1.
Parliament of the United Kingdom
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It alone possesses legislative supremacy and thereby ultimate power over all other political bodies in the UK and its territories. Its head is the Sovereign of the United Kingdom and its seat is the Palace of Westminster in the City of Westminster, one of the boroughs of the British capital, the parliament is bicameral, consisting of an upper house and a lower house. The Sovereign forms the third component of the legislature, prior to the opening of the Supreme Court in October 2009, the House of Lords also performed a judicial role through the Law Lords. The House of Commons is an elected chamber with elections held at least every five years. The two Houses meet in separate chambers in the Palace of Westminster in London, most cabinet ministers are from the Commons, whilst junior ministers can be from either House. The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in 1707 following the ratification of the Treaty of Union by Acts of Union passed by the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. The UK parliament and its institutions have set the pattern for many throughout the world. However, John Bright – who coined the epithet – used it with reference to a rather than a parliament. In theory, the UKs supreme legislative power is vested in the Crown-in-Parliament. However, the Crown normally acts on the advice of the Prime Minister, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created in 1801, by the merger of the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland under the Acts of Union. The principle of responsibility to the lower House did not develop until the 19th century—the House of Lords was superior to the House of Commons both in theory and in practice. Members of the House of Commons were elected in an electoral system. Thus, the borough of Old Sarum, with seven voters, many small constituencies, known as pocket or rotten boroughs, were controlled by members of the House of Lords, who could ensure the election of their relatives or supporters. During the reforms of the 19th century, beginning with the Reform Act 1832, No longer dependent on the Lords for their seats, MPs grew more assertive. The supremacy of the British House of Commons was established in the early 20th century, in 1909, the Commons passed the so-called Peoples Budget, which made numerous changes to the taxation system which were detrimental to wealthy landowners. The House of Lords, which consisted mostly of powerful landowners, on the basis of the Budgets popularity and the Lords consequent unpopularity, the Liberal Party narrowly won two general elections in 1910. Using the result as a mandate, the Liberal Prime Minister, Herbert Henry Asquith, introduced the Parliament Bill, in the face of such a threat, the House of Lords narrowly passed the bill. However, regardless of the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949, the Government of Ireland Act 1920 created the parliaments of Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland and reduced the representation of both parts at Westminster
Parliament of the United Kingdom
Parliament of the United Kingdom
Parliament of the United Kingdom
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Parliament at night, with the
London Eye visible at right
Parliament of the United Kingdom
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Leading 17th century Parliamentarian
John Hampden is one of the
Five Members annually commemorated
2.
Royal assent
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Royal assent is the method by which a countrys constitutional monarch formally approves an act of that nations parliament, thus making it a law or letting it be promulgated as law. Royal assent is sometimes associated with elaborate ceremonies, however, royal assent is usually granted less ceremonially by letters patent. In other nations, such as Australia, the Governor-General merely signs the bill, in Canada, the Governor-General may give assent either in person at a ceremony held in the Senate or by a written declaration notifying parliament of his or her agreement to the bill. Before the Royal Assent by Commission Act of 1541 became law, the last time royal assent was given by the sovereign in person was during the rule of Queen Victoria at a prorogation on the 12th of August 1854. The Act was repealed and replaced by the Royal Assent Act of 1967, Royal assent is the final step required for a parliamentary bill to become law. -the sovereign may delay the bills assent through the use of his or her powers in near-revolutionary situations. -the sovereign may refuse royal assent on the advice of his or her ministers, under modern constitutional conventions, the sovereign acts on the advice of his or her ministers. Since these ministers most often maintain the support of parliament and are the ones who obtain the passage of bills, it is highly improbable that they would advise the sovereign to withhold assent. Hence, in practice, royal assent is always granted. The Monarch does not have the power to withhold a Bill from assenting, the last bill that was refused assent by the sovereign was the Scottish Militia Bill during Queen Annes reign in 1708. The so-called Model Parliament included bishops, abbots, earls, barons, in 1265, the Earl of Leicester irregularly called a full parliament without royal authorization. The body eventually came to be divided into two branches, bishops, abbots, earls, and barons formed the House of Lords, while the shire, the King would seek the advice and consent of both houses before making any law. The Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 provide a second potential preamble if the House of Lords were to be excluded from the process, the power of parliament to pass bills was often thwarted by monarchs. Charles I dissolved parliament in 1629, after it passed motions critical of, during the eleven years of personal rule that followed, Charles performed legally dubious actions, such as raising taxes without parliaments approval. After the English Civil War, it was accepted that parliament should be summoned to meet regularly, the last Stuart monarch, Anne, similarly withheld on 11 March 1707, on the advice of her ministers, her assent from a bill for the settling of Militia in Scotland. No monarch has since withheld royal assent on a passed by the British parliament. During the rule of the succeeding Hanoverian dynasty, power was gradually exercised more by parliament, the first Hanoverian monarch, George I, relied on his ministers to a greater extent than did previous monarchs. However, George IV reluctantly granted his assent upon the advice of his ministers, thus, as the concept of ministerial responsibility has evolved, the power to withhold royal assent has fallen into disuse, both in the United Kingdom and in the other Commonwealth realms
Royal assent
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George VI grants royal assent to laws in the
Canadian Senate, 19 May 1939. Seated beside him is his consort,
Queen Elizabeth.
Royal assent
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Start of the parchment roll of the
Reform Act 1832, with the clerk's record of the royal assent of King
William IV written above the bill, reading in full Le Roy Veult soit baillé aux Seigneurs. A cette Bille avecque des amendemens les Seigneurs sont assentuz. A ces Amendemens les Communes sont assentuz.
Royal assent
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Henry VIII introduced a new method of granting royal assent.
3.
