors, began to settle the area, in 1850, the landing area was incorporated as the Town of Kansas
13.
Louisville, Kentucky
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Louisville is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Kentucky and the 30th-most populous city in the United States. It is one of two cities in Kentucky designated as first-class, the other being the states second-largest city of Lexington, Louisville is the historical seat and, since 2003, the nominal seat of Jefferson County. Louisville was founded in 1778 by George Rogers Clark and is named after King Louis XVI of France, making Louisville one of the oldest cities west of the Appalachian Mountains. Sited beside the Falls of the Ohio, the major obstruction to river traffic between the upper Ohio River and the Gulf of Mexico, the settlement first grew as a portage site. It was the city of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad. Its main airport is also the site of United Parcel Services worldwide air hub, since 2003, Louisvilles borders have been the same as those of Jefferson County because of a city-county merger. The official name of this consolidated city-county government is the Louisville/Jefferson County Metro Government, the citys total consolidated population as of the 2014 census estimate was 760,026. However, the total of 612,780 excludes other incorporated places and semiautonomous towns within the county and is the population listed in most sources. As of 2014, the MSA had a population of 1,269,702, the history of Louisville spans hundreds of years, and has been influenced by the areas geography and location. The rapids at the Falls of the Ohio created a barrier to river travel, the first European settlement in the vicinity of modern-day Louisville was on Corn Island in 1778 by Col. George Rogers Clark, credited as the founder of Louisville. Several landmarks in the community are named after him, two years later, in 1780, the Virginia General Assembly approved the town charter of Louisville. The city was named in honor of King Louis XVI of France, early residents lived in forts to protect themselves from Indian raids, but moved out by the late 1780s. In 1803, explorers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark organized their expedition across America in the town of Clarksville, Indiana at the present-day Falls of the Ohio opposite Louisville, Kentucky. The citys early growth was influenced by the fact river boats had to be unloaded and moved downriver before reaching the falls. By 1828, the population had swelled to 7,000, the city grew rapidly in its formative years. Louisville was a shipping port and slaves worked in a variety of associated trades. The city was often a point of escape for slaves to the north, during the Civil War, Louisville was a major stronghold of Union forces, which kept Kentucky firmly in the Union. It was the center of planning, supplies, recruiting, and transportation for numerous campaigns, by the end of the war, Louisville had not been attacked, although skirmishes and battles, including the battles of Perryville and Corydon, took place nearby
14.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
15.
Robert's Rules of Order
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Roberts Rules of Order Newly Revised, commonly referred to as Robert’s Rules of Order, is the most widely-used manual of parliamentary procedure in America. The manual was first published in 1876 by U. S. Army officer Henry Martyn Robert, ten subsequent editions have been published, including major revisions in 1915 and 1970. The copyright to Roberts Rules of Order Newly Revised is owned by the Roberts Rules Association, the 11th and current edition was published in 2011. In 2005, the Roberts Rules Association published a concise guide. A second edition of the book was published in 2011. The procedures prescribed by the book were loosely modeled after those used in the United States House of Representatives, although he was in the military, the rules in his book were not based on military rules. He eventually became convinced of the need for a new manual on the subject, by this time Robert had long been retired from the Army with the rank of brigadier general. The revisions were based on the feedback from hundreds of letters that Robert had received through the years, through a family trust, and later through the Roberts Rules Association, several subsequent editions of Roberts Rules of Order have been published, including another major revision of the work. The Seventh Edition, published in February 1970 on the 94th anniversary of the publication of the First Edition, was the first under the title Roberts Rules of Order Newly Revised. The subsequent editions were based on feedback from users, including feedback received by electronic means in recent years. These later editions included material from Roberts Parliamentary Practice and Parliamentary Law, the current edition of the series became effective on September 23,2011 under the title Roberts Rules of Order Newly Revised, Eleventh Edition. More than five and a million copies have been printed. The following table list the official versions of the body of known as Roberts Rules of Order developed by Henry M. Robert. As a result, a book was developed. A second edition of this guide was published in 2011 to conform with the current Eleventh Edition of Roberts Rules of Order Newly Revised. The In Brief book is the only authorized concise guide for Roberts Rules of Order Newly Revised and is intended as a book for those unfamiliar with parliamentary procedure. The authors say, In only twenty minutes, the reader can learn the bare essentials. It is meant to be a supplement to the current edition of Roberts Rules of Order Newly Revised and is not suitable for adoption as a parliamentary authority in itself
16.