Liberal welfare reforms
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The Liberal welfare reforms were a series acts of social legislation passed by the British Liberal Party after the 1906 General Election. They represent the emergence of the welfare state in Great Britain. By implementing the reforms outside of the Poor Law the stigma attached to claiming relief was also removed, during the 1906 General Election campaign neither of the two major parties made poverty an important election issue and no promises were made to introduce welfare reforms. Despite this, the Liberals led by Henry Campbell-Bannerman and later H. H. Asquith won a landslide victory and began introducing wide-ranging reforms as soon as they took office. Historically, liberalism emphasized a system of government to protect liberty, historically, liberalism viewed the threat to liberty as mainly coming from the force and coercion of the state. Modern liberalism was an ideology which promoted a government as the best guardian of liberty – both theoretical liberty and effective liberty – through government aid. The social investigations of Charles Booth and Benjamin Seebohm Rowntree and these investigations helped change attitudes towards the causes of poverty. Booth carried out research into the poor living conditions and poverty experienced in London. These investigations provided statistical evidence for genuine moral concern for the poor and they stated that illness and old age were greater causes of poverty than idleness and moral weakness. Rowntree was himself a friend of Lloyd George, after the two met in 1907 after Lloyd George became President of the Board of Trade. Rowntree himself hoped that his proposals could influence Liberal policy, the threat from the emerging Labour Party. Socialism was an increasingly popular ideology, if the Liberals did not put forward popular policies, they were in danger of losing votes and handing the House of Commons to the Conservatives. The trade union movement was growing especially during the period 1910–1912, unless living conditions were improved, there were genuine concerns that workers may turn to communism or rebellion. The condition of soldiers during the Boer War was considered unacceptable, the British government had trouble enlisting enough able-bodied recruits to the British army. The emergence of public works schemes set up to improve living conditions which were run by the Liberals raised the possibility that such schemes could occur on a national scale. The Conservative government in office before the Liberals came to power passed the Unemployed Workmen Act 1905, slum housing was also cleared for new houses to be built. Much of this legislation was left for local authorities to implement – their attitudes affected whether legislation was fully implemented, in 1902 Conservatives passed the Education Act that provided funds for denominational religious instruction in Church of England and Roman Catholic schools. The Nonconformists who formed a major Liberal constituency, were outraged at the help to their theological enemies, a favourite goal of Protestant nonconformists was to sharply reduce the heavy drinking by closing as many pubs as possible
Liberal welfare reforms
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David Lloyd George was one of the 'New Liberals' who passed welfare legislation
Liberal welfare reforms
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The influence of
Gladstonian liberalism declined with the rise of
modern liberalism.
Liberal welfare reforms
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Nantwich workhouse
4.
David Lloyd George
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David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, OM, PC was a British Liberal politician and statesman. As Chancellor of the Exchequer, Lloyd George was a key figure in the introduction of reforms which laid the foundations of the modern welfare state. His most important role came as the highly energetic Prime Minister of the Wartime Coalition Government, during and he was a major player at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that reordered Europe after the defeat of the Central Powers. He made an impact on British public life than any other 20th-century leader. Furthermore, in foreign affairs he played a role in winning the First World War, redrawing the map of Europe at the peace conference. His main political problem was that he was not loyal to his Liberal party—he was always a political maverick, while he was Prime Minister he favoured the Conservatives in his coalition in the 1918 elections, leaving the Liberal party as a hopeless minority. He became leader of the Liberal Party in the late 1920s, by the 1930s he was a marginalised and widely mistrusted figure. He gave weak support to the Second World War amidst fears that he was favourable toward Germany, Lloyd George was born on 17 January 1863 in Chorlton-on-Medlock, Manchester, to Welsh parents, and was brought up as a Welsh-speaker. He is so far the only British Prime Minister to have been Welsh and his father, William George, had been a teacher in both London and Liverpool. He also taught in the Hope Street Sunday Schools, which were administered by the Unitarians, in March of the same year, on account of his failing health, William George returned with his family to his native Pembrokeshire. He took up farming but died in June 1864 of pneumonia, Lloyd George was educated at the local Anglican school Llanystumdwy National School and later under tutors. He added his uncles surname to become Lloyd George and his surname is usually given as Lloyd George and sometimes as George. The influence of his childhood showed through in his entire career, brought up a devout evangelical, as a young man he suddenly lost his religious faith. Biographer Don Cregier says he became a Deist and perhaps an agnostic, though he remained a chapel-goer and he kept quiet about that, however, and was hailed as one of the foremost fighting leaders of a fanatical Welsh Nonconformity. It was also during this period of his life that Lloyd George first became interested in the issue of land ownership, by the age of twenty-one, he had already read and taken notes on Henry Georges Progress and Poverty. This strongly influenced Lloyd Georges politics later in life through the Peoples Budget which heavily drew on the georgist tax reform ideas, the practice flourished, and he established branch offices in surrounding towns, taking his brother William into partnership in 1887. Although many Prime Ministers have been barristers, Lloyd George is to date the only solicitor to have held that office, by then he was politically active, having campaigned for the Liberal Party in the 1885 election, attracted by Joseph Chamberlains unauthorised programme of reforms. The election resulted firstly in a stalemate with neither the Liberals nor the Conservatives having a majority, William Gladstones proposal to bring about Irish Home Rule split the party, with Chamberlain eventually leading the breakaway Liberal Unionists
David Lloyd George
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The Right Honourable The Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor
OM KStJ PC
David Lloyd George
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Lloyd George in 1895
David Lloyd George
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David Lloyd George and
Winston Churchill in 1907
5.
Otto von Bismarck
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Otto Eduard Leopold, Prince of Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg, known as Otto von Bismarck, was a conservative Prussian statesman who dominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890. In the 1860s, he engineered a series of wars that unified the German states, significantly and deliberately excluding Austria, into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. With that accomplished by 1871, he skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to maintain Germanys position in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, in 1862, King Wilhelm I appointed Bismarck as Minister President of Prussia, a position he would hold until 1890. He provoked three short, decisive wars against Denmark, Austria, and France, aligning the smaller German states behind Prussia in its defeat of France, in 1871, he formed the German Empire with himself as Chancellor, while retaining control of Prussia. His diplomacy of realpolitik and powerful rule at home gained him the nickname the Iron Chancellor, German unification and its rapid economic growth was the foundation to his foreign policy. He disliked colonialism but reluctantly built an empire when it was demanded by both elite and mass opinion. A master of politics at home, Bismarck created the first welfare state in the modern world. In the 1870s, he allied himself with the Liberals and fought the Catholic Church in what was called the Kulturkampf and he lost that battle as the Catholics responded by forming a powerful Centre party and using universal male suffrage to gain a bloc of seats. Bismarck then reversed himself, ended the Kulturkampf, broke with the Liberals, imposed protective tariffs, a devout Lutheran, he was loyal to his king, who argued with Bismarck but in the end supported him against the advice of his wife and his heir. Under Wilhelm I, Bismarck largely controlled domestic and foreign affairs, until he was removed by the young Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1890, bismarck—a Junker himself—was strong-willed, outspoken and sometimes judged overbearing, but he could also be polite, charming and witty. Occasionally he displayed a violent temper, and he kept his power by threatening resignation time and again. He possessed not only a national and international vision but also the short-term ability to juggle complex developments. As the leader of what historians call revolutionary conservatism, Bismarck became a hero to German nationalists, many historians praise him as a visionary who was instrumental in uniting Germany and, once that had been accomplished, kept the peace in Europe through adroit diplomacy. Bismarck was born in Schönhausen, a family estate situated west of Berlin in the Prussian province of Saxony. He had two siblings, Bernhard and Malwine, the world saw Bismarck as a typical Prussian Junker, an image that he encouraged by wearing military uniforms. Bismarck was well educated and cosmopolitan with a gift for conversation, in addition to his native German, he was fluent in English, French, Italian, Polish and Russian. Bismarck was educated at Johann Ernst Plamanns elementary school, and the Friedrich-Wilhelm, from 1832 to 1833, he studied law at the University of Göttingen, where he was a member of the Corps Hannovera, and then enrolled at the University of Berlin. In 1838, while stationed as an army reservist in Greifswald, at Göttingen, Bismarck befriended the American student John Lothrop Motley
Otto von Bismarck
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Otto von Bismarck
Otto von Bismarck
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Bismarck at 21, 1836
Otto von Bismarck
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Bismarck at age 32, 1847
Otto von Bismarck
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Bismarck with
Roon (centre) and
Moltke (right), the three leaders of Prussia in the 1860s
6.
Friendly societies
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A friendly society is a mutual association for the purposes of insurance, pensions, savings or cooperative banking. It is an organization or benefit society composed of a body of people who join together for a common financial or social purpose. Before modern insurance, and the state, friendly societies provided financial and social services to individuals, often according to their religious, political. These societies are still widespread in parts of the developing world. Before the development of government and employer health insurance and other financial services. Many of these still exist. The current position of the mutual benefit society in Europe is well described in a report from 2012, healthcare mutuals worldwide are coming together in Association Internationale de la Mutualité, a Brussels-based association of healthcare mutuals. In other countries friendly societies have no legal status, which makes that they have to comply to the same rules. In some cases, especially in America, members paid a regular membership fee. If members became sick, they would receive an allowance to help meet their financial obligations. The society might have a doctor whom the member could consult for free, members of the lodge would visit to provide emotional and other support. When members died, their funeral would be paid for and the members of their lodge might attend in ceremonial dress—often, Friendly societies might also organize social functions such as dances, and some had sports teams for members. They occasionally became involved in issues that were of interest to their members. Others were purely financial, with little or no social side, the first mutual savings bank, founded in Scotland in 1810, was called the Savings and Friendly Society. Credit unions and other types of organization are modern equivalents, Friendly Society Brasses were the emblems of village friendly societies or clubs common in the west of England between the late 18th and early 20th centuries. The use of brasses as emblems was particularly prevalent in Somerset, Female friendly societies were a common form of friendly society in England during the 19th century e. g. the York Female Friendly Society, founded in 1788. The societies were more common in areas of the country where larger proportions of the population were in employment. In Ireland, friendly societies are registered with the Registrar of Friendly Societies under the Friendly Societies Acts 1896–2014
Friendly societies
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The Old Club Roll is called for the oldest Friendly Society in England.
7.
Poor Law
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In English and British history, poor relief refers to government and ecclesiastical action to relieve poverty. Over the centuries various authorities have needed to decide whose poverty deserves relief, alongside ever-changing attitudes towards poverty, many methods have been attempted to answer these questions. In the late 15th century, parliament took action on the problem of poverty, focusing on punishing people for being vagabonds. In 1495, during the reign of King Henry VII, Parliament enacted the Vagabond Act, as historian Mark Rathbone has discussed in his article Vagabond. In addition, the Act failed to recognise the impotent poor and these included the sick, the elderly, and the disabled. This lack of a definition of a vagabond would hinder the effectiveness of the Vagabond Act for years to come. The problem of poverty in England was exacerbated during the early 16th century by an increase in the population. This rose …from little more than 2 million in 1485, … about 2.8 million by the end of Henry VIIs reign, the population was growing faster than the economys ability to provide employment opportunities. One consequence was the Dissolution of the Monasteries in England and Wales and this had a devastating impact on poor relief. In 1531, the Vagabonds and Beggars Act was revised, the sick, the elderly, and the disabled were to be issued with licenses to beg. But those who were out of work and in search of employment were not spared punishment. Throughout the 16th century, a fear of social unrest was the motive for much legislation that was passed by parliament. This fear of social unrest carried into the reign of Edward VI of England, a new level of punishment was introduced in the Duke of Somersets Vagrancy Act of 1547. Two years servitude and branding with a V was the penalty for the first offense, fortunately for vagabonds during this era, there is no evidence that the Act was enforced. In 1550 these punishments were revised in a new act that was passed, following the revision of the Duke of Somerset’s Act of 1547, parliament passed a new Act in 1552. This focused on using the parishes, which were the areas attached to a parish church and this statute appointed two overseers from each parish to collect money to be distributed to the poor who were considered to belong to the parish. However, at times such a meeting with the bishop would often fail to achieve its object. However, even this Act still suffered from shortcomings, because individuals could decide for themselves how much money to give in order to gain their freedom, a more structured system of donations was established by the Act of 1572
Poor Law
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Woodcut-16th century, gentleman giving alms to beggar
Poor Law
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Henry VII of England
Poor Law
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Henry VIII of England
Poor Law
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Edward VI of England
8.
Robert Laurie Morant
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Sir Robert Laurie Morant CB was an English administrator and educationalist He was educated at Winchester College and New College, Oxford. After a year teaching at a Preparatory School, he was appointed as tutor to the prince of Siam. On his return, he worked at the Toynbee Hall settlement in the East End of London, in 1896 he married Helen Mary Cracknell. He then joined a research unit reporting to the Privy Council on Education and thence to the Board of Education and he was responsible for some of the new ideas in the Education Act 1902 and ensured the Board effectively implemented it. He was appointed CB in the 1902 Coronation Honours and he then accepted a post chairing the Commission to implement the National Insurance Act 1911. This included a huge and wide-ranging task of administration and even included the foundation of the precursor of the Medical Research Council, Morant promoted and largely drafted National Insurance Act 1913, correcting problems in the previous Act. He served on the Haldane committee on the Machinery of government, when the Ministry of Health was created in 1919 he became its Permanent Secretary. He died of influenza on 13 March 1920, photograph of Sir Robert in the National Portrait Gallerys collection
Robert Laurie Morant
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Sir Robert Laurie Morant.
9.