Casper College
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Casper College is a public college located in the heart of Wyoming in Casper, Wyoming, United States Casper College is one of the largest and most comprehensive community colleges in the region. Established in 1945 as Wyomings first junior college and initially located on the floor of Natrona County High School. Currently the campus consists of 28 buildings on more than 200 acres, the grounds are distinctive, with terraces that surround the modern buildings. The Tate Geological Museum is located on the end of the campus. In 2011 Casper College was ranked in the Top 25 of all community colleges in the nation by StateUniversity. com, warren A. Morton, the Casper oilman and former Speaker of the Wyoming House of Representatives, was a Casper College trustee. Casper College offers more than 50 academic majors and 30 technical, the academic side of the college is organized into five different Schools, Business and Industry, Fine Arts and Humanities, Health Science, Science, Social and Behavioral Science. Christopher stabbed Heidi several times, most of which took place outside and he then went to the college to find James. Police received the first phone call just after 9 a. m. authorities found signs of defensive wounds on her body. She was found barefoot and still dressed in pajamas in the street outside their home, Christopher arrived at the college with two knives and a compound bow hidden under a blanket. He walked into his fathers classroom and shot him in the head with the bow at point blank range, Jim rose up and attacked his son, allowing his students to escape. Not everything is known about their struggle, but three fellow faculty members tried to intervene. Christopher eventually stabbed himself, leading to his death, paramedics arrived to find Jim already dead, although Christopher still showed signs of life they were unable to save him
17.
United States Department of Agriculture
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Approximately 80% of USDAs $140 billion budget goes to the Food and Nutrition Service program. The largest component of the FNS budget is the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, after the resignation of Thomas Vilsack on January 13,2017 and the departure of President Barack Obama from office on January 20,2017, the acting Secretary of Agriculture is Michael Young. Activities in this include the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, which provides healthy food to over 40 million low-income. The USDA also is concerned with assisting farmers and food producers with the sale of crops and it plays a role in overseas aid programs by providing surplus foods to developing countries. This aid can go through USAID, foreign governments, international bodies such as World Food Program, the Agricultural Act of 1949, section 416 and Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, also known as Food for Peace, provides the legal basis of such actions. The USDA is a partner of the World Cocoa Foundation, early in its history, the economy of the United States was largely agrarian. Officials in the government had long sought new and improved varieties of seeds, plants. In 1837 Henry Leavitt Ellsworth, a Yale-educated attorney interested in improving agriculture, became Commissioner of Patents and he began collecting and distributing new varieties of seeds and plants through members of the Congress and agricultural societies. In 1839, Congress established the Agricultural Division within the Patent Office and allotted $1,000 for the collection of agricultural statistics, Ellsworth was called the Father of the Department of Agriculture. In 1849, the Patent Office was transferred to the newly created Department of the Interior, in the ensuing years, agitation for a separate bureau of agriculture within the department or a separate department devoted to agriculture kept recurring. Lincoln called it the peoples department, in the 1880s, varied advocacy groups were lobbying for Cabinet representation. Business interests sought a Department of Commerce and Industry, and farmers tried to raise the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet rank, finally, on February 9,1889, President Grover Cleveland signed a bill into law elevating the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet level. In 1887, the Hatch Act provided for the funding of agricultural experiment stations in each state. The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 then funded cooperative extension services in each state to teach agriculture, home economics, with these and similar provisions, the USDA reached out to every county of every state. During the Great Depression, farming remained a way of life for millions of Americans. The Department of Agricultures Bureau of Home Economics, established in 1923, published shopping advice and recipes to stretch family budgets and make food go farther. USDA helped ensure that continued to be produced and distributed to those who needed it, assisted with loans for small landowners. The Department of Agriculture was authorized a budget for Fiscal Year 2015 of $139.7 billion, the Washington Post reports that he said There are days when I have literally nothing to do, he recalled thinking as he weighed his decision to quit
18.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
19.
Corduroy
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Corduroy is a textile composed of twisted fibres that, when woven, lie parallel to one another to form the cloths distinct pattern, a cord. Modern corduroy is most commonly composed of tufted cords, sometimes exhibiting a channel between the tufts, corduroy is, in essence, a ridged form of velvet. The fabric looks as if it is made from multiple cords laid parallel to each other, the word corduroy is from cord and duroy, a coarse woollen cloth made in England in the 18th century. The interpretation of the word as corde du roi is a folk etymology, as a fabric, corduroy is considered a durable cloth. Corduroy is found in the construction of trousers, jackets and shirts, the width of the cord is commonly referred to as the size of the wale. The lower the number, the thicker the width of the wale. Corduroy’s wale count per inch can vary from 1.5 to 21, wide wale is more commonly used in trousers and furniture upholstery, medium, narrow, and fine wale fabrics are usually found in garments worn above the waist. Corduroy is made by weaving extra sets of fibre into the fabric to form vertical ridges called wales. The wales are built so that lines can be seen when they are cut into pile. The dye is applied to the surface of the fabric, then the garment is cut, when washed during the final phase of the manufacturing process, the pigment dye washes out in an irregular way, creating a vintage look. The colour of each garment becomes softer with each washing, other names are often used for corduroy. Alternative names include, corded velveteen, elephant cord, pin cord, Manchester cloth, in continental Europe, corduroy is commonly known simply as Manchester, Cord, rib cord or rib velvet. Corduroy is a traditionally used in making British country clothing, such as in coat
20.