Victor Horsley
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Sir Victor Alexander Haden Horsley, FRS was an accomplished scientist and professor. He was born in Kensington, London, from 1884 to 1890 Horsley was Professor-Superintendent of the Brown Institute. He was a supporter for womens suffrage, and was an opponent of tobacco, Sir Victor Horsley was born in Kensington, London, the son of Rosamund Haden and John Callcott Horsley R. A. His given names, Victor Alexander, were given to him by Queen Victoria, in 1883 he became engaged to Eldred Bramwell, daughter of Sir Frederick Bramwell. Subsequently, on 4 October 1887, Victor and Eldred married at St. Margarets and they had two sons, Siward and Oswald, and one daughter, Pamela. Victor Horsley was a champion of many causes, one of his primary lifes crusades was the temperance movement. Having observed that many injuries admitted to the hospital were due to alcohol and he soon rose up to the position of a vice-president of the National Temperance League and the president of the British Medical Temperance Association. In 1907, along with Dr. Mary Sturge he published a book on alcoholism called Alcohol, according to his biographers, Tan & Black, Horsleys kindness, humility, and generous spirit endeared him to patients, colleagues, and students. Horsley specialized in surgery and in physiology and he was the first physician to remove a spinal tumor, in 1887, by means of a laminectomy. As a neuroscientist, he carried out studies of the functions of the brain in animals and humans and his studies on motor response to faradic electrical stimulation of the cerebral cortex, internal capsule and spinal cord became classics of the field. These studies were later translated to his work in the neurosurgery for epilepsy. He was also a pioneer in the study of the functions of the thyroid gland, as a pathologist, Sir Victor carried out research on bacteria and founded the Journal of Pathology. In June 1886 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 1891 delivered their Croonian Lecture, jointly with his brother-in-law Francis Gotch, on the subject of the mammalian nervous system. In 1894 he won their Royal Medal for his investigations relating to the physiology of the system, and of the thyroid gland. He concluded that the cause of death that follows is due to respiratory failure. He was a pioneer in neurosurgery, having operated upon 44 patients and he authored the book Functions of the Marginal Convolutions and, as a co-author, Experiments upon the Functions of the Cerebral Cortex and Alcohol and the Human Body. He was a Liberal Party supporter and contested the December 1910 General election as Liberal candidate for the London University seat, the Animal Defence and Anti-Vivisection Society campaigned against his election because of his involvement with vivisection. Following the election he was adopted as prospective Liberal candidate, first for Islington East, Harborough was a Liberal seat and a general election, expected to take place in 1914 would most likely have seen him elected to parliament
Victor Horsley
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Sir Victor Alexander Haden Horsley
Victor Horsley
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The blue plaque to Victor Horsley on Gower Street in London
10.
Hilaire Belloc
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Joseph Hilaire Pierre René Belloc was an Anglo-French writer and historian. He was one of the most prolific writers in England during the twentieth century. He was known as a writer, orator, poet, sailor, satirist, man of letters, soldier and his Catholic faith had a strong impact on his works. He was President of the Oxford Union and later MP for Salford from 1906 to 1910 and he was a noted disputant, with a number of long-running feuds, but also widely regarded as a humane and sympathetic man. Belloc became a naturalised British subject in 1902, while retaining his French citizenship and his poetry encompassed comic verses for children and religious poetry. His widely sold Cautionary Tales for Children included Jim, who ran away from his nurse, and was eaten by a lion and Matilda and he also collaborated with G. K. Chesterton on a number of works. Belloc was born in La Celle-Saint-Cloud, France to a French father and his sister Marie Adelaide Belloc Lowndes also grew up to be a writer. His mother Bessie Rayner Parkes was a woman of many talents and she was a major force in efforts to gain greater equality for women, being a co-founder of the English Womans Journal and the Langham Place Group. Belloc himself campaigned against womens suffrage, he was a member of the Womens National Anti-Suffrage League and her father was Joseph Parkes, a prosperous solicitor and a liberal with Radical sympathies. Her mother, Elizabeth Rayner Priestley, was born in the United States, in 1867, Bessie married attorney Louis Belloc, son of the French painter Jean-Hilaire Belloc. In 1872, five years after they wed, Louis died, the young widow then brought her children back to England. Hilaire Belloc grew up in England, and indeed spent most of his life there, after being educated at John Henry Newmans Oratory School in Edgbaston, Birmingham, Belloc served his term of military service, as a French citizen, with an artillery regiment near Toul in 1891. Belloc proceeded to Balliol College, Oxford, as a history scholar and he went on to obtain first-class honours, and never lost his love for Balliol, as is illustrated by his verse, Balliol made me, Balliol fed me/ Whatever I had she gave me again. He was powerfully built, with stamina, and walked extensively in Britain. In 1906, he purchased land and a house called Kings Land at Shipley, West Sussex, elodie and Belloc had five children before her 1914 death from influenza. After her death, Belloc wore mourning for the remainder of his life and his son Louis was killed in 1918 while serving in the Royal Flying Corps in northern France. Belloc placed a tablet at the nearby Cambrai Cathedral. It is in the side chapel as the noted icon Our Lady of Cambrai
Hilaire Belloc
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Hilaire Belloc portrait by Emil Otto Hoppé, 1915
Hilaire Belloc
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Hilaire Belloc portrait, c. 1903
Hilaire Belloc
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Burial site
Hilaire Belloc
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Family Plot
11.
The Servile State
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The Servile State is a book written by Hilaire Belloc in 1912 about economics. Although it mentions distributism, for which he and his friend G. K. Chesterton are famous, english capitalism then spread across the world. In the ninth section of the book, titled The Servile State Has Begun, among these he includes minimum wage laws, employers liability laws, the Insurance Act, and compulsory arbitration. George Orwell described the work as written in a tiresome style, however, he considered that it foretold the sorts of things that were happening in the 1930s with remarkable insight. Kenneth Minogues book The Servile Mind was inspired by Bellocs book, the Servile State at the Internet Archive Digital Edition
The Servile State
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A copy of the original issuing of The Servile State, first published in 1912 by London & Edinburgh: T.N. Foulis.
12.
National Insurance
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In the United Kingdom, National Insurance is a system of taxes paid by workers and employers, used primarily to fund state benefits. It was initially a system of insurance against illness and unemployment. It was first introduced by the National Insurance Act 1911 and expanded by the Labour government in 1948, the contributions component of the system, National Insurance Contributions, is paid by employees and employers on earnings, and by employers on certain benefits-in-kind provided to employees. The self-employed contribute partly by a weekly or monthly payment. Individuals may also make contributions, in order to fill a gap in their contributions record. Contributions from those in employment are collected by HM Revenue and Customs through the PAYE system, along with Income Tax, the benefit component comprises a number of contributory benefits of availability and amount determined by the claimants contribution record and circumstances. Weekly income benefits and some benefits to participants upon death, retirement, unemployment. It has been discussed that the link between an individuals contribution record and the remaining contributory benefits will be weakened further, the chosen means of recording the contributions required the employer to buy special stamps from a Post Office and affix them to contribution cards. Initially there were two schemes running alongside other, one for health and pension insurance benefits and the other for unemployment benefit which was administered directly by Government. The Beveridge Report in 1942 proposed expansion and unification of the state under a scheme of what was called social insurance. After the Second World War, the Attlee government pressed ahead with the introduction of the Welfare State, as part of this process, responsibility passed in 1948 to the new Ministry of National Insurance. At that point, a stamp was introduced which covered all the benefits of the new Welfare State. Making NI contributions is often described by people as paying their stamp, as the system developed, the link between individual contributions and benefits was weakened. The National Insurance Funds are used to pay for certain types of welfare expenditure, however, any surplus in the funds is invested in government securities, and so is effectively lent to the government at low rates of interest. National Insurance contributions are paid into the various National Insurance Funds after deduction of monies specifically allocated to the National Health Services, however a small percentage is transferred from the funds to the NHS from certain of the smaller sub-classes. Thus the four NHS organisations are funded from NI contributions. Less than half of benefit expenditure now goes on contributory benefits, National insurance contributions fall into a number of classes. Class 1,2 and 3 NICs paid are credited to an individuals NI account, Class 1A, 1B and 4 NIC do not count towards benefit entitlements but must still be paid if due
National Insurance
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A 1940 contribution card for an employed woman.
National Insurance
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Taxation in the United Kingdom
National Insurance
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A British 1948 National Insurance stamp, once used to collect contributions to the scheme.
13.
Old pence
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The pre-decimal penny was a coin worth 1/240th of a pound sterling. Its symbol was d, from the Roman denarius and it was a continuation of the earlier English penny, and in Scotland it had the same monetary value as one pre-1707 Scottish shilling. The penny was minted in silver, but from the late 18th century it was minted in copper. The plural of penny is pence when referring to a quantity of money, thus 8d is eight pence, but eight pennies means specifically eight individual penny coins. Before Decimal Day in 1971 twelve pence made a shilling, and twenty shillings made a pound, values less than a pound were usually written in terms of shillings and pence, e. g.42 pence would be three shillings and sixpence, pronounced three and six. Values of less than a shilling were simply written in terms of pence and this version of the penny was made obsolete in 1971 by decimalisation, and was replaced by the decimal penny which had a value 140% more. The kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged by the 1707 Act of Union to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, the penny replaced the shilling of the pound scots. The design and specifications of the English penny were unchanged by the Union, Queen Annes reign saw pennies minted in 1708,1709,1710, and 1713. These issues, however, were not for circulation, instead being minted as Maundy money. The prohibitive cost of minting silver coins had meant the size of pennies had been reduced over the years, the practice of minting pennies only for Maundy money continued through the reigns of George I and George II, and into that of George III. In 1797, the government authorised Matthew Boulton to strike copper pennies and twopences at his Soho Mint in Birmingham. At the time it was believed that the value of a coin should correspond to the value of the material it was made from. This requirement meant that the coins would be larger than the silver pennies minted previously. The large size of the coins, combined with the rim where the inscription was incuse i. e. punched into the metal rather than standing proud of it. These pennies were minted over the course of years. By 1802, the production of privately issued provincial tokens had ceased, however, in the next ten years the intrinsic value of copper rose. The return of privately minted token coinage was evident by 1811 and endemic by 1812, the Royal Mint undertook a massive recoinage programme in 1816, with large quantities of gold and silver coin being minted. To thwart the further issuance of private token coinage, in 1817 an Act of Parliament was passed which forbade the manufacture of private token coinage under very severe penalties
Old pence
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Reverses of (left) a "cartwheel" penny of 1797; (right) a penny of 1967
Old pence
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One old
penny
Old pence
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A 1936 George V penny
Old pence
–
A 1937 George VI penny. Note the change in design of the reverse, with the addition of the lighthouse and shield square which is not angled.
14.
Shilling (British coin)
–
The shilling was a coin worth one twentieth of a pound sterling, or twelve pence. It was first minted in the reign of Henry VII as the testoon, the word bob was sometimes used for a monetary value of several shillings, e. g. ten bob note. Following decimalisation in 1970 the coin had a value of five new pence and it was made from silver from its introduction in or around 1503 until 1947, and thereafter in cupronickel. Prior to Decimal Day in 1971 there were 240 pence in one pound sterling, twelve pence made a shilling, and twenty shillings made a pound. Values less than a pound were usually written in terms of shillings and pence, values of less than a shilling were simply written in terms of pence, e. g. eight pence would be 8d. Although the coin was not minted until the sixteenth century, the value of a shilling had been used for accounting purposes since the Anglo-Saxon period, originally, a shilling was deemed to be the value of a cow in Kent, or a sheep elsewhere. The value of one shilling equalling 12d was set by the Normans following the conquest, prior to this various Anglo-Saxon coins equalling 3,4, the first coins of the pound sterling with the value of 12d were minted in 1503 or 1504 and were known as testoons. Between 1544 and 1551 the coinage was debased repeatedly by the governments of Henry VIII and this debasement meant that coins produced in 1551 had one-fifth of the silver content of those minted in 1544, and consequently the value of new testoons fell from 12d to 6d. The reason the testoon decreased in value is that unlike today and this debasement was recognised as a mistake, and during Elizabeths reign newly minted coins, including the testoon, had a much higher silver content and regained their pre-debasement value. Shillings were minted during the reign of every British monarch following Edward VI, the Royal Mint undertook a massive recoinage programme in 1816, with large quantities of gold and silver coin being minted. Previous issues of silver coinage had been irregular, and the last issue, minted in 1787, new silver coinage was to be of.925 standard, with silver coins to be minted at 66 shillings to the troy pound. Hence, newly minted shillings weighed 87.273 grains or 5.655 grams, the Royal Mint debased the silver coinage in 1920 from 92. 5% silver to 50% silver. Shillings of both alloys were minted that year and this debasement was done because of the rising price of silver around the world, and followed the global trend of the elimination, or the reducing in purity, of the silver in coinage. The minting of coinage of the pound sterling ceased completely in 1946 for similar reasons. New silver coinage was minted in cupronickel, an alloy of copper. Beginning with Lord Wrottesleys proposals in the 1820s there were attempts to decimalise the pound sterling over the next century. These attempts came to nothing significant until the 1960s when the need for a currency more suited to simple monetary calculations became pressing, the decision to decimalise was announced in 1966, with the pound to be redivided into 100, rather than 240, pence. Decimal Day was set for 15 February 1971, and a range of new coins were introduced
Shilling (British coin)
–
Shilling of
Edward VI, struck between 1551 and 1553
Shilling (British coin)
–
One
shilling
15.