North Carolina
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North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties, the most populous municipality is Charlotte, which is the second largest banking center in the United States after New York City. The state has a range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet at Mount Mitchell. The climate of the plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a highland climate. North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, the United States Census Bureau places North Carolina in the South Atlantic division of the southern region. So many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the Graveyard of the Atlantic, the most famous of these is the Queen Annes Revenge, which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718. The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, the Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the states most populous region, containing the six largest cities in the state by population. It consists of rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 feet in elevation in the east to about 1,500 feet in the west, the western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, the Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet, the highest point east of the Mississippi River. North Carolina has 17 major river basins, the five basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico, while the remainder flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins,11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the states border – the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar-Pamlico basin. Elevation above sea level is most responsible for temperature change across the state, the climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream, especially in the coastal plain. These influences tend to cause warmer winter temperatures along the coast, the coastal plain averages around 1 inch of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all. North Carolina experiences severe weather in summer and winter, with summer bringing threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, heavy rain
21.
Clemson University
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Clemson University /ˈklɛmsən/ is an American public, coeducational, land-grant and sea-grant research university in Clemson, South Carolina. As of 2016, Clemson University enrolled a total of 18,599 undergraduate students for the semester and 4,807 graduate students. The cost of tuition and fees is about $14,882 and out-of-state tuition. U. S. News & World Report ranks Clemson University 23rd among all public universities. Clemson University is classified as a highest research activity university, thomas Green Clemson, the universitys founder, came to the foothills of South Carolina in 1838, when he married Anna Maria Calhoun, daughter of John C. Calhoun, a South Carolina statesman and seventh U. S and his decision was largely influenced by future South Carolina Governor Benjamin Tillman. Tillman lobbied the South Carolina General Assembly to create the school as an institution for the state. In November 1889, South Carolina Governor John Peter Richardson III signed the bill, as a result, federal funds for agricultural education from the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act and the Hatch Act of 1887 were transferred from South Carolina College to Clemson. Construction of the college began with Hardin Hall in 1890 and then main classroom buildings in 1891, henry Aubrey Strode became the first president of Clemson from 1890 to 1893. Edwin Craighead succeeded Strode in 1893, Clemson Agricultural College formally opened in July 1893 with an initial enrollment of 446. The common curriculum of the first incoming students was English, history, botany, mathematics, physics, until 1955, the college was also an all-white male military school. On May 22,1894 Tillman Hall, the building on campus, was destroyed by a fire. The fire of 1894 consumed the library, classrooms and offices, Tillman Hall was rebuilt in 1894 and still stands today. The first graduating class of Clemson was in 1896 with degrees in mechanical-electrical engineering, Clemsons first football team began in 1896 with trainer Walter Riggs. Henry Hartzog, graduate of The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina, Hartzog created a textile department in 1898. Clemson became the first Southern school to train textile specialists, Hartzog expanded the curriculum with more industrialization skills such as foundry work, agriculture studies and mechanics. In 1902 a large student walkout over the use of military discipline escalated tensions between students and faculty forcing Hartzog to resign. Patrick Mell succeeded Hartzog from 1902 to 1910, following the resignation of Mell in 1910 former Clemson Tigers football coach Walter Riggs became president of Clemson from 1910 to 1924
22.
Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
23.
Vietnam
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Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 92.7 million inhabitants as of 2016, it is the worlds 14th-most-populous country, and its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976, with Ho Chi Minh City as a historical city as well. The northern part of Vietnam was part of Imperial China for over a millennium, an independent Vietnamese state was formed in 939, following a Vietnamese victory in the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Following a Japanese occupation in the 1940s, the Vietnamese fought French rule in the First Indochina War, thereafter, Vietnam was divided politically into two rival states, North Vietnam, and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified in what is known as the Vietnam War, the war ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975. Vietnam was then unified under a communist government but remained impoverished, in 1986, the government initiated a series of economic and political reforms which began Vietnams path towards integration into the world economy. By 2000, it had established relations with all nations. Since 2000, Vietnams economic growth rate has been among the highest in the world and its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the World Trade Organization in 2007. It is also a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, Vietnam remains one of the worlds four remaining one-party socialist states officially espousing communism. The name Việt Nam is a variation of Nam Việt, a name that can be traced back to the Triệu Dynasty of the 2nd century BC. The word Việt originated as a form of Bách Việt. The form Vietnam is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình, the name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Haiphong that dates to 1558. Then, as recorded, rewarded Yuenan/Vietnam as their nations name, to also show that they are below the region of Baiyue/Bach Viet. Between 1804 and 1813, the name was used officially by Emperor Gia Long and it was revived in the early 20th century by Phan Bội Châus History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party. The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when both the government in Huế and the Viet Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt Nam. Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age, Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have also been found at Dong Can, and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu, Lang Gao and Lang Cuom. The Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered the first Vietnamese state, in 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán, who consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương
24.