Crofting counties
–
A croft is a fenced or enclosed area of land, usually small and arable with a crofters dwelling thereon. A crofter is one who has tenure and use of the land, typically as a tenant farmer, the word croft is West Germanic in etymology, and is now most familiar in Scotland, most crofts being in the Highlands and Islands area. Elsewhere the expression is generally archaic, in Scottish Gaelic, it is rendered croit Essentially similar positions have been the medieval villein and the Swedish torpare and Norwegian husmenn. The Scottish croft is a small agricultural landholding of a type which has been subject to legislation in the United Kingdom since 1886. The legislation was largely a response to the complaints and demands of tenant families who were victims of the Highland Clearances, the modern crofters or tenants appear very little in evidence before the beginning of the 18th century. They were tenants at will underneath the tacksman and wadsetters, the first evidence that can be found of small tenants holding directly of the proprietor is in a rental of the estates of Sir D. MacDonald in Skye and North Uist in 1715. This work was carried out in 1805 by James Chapman for the Earl of Seaforth, kirkibost was cleared of its tenants in 1823 and the 1850 mapping clearly shows roofless ruins on each parcel of land. The township was however re-settled in 1878 following the Bernera Riot four years earlier using exactly the same division boundaries set out in 1805, the Parliament of the United Kingdom created the Crofters Act 1886, after the Highland Land League had gained seats in that parliament. The government was then Liberal, with William Ewart Gladstone as Prime Minister, another Crofters Act was created in 1993. The earlier Act established the first Crofting Commission, but its responsibilities were quite different from those of the newer Crofters Commission created in 1955, the Commission is based in Inverness. Under the 1886 legislation protected crofters are members of a crofters township, since 1976 it has been legally possible for a crofter to acquire title to his croft, thus becoming an owner-occupier. Torp This article incorporates text from Dwellys Gaelic Dictionary
Crofting counties
–
The
Shetland Crofthouse Museum, with
peat stacked outside
16.
Beveridge Report
–
The Report came in the midst of war, and promised a reward for the sacrifices undertaken by everyone. The report was printed by Alabaster Passmore & Sons Limited which kept their factory in Maidstone busy when there was little other printing work available. In 1940, during the Second World War, the Labour Party had entered into a coalition with the Conservative Party, Social insurance is only one part of a comprehensive policy of social progress. The five giants on the road to reconstruction were Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor, policies of social security must be achieved by co-operation between the State and the individual, with the state securing the service and contributions. Beveridge was opposed to means-tested benefits and his proposal was for a flat rate contribution rate for everyone and a flat rate benefit for everyone. Means-testing was intended to play a tiny part because it created high marginal tax rates for the poor, inside the Cabinet, there was debate, instigated by Brendan Bracken, on 16 November 1942 over whether to publish the Report as a White Paper at that time. The Chancellor of the Exchequer, Sir Kingsley Wood, said that it involved a financial commitment. However, the Cabinet decided on 26 November to publish it on 2 December and they also found that there was overwhelming agreement that the plan should be put into effect. The Times said of the Report, a document which should and must exercise a profound. The Manchester Guardian called it a big and fine thing, the Daily Telegraph said it was a consummation of the revolution begun by David Lloyd George in 1911. The Archbishop of Canterbury, William Temple, said it was the first time anyone had set out to embody the spirit of the Christian ethic in an Act of Parliament. In the Commons debate the government announced they would not implement the Report immediately, the Tory Reform Committee, consisting of 45 Conservative MPs, demanded the founding of a Ministry of Social Security immediately. At the division at the end of the debate,97 Labour MPs,11 Independents,9 Liberals,3 Independent Labour Party MPs and 1 Communist voted against the government. An opinion poll by the British Institute of Public Opinion found that 29% were satisfied with the attitude to the Report, 47% were dissatisfied. Beveridges recommendation were implemented through a series of acts of parliament, Labour deviated somewhat from Beveridge in the role the state would play in the provision of key services. Labour leaders opposed Beveridges idea of a National Health Service run through local health centres and regional hospital administrations, Beveridge complained about the opposition of Labour leaders, including that of Ernest Bevin, For Ernest Bevin, with his trade-union background of unskilled workers. Social insurance was less important than bargaining about wages, Bevin derided the Beveridge Report as a Social Ambulance Scheme and followed the Coalition Governments view that it should not be implemented until the end of the war. The war years saw improvements in working conditions and welfare provisions
Beveridge Report
–
William Beveridge
17.
Universal health care
–
Universal health care is not one-size-fits-all and does not imply coverage for all people for everything. Universal health care can be determined by three dimensions, who is covered, what services are covered, and how much of the cost is covered. It is described by the World Health Organization as a situation where citizens can access health services without incurring financial hardship, U. N. member states have agreed to work toward universal health coverage by 2030. The first move towards a health insurance system was launched in Germany in 1883. Other countries soon began to follow suit, in the United Kingdom, the National Insurance Act 1911 provided coverage for primary care for wage earners, covering about one third of the population. The Russian Empire established a system in 1912, and other industrialized countries began following suit. By the 1930s, similar systems existed in all of Western. Japan introduced a health insurance law in 1927, expanding further upon it in 1935 and 1940. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Soviet Union established a fully public, however, it was not a truly universal system at that point, as rural residents were not covered. In New Zealand, a health care system was created in a series of steps. In Australia, the state of Queensland introduced a public hospital system in the 1940s. Following World War II, universal health care began to be set up around the world. On July 5,1948, the United Kingdom launched its universal National Health Service, Universal health care was next introduced in the Nordic countries of Sweden, Iceland, Norway, Denmark, and Finland. Universal health insurance was introduced in Japan, and in Canada through stages, starting with the province of Saskatchewan in 1962. The Soviet Union extended universal health care to its residents in 1969. Italy introduced its Servizio Sanitario Nazionale in 1978, Universal health insurance was implemented in Australia beginning with the Medibank system in 1975, which led to universal coverage under the Medicare system, established in 1984. From the 1970s to the 2000s, Southern and Western European countries began introducing universal coverage, in addition, universal health coverage was introduced in some Asian countries, including South Korea, Taiwan, Israel, and Thailand. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia retained and reformed its universal health system, as did other former Soviet nations
Universal health care
–
58 countries with legislation mandating Universal Health Care, along with >90% health insurance coverage and >90% skilled birth attendance.
18.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
19.