Skirt
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A skirt is the lower part of a dress or gown, covering the person from the waist downwards, or a separate outer garment serving this purpose. Most skirts are self-standing garments, but some skirt-looking panels may be part of another garment such as leggings, shorts, some fashion designers, such as Jean Paul Gaultier, have shown mens skirts. Modern skirts are made of light to mid-weight fabrics, such as denim, jersey, worsted. Skirts of thin or clingy fabrics are often worn with slips to make the material of the skirt drape better, a straw-woven skirt dating to 3900 BC was discovered in Armenia at the Areni-1 cave complex. Skirts have been worn by men and women from many cultures, such as the lungi, lehnga, kanga and sarong worn in South Asia and Southeast Asia, and the kilt worn in Scotland and Ireland. The earliest known culture to have females wear clothing resembling miniskirts were the Duan Qun Miao and this was in reference to the short miniskirts that barely cover the buttocks worn by women of the tribe, and which were probably shocking to observers in medieval and early modern times. In the Middle Ages, some upper-class women wore skirts over three metres in diameter at the bottom, at the other extreme, the miniskirts of the 1960s were minimal garments that may have barely covered the underwear when seated. Costume historians typically use the word petticoat to describe skirt-like garments of the 18th century or earlier, during the 19th century, the cut of womens dresses in western culture varied more widely than in any other century. Waistlines started just below the bust and gradually sank to the natural waist, skirts started fairly narrow and increased dramatically to the hoopskirt and crinoline-supported styles of the 1860s, then fullness was draped and drawn to the back by means of bustles. In the 1890s the rainy daisy skirt was introduced for walking or sportswear and it had a significantly shorter hemline measuring as much as six inches off the ground and would eventually influence the wider introduction of shorter hemlines in the early 20th century. Beginning around 1915, hemlines for daytime dresses left the floor for good, broomstick skirt, a light-weight ankle-length skirt with many crumpled pleats formed by compressing and twisting the garment while wet, such as around a broomstick. Bubble dress/skirt, a voluminous skirt whose hem is tucked back under to create a “bubble effect” at the bottom, Cargo skirt, a plain utilitarian skirt with belt loops and numerous large pockets, based on the military style of Cargo pants and popularised in the 1990s. Crinoline, a full skirt supported by hoops or multiple petticoats. Hobble skirt, a long and tight skirt with a hem narrow enough to impede the wearers stride Kilt-skirt. Though traditionally designed as womens wear, it is fashioned to mimic the appearance of a mans kilt. Leather skirt, a made of leather Lehenga, a long, pleated skirt, often embroidered, worn mostly as the bottom part of the Gagra choli in North India. Mini-crini, a version of the crinoline, designed by Vivienne Westwood in the mid 1980s. Poodle skirt, a circle or near-circle skirt with an appliqued poodle or other decoration Puffball skirt, popular in the mid-late 1980s when it was inspired by Westwoods mini-crini
25.
Trousers
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Trousers or pants are an item of clothing worn from the waist to the ankles, covering both legs separately. In the UK, the word generally means underwear and not trousers. Shorts are similar to trousers, but with legs that come only to around the area of the knee. To distinguish them from shorts, trousers may be called long trousers in certain such as school uniform. Made of wool, the trousers had straight legs and wide crotches, breeches were worn instead of trousers in early modern Europe by some men in higher classes of society. Since the mid-20th century, trousers have increasingly been worn by women as well, jeans, made of denim, are a form of trousers for casual wear, now widely worn all over the world by both sexes. Shorts are often preferred in hot weather or for sports and also often by children. Trousers are worn on the hips or waist and may be held up by their own fastenings, leggings are form-fitting trousers, of a clingy material, often knitted cotton and spandex. In Scotland, trousers are occasionally known as trews, which is the root of the word trousers. Trousers are also known as breeks in Scots, a related to breeches. The item of clothing worn under trousers is underpants, in North America and Australia pants is the general category term, whereas trousers often refers more specifically to tailored garments with a waistband, belt-loops, and a fly-front. So informal elastic-waist knitted garments would be called pants, but not trousers, North Americans call undergarments underwear, underpants, undies, jockey shorts, shorts, long johns or panties to distinguish them from other pants that are worn on the outside. The term drawers normally refers to undergarments, but in dialects, may be found as a synonym for breeches. In these dialects, the term underdrawers is used for undergarments, many North Americans refer to their undergarments by their type, such as boxers or briefs. In Australia, mens underwear also has various terms including under-dacks, undies. In New Zealand mens underwear is known as undies, or y-fronts, various people in the fashion industry use the words trouser or pant instead of trousers or pants. The words trousers and pants are pluralia tantum, nouns that generally appear in plural form—much like the words scissors. However, the form is used in some compound words, such as trouser-leg, trouser-press
26.