Palgrave Macmillan
–
Palgrave Macmillan is an international academic and trade publishing company. Its programme includes textbooks, journals, monographs, professional and reference works in print, Palgrave Macmillan was created in 2000 when St. Martins Press Scholarly and Reference in the USA united with Macmillan Publishers in the UK to combine their worldwide academic publishing operations. The company was known as simply Palgrave until 2002, but has since known as Palgrave Macmillan. It is a subsidiary of Springer Nature, until 2015, it was part of the Macmillan Group and therefore fully owned by the German publishing company Holtzbrinck Publishing Group. It maintains offices in London, New York, Shanghai, Melbourne, Sydney, Hong Kong, Delhi, Palgrave is named after the Palgrave family. He was a banker and editor of The Economist, reginald Palgrave was Clerk of the House of Commons and wrote A History of the House of Commons, which Macmillan published in 1869. William Gifford Palgrave was an Arabic scholar, Palgrave Macmillan publishes The Statesmans Yearbook, an annual reference work which gives a political, economic and social overview of every country of the world. In 2008, Palgrave Macmillan published The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd edition, edited by Steven N. Durlauf, in 2009 Palgrave Macmillan made over 4,500 scholarly ebooks available to libraries. Bayandor wrote a revisionist analysis of the 1953 Iranian coup détat, Iran and The CIA and he is the author of Obama and the Middle-East, The End of Americas Moment. Michael Huemer, professor of philosophy at University of Colorado, Boulder, books include The Problem of Political Authority, a defense of philosophical libertarianism and anarchism, and Ethical Intuitionism, a meta-ethical defense of ethical intuitionism. Lakshay Rai, an Indian origin author, professional risk analyst, has authored The Dark Age, a novel based on events in Syria during the terror regime. Rai, has co-authored 17 research articles in association with Palgrave, and was titled The Yougest Palgrave author in 2017. Kennedy and the Race to the Moon,2013, rowan Williams, The Archbishop of Canterbury, author of Crisis and Recovery Tony Zinni, a retired four-star General in the United States Marine Corps and a former Commander in Chief of U. S
Palgrave Macmillan
–
2008 conference booth
20.
Charter of Liberties
–
The Charter of Liberties, also called the Coronation Charter, was a written proclamation by Henry I of England, issued upon his accession to the throne in 1100. It sought to bind the King to certain laws regarding the treatment of nobles, church officials, the nineteenth-century historians Frederick Maitland and Frederick Pollock considered it a landmark document in English legal history and a forerunner of Magna Carta. Henry I of England, nicknamed Beauclerk, was the fourth, the name Beauclerk was given because Henry was well educated, being able to read and write Latin, and possessed a knowledge of English law and natural history. He had received 5,000 pounds of silver from his father and he used this to purchase a district in the Cotentin Peninsula in Normandy for 3,000 pounds from his brother Robert of Normandy. Robert had been left the Duchy of Normandy by their father, various political intrigues occurred in France, which led to the imprisonment of Henry for two years by his brother William II, then King of England. In 1096, Robert left Normandy for the First Crusade, Henry swore fealty to William, who took over Normandy in Roberts absence. William was killed in an accident on 2 August 1100. With William dead and Robert absent, Henry claimed the English crown, Henry was immediately faced with three political problems. The earls and barons did not accept him, there was antagonism from the Church, especially Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury. The native Anglo-Saxon population was not receptive to the new king, Henry made concessions to the Church and reconciled with Anselm. He married Edith, the daughter of King Malcolm III of Scotland, who was of mixed Anglo-Scots heritage and she changed her name to the Norman Mathilda. However, the choice displeased the barons and earls, Henry needed to mollify the nobles and secure his throne. William II of England, the son of William the Conqueror and brother of Henry Beauclerk, had issued a charter in 1093, the text of this charter has been lost to history. It is believed to have freed prisoners, forgiven debts, and assured that holy, whatever promises William made, he quickly broke after he recovered his health. He negotiated with the barons and earls, making various concessions to them. When all sides were agreed, the agreement was issued as the Charter of Liberties, William I had been a great admirer of the laws of Edward the Confessor. He had reformed many laws in an effort to make the law of Edward the common law of England, while establishing a strong Norman rule, during the entire Norman period, there was little legislation. Henry began his reign with the Charter of Liberties, sending a message, he was returning to his father’s ways
Charter of Liberties
–
Henry I of England was forced to make concessions to the barons in the Charter of Liberties when he assumed the throne in 1100.
Charter of Liberties
–
The Charter was issued from the Norman Chapel in the
Tower of London in 1100.
Charter of Liberties
–
William II of England was killed in a hunting accident, allowing his brother,
Henry I of England to assume the throne in 1100.
Charter of Liberties
–
The sinking of the
White Ship in 1120, drowning Henry's heir, William, effectively marked the end of the Norman era in England.
21.
Magna Carta
–
Magna Carta Libertatum, commonly called Magna Carta, is a charter agreed to by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor, on 15 June 1215. Neither side stood behind their commitments, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, at the end of the 16th century there was an upsurge in interest in Magna Carta. Lawyers and historians at the believed that there was an ancient English constitution, going back to the days of the Anglo-Saxons. Both James I and his son Charles I attempted to suppress the discussion of Magna Carta, until the issue was curtailed by the English Civil War of the 1640s and the execution of Charles. The political myth of Magna Carta and its protection of ancient personal liberties persisted after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 until well into the 19th century. In the 21st century, four exemplifications of the original 1215 charter remain in existence, held by the British Library, there are also a handful of the subsequent charters in public and private ownership, including copies of the 1297 charter in both the United States and Australia. The original charters were written on parchment sheets using quill pens, in heavily abbreviated medieval Latin, each was sealed with the royal great seal, very few of the seals have survived. The four original 1215 charters were displayed together at the British Library for one day,3 February 2015, to mark the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta. Magna Carta originated as an attempt to achieve peace between royalist and rebel factions in 1215, as part of the events leading to the outbreak of the First Barons War. England was ruled by King John, the third of the Angevin kings, although the kingdom had a robust administrative system, the nature of government under the Angevin monarchs was ill-defined and uncertain. Following the defeat of his allies at the Battle of Bouvines, John had to sue for peace, John was already personally unpopular with many of the barons, many of whom owed money to the Crown, and little trust existed between the two sides. John held a council in London in January 1215 to discuss potential reforms, both sides appealed to Pope Innocent III for assistance in the dispute. John also began recruiting mercenary forces from France, although some were sent back to avoid giving the impression that the King was escalating the conflict. Letters backing John arrived from the Pope in April, but by then the rebel barons had organised into a military faction and they congregated at Northampton in May and renounced their feudal ties to John, marching on London, Lincoln, and Exeter. Johns efforts to moderate and conciliatory had been largely successful. The King offered to submit the problem to a committee of arbitration with the Pope as the supreme arbiter, John met the rebel leaders at Runnymede, a water-meadow on the south bank of the River Thames, on 10 June 1215. Here the rebels presented John with their demands for reform. By 15 June, general agreement had been made on a text, and on 19 June and it focused on the rights of free men—in particular the barons
Magna Carta
–
Cotton MS. Augustus II. 106, one of only four surviving
exemplifications of the 1215 text.