Blouse
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A blouse is a loose-fitting upper garment that was formerly worn by workmen, peasants, artists, women, and children. It is typically gathered at the waist or hips so that it hangs loosely over the wearers body, today, the word most commonly refers to a girls or womans dress shirt but can also refer to a mans shirt if it is a loose-fitting style. Traditionally, the term has been used to refer to a shirt which blouses out or has a feminine appearance. The term is used for some mens military uniform jackets. Blouse is a loanword to English from French, blouse means dust coat and it possibly was brought back from their travels by French Crusaders. They moved on their armor a so-called plusisian shirt, a blue-colored gowns to the dust, the derivation may also be from wool, blouso short wool and blos, blouse deprived, naked taken off. It is first officially noted in 1828, from French blouse, blouses are historically a cask style, mostly mail-like garment, that were rarely part of the fashionable womans wardrobe until the 1890s. Before that time, they were popular for informal wear in styles that echoed peasant or traditional clothing. Blouses usually consist of light such as silk or thin cotton fabrics. Sometimes they are decorated with frills, embroidery or loops, the classic of the ladies blouses is the white shirt blouse. Here the combination possibilities are particularly diverse, the open spade or reverse collar is another common type of classic ladies blouse. At the end of the 19th century the sailor blouses derived from sailor suits were popular for girls to the pleated skirt. In the time of National Socialism this piece of clothing was rejected as a bourgeois-decadent, in the 1950s, the sailors look then entered the leisure mode for adults. The high collar in blouses was pushed out during time by the halsferne variant. Specialist shops also offered ladies cloaks, the KdW in Berlin applied in his illustrated main catalog,1913 among other things a backfisch-confection, with eight blouses between 2.75 and 9.50 Marks. The simplest model was a blouse, navy, white spotted. A simple blouse with a plain skirt was the dress for the newly expanded female workforce of the 1890s. In the 1900s and 1910s, elaborate blouses, such as the lingerie blouse, since then, blouses have remained a wardrobe staple, so by now blouses have not ceased to be fixed in the popular cloakroom style
27.
Scarf
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A scarf, also known as a Kremer, muffler or neck-wrap, is a piece of fabric worn around the neck, near the head or around the waist for warmth, cleanliness, fashion, or religious reasons. They can come in a variety of different colours, ancient Rome is one of the many origins of the scarf, where the garment was used to keep clean rather than warm. It was called the sudarium, which translates from Latin to English as sweat cloth and they were originally worn by men around their neck or tied to their belt. Soon women started using the scarves, which were made of cloth and not made of wool, pashmina, or silk, historians believe that during the reign of the Chinese Emperor Cheng, scarves made of cloth were used to identify officers or the rank of Chinese warriors. In later times, scarves were worn by soldiers of all ranks in Croatia around the 17th century. The only difference in the soldiers scarves that designated a difference in rank was that the officers had silk scarves whilst the other ranks were issued with cotton scarves, some of the Croatian soldiers served as mercenaries with the French forces. The mens scarves were sometimes referred to as cravats, and were the precursor of the necktie, the scarf became a real fashion accessory by the early 19th century for both men and women. By the middle of the 20th century, scarves became one of the most essential, celebrities have often led fashion trends with film props subsequently becoming mainstream fashion items. In cold climates, a thick knitted scarf, often made of wool, is tied around the neck to keep warm and this is usually accompanied by a warm hat and heavy coat. Over time, this custom has evolved into an item in many cultures. The cravat, an ancestor of the necktie and bow tie, religions such as Judaism under Halakhah promote modest dress code among women. Many married Orthodox Jewish women wear a tichel to cover their hair, the Tallit is commonly worn by Jewish men especially for prayers, which they wrap around their head to recite the blessing of the Tallit. Young Sikh boys, and sometimes girls, often wear a bandanna to cover their hair, older Sikhs may wear them as an under-turban. Islam promotes modest dress among women, many Muslim women wear a headscarf, often known as a hijab and in Quranic Arabic as the khimar. The Keffiyeh is commonly used by Muslim men, as for example Yasser Arafat who adopted a black, additionally, several Christian denominations include a scarf known as a Stole as part of their liturgical vestments. Silk scarfs were used by pilots of aircraft in order to keep oily smoke from the exhaust out of their mouths while flying. Silk Scarfs were worn by pilots of closed cockpit aircraft to prevent neck chafing, especially fighter pilots, today, military flight crews wear scarfs imprinted with unit insignia and emblems not for functional reasons but instead for esprit-de-corps and heritage. In India, woollen scarfs with Bandhani work are becoming very popular, Bandhani or Bandhej is the name of the tie and dye technique used commonly in Bhuj and Mandvi of the Kutch District of Gujarat State
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Hosiery
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Hosiery, also referred to as legwear, describes garments worn directly on the feet and legs. The term originated as the term for products of which a maker or seller is termed a hosier. The term is used for all types of knitted fabric. Lower denier measurements of 5 to 15 describe a hose which may be sheer in appearance, whereas styles of 40 and above are dense, with little to no light able to come through on 100 denier items. The first references to hosiery can be found in works of Hesiod, even the Egyptians are speculated to have used hosiery as socks have been found in certain tombs. Most hosiery garments are made by knitting methods, modern hosiery is usually tight-fitting by virtue of stretchy fabrics and meshes. Older forms include binding to achieve a tight fit, due to its close fit, most hosiery can be worn as an undergarment, but it is more commonly worn as a combined under/outer garment. Hosiery garments are the product of hosiery fabric produced from hosiery yarn, unlike the yarn used for making woven fabric, hosiery yarn comes from a separate spinning process, and is used with circular knitting machines to form fabric. One or more hosiery yarn is used to make knitted or hosiery fabric, and garments produced out of this are generally referred to as hosiery garments
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Pants