Magna Carta
–
King
John on a
stag hunt
Magna Carta
–
A contemporaneous mural of
Pope Innocent III
Magna Carta
–
The Articles of the Barons, 1215, held by the
British Library
22.
Act of Parliament
–
Acts of Parliament, also called primary legislation, are statutes passed by a parliament. Act of the Oireachtas is an equivalent term used in the Republic of Ireland where the legislature is known by its Irish name. It is also comparable to an Act of Congress in the United States, a draft Act of Parliament is known as a bill. In territories with a Westminster system, most bills that have any possibility of becoming law are introduced into parliament by the government. This will usually happen following the publication of a paper, setting out the issues. A bill may also be introduced into parliament without formal government backing, in territories with a multicameral parliament, most bills may be first introduced in any chamber. However, certain types of legislation are required, either by convention or by law. For example, bills imposing a tax, or involving public expenditure, are introduced into the House of Commons in the United Kingdom, Canadas House of Commons, conversely, bills proposed by the Law Commission and consolidation bills traditionally start in the House of Lords. Once introduced, a bill must go through a number of stages before it can become law, in theory, this allows the bills provisions to be debated in detail, and for amendments to the original bill to also be introduced, debated, and agreed to. In bicameral parliaments, a bill that has been approved by the chamber into which it was introduced then sends the bill to the other chamber, broadly speaking, each chamber must separately agree to the same version of the bill. Finally, the bill receives assent, in most territories this is merely a formality. In some countries, such as in Spain and Portugal, the term for a bill differs depending on whether it is initiated by the government, again, the second reading of a Government bill is usually approved. A defeat for a Government bill on this reading signifies a major loss, if the bill is read a second time, it is then considered in detail Consideration in detail, This usually takes place on the floor of the House. Generally, committees sit on the floor of the House and consider the bill in detail, third reading, A debate on the final text of the bill, as amended. Very rarely do debates occur during this stage, passage, The bill is then sent to the other House, which may amend it. If the other House amends the bill, the bill and amendments are posted back to the original House for a further stage, the State of Queenslands Parliament is unicameral and skips this and the rest of the stages. Consideration of Senate/Representatives amendments, The House in which the bill originated considers the amendments made in the other House and it may agree to them, amend them, propose other amendments in lieu, or reject them. However, the Senate may not amend money bills, though it can request the House to make amendments, a bill may pass backwards and forwards several times at this stage, as each House amends or rejects changes proposed by the other
Act of Parliament
–
A graphic representation of the legislative procedure in the United Kingdom.
23.
Kingdom of Great Britain
–
The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
Kingdom of Great Britain
–
Lord Clive meeting
Mir Jafar after the
Battle of Plassey, by
Francis Hayman (c. 1762)
Kingdom of Great Britain
–
Flag
Kingdom of Great Britain
–
Pitt addressing the
Commons in 1793
24.
Parliament of Ireland
–
The Parliament of Ireland was a legislature that existed in Dublin from 1297 until 1800. It comprised two chambers, the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the House of Lords consisted of members of the Irish peerage and the bishops, while the Commons was directly elected, albeit on a very restricted franchise. The main purpose of parliament was to approve taxes that were levied by. Those who would pay the bulk of taxation, the clergy, merchants and landowners, in 1541 the parliament voted to create the Kingdom of Ireland. However, this Irish Parliament was a meeting of Irish nobles and bishops, later, in the 15th century, Irish parliaments began to invite representatives of the people. Among its most famous meeting places were Dublin Castle, the Bluecoat School, Chichester House and, its permanent home. The Irish Parliament was formally founded in 1297 by the Justiciar, John Wogan, to represent the Irish, in 1292 a less formal assembly of unelected nobles and merchants had raised £10,000, known as the lay subsidy. This tax was a fifteenth of the net worth of the chattels of wealthier citizens, the poor, the Parliament arose from and for citizens of the Lordship of Ireland, based on Norman laws and English practices. Magna Carta was extended in 1217 in the Great Charter of Ireland, alongside this reduced control grew a Gaelic resurgence that was political as well as cultural. In turn this resulted in numbers of the Anglo-Irish Old English nobility joining the independent Gaelic nobles in asserting their feudal independence. Eventually the crowns power shrank to a fortified enclave around Dublin known as the Pale. The Parliament thereafter became essentially the forum for the Pale community until the 16th century, the role of the Parliament changed after 1541, when Henry VIII declared the Kingdom of Ireland and embarked on the Tudor conquest of Ireland. Initially in 1537, the Irish Parliament approved both the Act of Supremacy, acknowledging Henry VIII as head of the Church and the dissolution of the monasteries, the Plantation of Ulster allowed English and Scottish Protestant candidates in as representatives of the newly formed boroughs in planted areas. Initially this gave Protestants a majority of 132-100 in the House of Commons, in the House of Lords the Catholic majority continued until the 1689 Patriot Parliament, with the exception of the Commonwealth period. Following the death of Cromwell and the end of the Protectorate, then, during the reign of James II of England, who had converted to Roman Catholicism, Irish Catholics briefly recovered their pre-eminent position as the crown now favoured their community. When James was overthrown in England, he turned to his Catholic supporters in the Irish Parliament for support, nonetheless, the franchise was still available to wealthier Catholics. Until 1728, Catholics voted in House of Commons elections and held seats in the Lords, for no particular reason, beyond a general pressure for Catholics to conform, they were barred from voting in the election for the first parliament in the reign of George II. Privileges were also limited to supporters of the Church of Ireland
Parliament of Ireland
–
Parliament of the Kingdom of Ireland
Parliament of Ireland
–
Arms of Ireland
Parliament of Ireland
–
Facade of the Irish Parliament House, in
Dublin. Today the building houses a branch of the
Bank of Ireland.
Parliament of Ireland
–
The Irish House of Commons by
Francis Wheatley (1780).
25.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
–
The British
HMS Sandwich fires into the French
flagship Bucentaure (completely dismasted) during
Trafalgar. The Bucentaure also fights
HMS Victory (behind her) and
HMS Temeraire (left side of the picture). In fact, HMS Sandwich never fought at Trafalgar, it's a mistake by
Auguste Mayer, the painter.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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Flag
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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Signing of the
Treaty of Ghent (1814), by A. Forestier c. 1915
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The Duke of Wellington
26.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
United Kingdom
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Stonehenge, in
Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.
United Kingdom
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Flag
United Kingdom
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The
Bayeux Tapestry depicts the
Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.
United Kingdom
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The
Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.