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Trousers or pants are an item of clothing worn from the waist to the ankles, covering both legs separately. In the UK, the word generally means underwear and not trousers. Shorts are similar to trousers, but with legs that come only to around the area of the knee. To distinguish them from shorts, trousers may be called long trousers in certain such as school uniform. Made of wool, the trousers had straight legs and wide crotches, breeches were worn instead of trousers in early modern Europe by some men in higher classes of society. Since the mid-20th century, trousers have increasingly been worn by women as well, jeans, made of denim, are a form of trousers for casual wear, now widely worn all over the world by both sexes. Shorts are often preferred in hot weather or for sports and also often by children. Trousers are worn on the hips or waist and may be held up by their own fastenings, leggings are form-fitting trousers, of a clingy material, often knitted cotton and spandex. In Scotland, trousers are occasionally known as trews, which is the root of the word trousers. Trousers are also known as breeks in Scots, a related to breeches. The item of clothing worn under trousers is underpants, in North America and Australia pants is the general category term, whereas trousers often refers more specifically to tailored garments with a waistband, belt-loops, and a fly-front. So informal elastic-waist knitted garments would be called pants, but not trousers, North Americans call undergarments underwear, underpants, undies, jockey shorts, shorts, long johns or panties to distinguish them from other pants that are worn on the outside. The term drawers normally refers to undergarments, but in dialects, may be found as a synonym for breeches. In these dialects, the term underdrawers is used for undergarments, many North Americans refer to their undergarments by their type, such as boxers or briefs. In Australia, mens underwear also has various terms including under-dacks, undies. In New Zealand mens underwear is known as undies, or y-fronts, various people in the fashion industry use the words trouser or pant instead of trousers or pants. The words trousers and pants are pluralia tantum, nouns that generally appear in plural form—much like the words scissors. However, the form is used in some compound words, such as trouser-leg, trouser-press
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Lyndon, Kansas
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Lyndon is a city in and the county seat of Osage County, Kansas, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 1,052, Lyndon was founded in 1869 after the land in the area was taken from the Sac and Fox Nation and opened for settlement. It was named after Lyndon, Vermont, Lyndon is located at 38°36′37″N 95°41′7″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 0.83 square miles. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Lyndon has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. Lyndon is part of the Topeka metropolitan area, as of the census of 2010, there were 1,052 people,422 households, and 285 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,267.5 inhabitants per square mile, there were 464 housing units at an average density of 559.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 97. 5% White,0. 4% African American,0. 7% Native American,0. 1% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 0% of the population. 29. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 3.02. The median age in the city was 36.8 years. 28% of residents were under the age of 18,6. 1% were between the ages of 18 and 24,26. 2% were from 25 to 44,25. 7% were from 45 to 64, and 13. 9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50. 9% male and 49. 1% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,038 people,419 households, and 297 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,387.5 people per square mile, there were 453 housing units at an average density of 605.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 97. 98% White,0. 48% Native American,0. 19% Asian,0. 10% Pacific Islander,0. 77% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 77% of the population. 24. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 15. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 2.91. In the city, the population was out with 26. 0% under the age of 18,7. 0% from 18 to 24,26. 3% from 25 to 44,22. 4% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 101.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.0 males, the median income for a household in the city was $36,250, and the median income for a family was $44,231
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Mechanics
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Mechanics is an area of science concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment. The scientific discipline has its origins in Ancient Greece with the writings of Aristotle, during the early modern period, scientists such as Khayaam, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton, laid the foundation for what is now known as classical mechanics. It is a branch of physics that deals with particles that are either at rest or are moving with velocities significantly less than the speed of light. It can also be defined as a branch of science which deals with the motion of, historically, classical mechanics came first, while quantum mechanics is a comparatively recent invention. Classical mechanics originated with Isaac Newtons laws of motion in Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, both are commonly held to constitute the most certain knowledge that exists about physical nature. Classical mechanics has especially often been viewed as a model for other so-called exact sciences, essential in this respect is the relentless use of mathematics in theories, as well as the decisive role played by experiment in generating and testing them. Quantum mechanics is of a scope, as it encompasses classical mechanics as a sub-discipline which applies under certain restricted circumstances. According to the principle, there is no contradiction or conflict between the two subjects, each simply pertains to specific situations. The correspondence principle states that the behavior of systems described by quantum theories reproduces classical physics in the limit of quantum numbers. Quantum mechanics has superseded classical mechanics at the level and is indispensable for the explanation and prediction of processes at the molecular, atomic. However, for macroscopic processes classical mechanics is able to solve problems which are difficult in quantum mechanics and hence remains useful. Modern descriptions of such behavior begin with a definition of such quantities as displacement, time, velocity, acceleration, mass. Until about 400 years ago, however, motion was explained from a different point of view. He showed that the speed of falling objects increases steadily during the time of their fall and this acceleration is the same for heavy objects as for light ones, provided air friction is discounted. The English mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton improved this analysis by defining force and mass, for objects traveling at speeds close to the speed of light, Newton’s laws were superseded by Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity. For atomic and subatomic particles, Newton’s laws were superseded by quantum theory, for everyday phenomena, however, Newton’s three laws of motion remain the cornerstone of dynamics, which is the study of what causes motion. In analogy to the distinction between quantum and classical mechanics, Einsteins general and special theories of relativity have expanded the scope of Newton, the differences between relativistic and Newtonian mechanics become significant and even dominant as the velocity of a massive body approaches the speed of light. Relativistic corrections are also needed for quantum mechanics, although general relativity has not been integrated, the two theories remain incompatible, a hurdle which must be overcome in developing a theory of everything
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Agronomy
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Agronomy is the science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, fiber, and land reclamation. Agronomy has come to work in the areas of plant genetics, plant physiology, meteorology. It is the application of a combination of sciences like biology, chemistry, economics, ecology, earth science, agronomists of today are involved with many issues, including producing food, creating healthier food, managing the environmental impact of agriculture, and extracting energy from plants. Agronomists often specialise in such as crop rotation, irrigation and drainage, plant breeding, plant physiology, soil classification, soil fertility, weed control. This area of agronomy involves selective breeding of plants to produce the best crops under various conditions, plant breeding has increased crop yields and has improved the nutritional value of numerous crops, including corn, soybeans, and wheat. It has also led to the development of new types of plants, for example, a hybrid grain called triticale was produced by crossbreeding rye and wheat. Triticale contains more protein than does either rye or wheat. Agronomy has also been instrumental in fruit and vegetable production research, agronomists use biotechnology to extend and expedite the development of desired characteristic. Biotechnology is often a lab activity requiring field testing of the new varieties that are developed. In addition to increasing crop yields agronomic biotechnology is increasingly being applied for novel uses other than food, for example, oilseed is at present used mainly for margarine and other food oils, but it can be modified to produce fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and petrochemicals. Agronomists study sustainable ways to make soils more productive and profitable and they classify soils and analyze them to determine whether they contain nutrients vital to plant growth. Common macronutrients analyzed include compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, soil is also assessed for several micronutrients, like zinc and boron. The percentage of organic matter, soil pH, and nutrient holding capacity are tested in a regional laboratory, agronomists will interpret these lab reports and make recommendations to balance soil nutrients for optimal plant growth. In addition, agronomists develop methods to preserve the soil and to decrease the effects of erosion by wind, for example, a technique called contour plowing may be used to prevent soil erosion and conserve rainfall. Researchers in agronomy also seek ways to use the more effectively in solving other problems. Such problems include the disposal of human and animal manure, water pollution, techniques include no-tilling crops, planting of soil-binding grasses along contours on steep slopes, and contour drains of depths up to 1 metre. Agroecology is the management of systems with an emphasis on ecological and environmental perspectives. This area is associated with work in the areas of sustainable agriculture, organic farming, and alternative food systems
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Dairy
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A dairy is a business enterprise established for the harvesting or processing of animal milk – mostly from cows or goats, but also from buffaloes, sheep, horses, or camels – for human consumption. A dairy is located on a dedicated dairy farm or in a section of a multi-purpose farm that is concerned with the harvesting of milk. For example, in the United States, the dairy farm is commonly called a dairy. The building or farm area where milk is harvested from the cow is called a milking parlor or parlor. The farm area where milk is stored in tanks is known as the farms milk house. Milk is then hauled to a plant, also referred to as a dairy. In New Zealand, farm areas for milk harvesting are also called milking parlours, as in the United States, sometimes milking sheds are referred to by their type, such as herring bone shed or pit parlour. Parlour design has evolved from simple barns or sheds to large structures in which the workflow is very efficiently handled. This on-site processing is a method of producing specialist milk products. In New Zealand English the singular use of the word dairy almost exclusively refers to a corner shop and this usage is historical as such shops were a common place for the public to buy milk products. As an attributive, the word refers to milk-based products, derivatives and processes. A dairy farm produces milk and a dairy factory processes it into a variety of dairy products and these establishments constitute the global dairy industry, a component of the food industry. Milk producing animals have been domesticated for thousands of years, initially, they were part of the subsistence farming that nomads engaged in. As the community moved about the country, their animals accompanied them, protecting and feeding the animals were a big part of the symbiotic relationship between the animals and the herders. In the more recent past, people in agricultural societies owned dairy animals that they milked for domestic and local consumption, the animals might serve multiple purposes. In this case the animals were normally milked by hand and the size was quite small. These tasks were performed by a dairymaid or dairyman, the word dairy harkens back to Middle English dayerie, deyerie, from deye and further back to Old English dæge. With industrialisation and urbanisation, the supply of milk became an industry, with specialised breeds of cattle being developed for dairy
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Floriculture
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Floriculture, or flower farming, is a discipline of horticulture concerned with the cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for gardens and for floristry, comprising the floral industry. The development, via plant breeding, of new varieties is an occupation of floriculturists. Floriculture crops include bedding plants, houseplants, flowering garden and pot plants, cut cultivated greens, as distinguished from nursery crops, floriculture crops are generally herbaceous. Bedding and garden plants consist of young flowering plants and vegetable plants and they are grown in cell packs, in pots, or in hanging baskets, usually inside a controlled environment, and sold largely for gardens and landscaping. Pelargonium, Impatiens, and Petunia are the best-selling bedding plants, the many cultivars of Chrysanthemum are the major perennial garden plant in the United States. Flowering plants are sold in pots for indoor use. The major flowering plants are poinsettias, orchids, florist chrysanthemums, foliage plants are also sold in pots and hanging baskets for indoor and patio use, including larger specimens for office, hotel, and restaurant interiors. Cut flowers are sold in bunches or as bouquets with cut foliage. The production of cut flowers is known as the cut flower industry. In Australia and the United States some species are harvested from the wild for the cut flower market, the Department of Agriculture, Western Australia. Retrieved September 17,2012. researchgate. net/publication/295862115_Diversification_Through_Floriculture_in_Kashmir_Valley Open Directory Project, Cut Flowers and Greens Growers
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Food science
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Food science is the applied science devoted to the study of food. Food scientists may study more fundamental phenomena that are linked to the production of food products and its properties. Food science brings together multiple scientific disciplines and it incorporates concepts from fields such as microbiology, chemical engineering, and biochemistry. Some of the subdisciplines of food science are described below, Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and non-biological components of foods. The biological substances include such items as meat, poultry, lettuce, beer and this discipline also encompasses how products change under certain food processing techniques and ways either to enhance or to prevent them from happening. Food engineering is the processes used to manufacture food. Food microbiology is the study of the microorganisms that inhabit, create, or contaminate food, good bacteria, however, such as probiotics, are becoming increasingly important in food science. In addition, microorganisms are essential for the production of such as cheese, yogurt, bread, beer, wine and. It deals with the study of microorganism in food and it includes study of microorganism in food causing food spoilage, food poisoning and food infection. It also include method of food preservation like canning, freezing, drying and it also includes cleanliness and sanitation in food microbiology. Some microorganisms are use in preparation of food like deli, cheese, pickles, Food packaging is packaging of food to preserve food after it has been processed and contain it through distribution. Its main objective is to physical and barrier protection for food. In most cases food packaging contains labels bearing nutritional and other information about the specific food, Food packaging is mostly done by using packaging machines. Food preservation involves the causes and prevention of quality degradation, Food substitution refers to the replacement of fat, sugar, or calories from a product while maintaining similar shape, texture, color, or taste. Food technology is the technological aspects, early scientific research into food technology concentrated on food preservation. Nicolas Appert’s development in 1810 of the process was a decisive event. The process wasn’t called canning then and Appert did not really know the principle on which his process worked, molecular gastronomy is the scientific investigation of processes in cooking, social and artistic gastronomical phenomena. Molecular gastronomy is a subdiscipline of food science that seeks to investigate the physical and chemical transformations of ingredients that occur in cooking and its program includes three axis, as cooking was recognized to have three components, which are social, artistic and technical
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Forestry
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Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, using, conserving, and repairing forests and associated resources to meet desired goals, needs, and values for human and environment benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands, the science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester, other terms are used a verderer and a silviculturalist being common ones. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere, and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries, the preindustrial age has been dubbed by Werner Sombart and others as the wooden age, as timber and firewood were the basic resources for energy, construction and housing. The development of forestry is closely connected with the rise of capitalism, economy as a science and varying notions of land use. Roman Latifundiae, large estates, were quite successful in maintaining the large supply of wood that was necessary for the Roman Empire. Large deforestations came with respectively after the decline of the Romans, however already in the 5th century, monks in the then Byzantine Romagna on the Adriatic coast, were able to establish stone pine plantations to provide fuelwood and food. This was the beginning of the massive forest mentioned by Dante Alighieri in his 1308 poem Divine Comedy, the use and management of many forest resources has a long history in China as well, dating back to the Han Dynasty and taking place under the landowning gentry. A similar approach was used in Japan and it was also later written about by the Ming Dynasty Chinese scholar Xu Guangqi. In Europe, land rights in medieval and early modern times allowed different users to access forests. The notion of commons refers to the traditional legal term of common land. The idea of enclosed private property came about during modern times, however, most hunting rights were retained by members of the nobility which preserved the right of the nobility to access and use common land for recreation, like fox hunting. Systematic management of forests for a yield of timber is said to have begun in the German states in the 14th century, e. g. in Nuremberg. Typically, a forest was divided into sections and mapped. Large firs in the black forest were called „Holländer“, as they were traded to the Dutch ship yards, large timber rafts on the Rhine were 200 to 400m in length, 40m in width and consisted of several thousand logs. The crew consisted of 400 to 500 men, including shelter, bakeries, ovens, timber rafting infrastructure allowed for large interconnected networks all over continental Europe and is still of importance in Finland. The notion of Nachhaltigkeit, sustainability in forestry, is connected to the work of Hans Carl von Carlowitz
United States
Puerto Rico
United States Virgin Islands
