1.
Belgrave, Leicester
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Belgrave is an electoral ward and administrative division of the city of Leicester, England, consisting of the Leicester suburb of Belgrave in its entirety. The old Belgrave Village is on the Loughborough Road, to the west of the A46, Belgrave is bounded by the wards of Rushey Mead to the north, Latimer to the south, Charnwood to the east and Abbey to the west. The settlement was named in the Domesday Book as Merdegrave, one of the earliest mentions of this place is in the Domesday book where it is listed amongst the lands given to Hugh de Grandmesnil by the King. The land consisted of a mill,24 acres of meadow, the name was used for the large 19th-century terraced developments along the A46. This area now has a large, vibrant Asian community featuring the Golden Mile, the Asian community based in and around Belgrave road have been residents since the early-1970s. The Belgrave Hall area is a conservation area, according to the 2001 UK Census,104 Pacific Island-born people were residing in Belgrave, with many more being of Pacific Islander descent. This is the largest number for any location in the UK, the ward is currently represented on Leicester City Council by Labour Councillors Rashmi Joshi and John Thomas. Belgraves first saree shop from BBC Radio Leicester grid reference SK592069
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Astronomy
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Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It applies mathematics, physics, and chemistry, in an effort to explain the origin of those objects and phenomena and their evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, galaxies, and comets, while the phenomena include supernovae explosions, gamma ray bursts, more generally, all astronomical phenomena that originate outside Earths atmosphere are within the purview of astronomy. A related but distinct subject, physical cosmology, is concerned with the study of the Universe as a whole, Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences. The early civilizations in recorded history, such as the Babylonians, Greeks, Indians, Egyptians, Nubians, Iranians, Chinese, during the 20th century, the field of professional astronomy split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects, theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. The two fields complement each other, with theoretical astronomy seeking to explain the results and observations being used to confirm theoretical results. Astronomy is one of the few sciences where amateurs can play an active role, especially in the discovery. Amateur astronomers have made and contributed to many important astronomical discoveries, Astronomy means law of the stars. Astronomy should not be confused with astrology, the system which claims that human affairs are correlated with the positions of celestial objects. Although the two share a common origin, they are now entirely distinct. Generally, either the term astronomy or astrophysics may be used to refer to this subject, however, since most modern astronomical research deals with subjects related to physics, modern astronomy could actually be called astrophysics. Few fields, such as astrometry, are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics, some titles of the leading scientific journals in this field includeThe Astronomical Journal, The Astrophysical Journal and Astronomy and Astrophysics. In early times, astronomy only comprised the observation and predictions of the motions of objects visible to the naked eye, in some locations, early cultures assembled massive artifacts that possibly had some astronomical purpose. Before tools such as the telescope were invented, early study of the stars was conducted using the naked eye, most of early astronomy actually consisted of mapping the positions of the stars and planets, a science now referred to as astrometry. From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon, the Earth was believed to be the center of the Universe with the Sun, the Moon and the stars rotating around it. This is known as the model of the Universe, or the Ptolemaic system. The Babylonians discovered that lunar eclipses recurred in a cycle known as a saros
4.
Leicester
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Leicester is a city and unitary authority area in the East Midlands of England, and the county town of Leicestershire. The city lies on the River Soar and at the edge of the National Forest, in the 2011 census the population of the City of Leicester unitary authority was 329,839 making it the most populous municipality in the East Midlands region. The associated urban area is also the 11th most populous in England, the name of Leicester is recorded in the 9th-century History of the Britons as Cair Lerion, and in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as Ligora-ceastre. In the Domesday Book of 1086, it is recorded as Ledecestre, the second element of the name comes from the Latin castrum which is reflected in both Welsh cair and Anglo-Saxon ceastre. Based on the Welsh name, Geoffrey of Monmouth proposes a king Leir of Britain as a founder in his Historia Regum Britanniae. Leicester is one of the oldest cities in England, with a going back at least two millennia. The native Iron Age settlement encountered by the Romans at the seems to have developed in the 2nd or 1st centuries BC. This area of the Soar was split into two channels, a stream to the east and a narrower channel on the west. The settlement seems to have controlled a ford across the larger channel, the later Roman name was a latinate form of the Brittonic word for ramparts, suggesting the site was an oppidum. The plural form of the name suggests it was composed of several villages. The Celtic tribe holding the area was recorded as the Coritanians. The Corieltauvians are believed to have ruled over roughly the area of the East Midlands and it is believed that the Romans arrived in the Leicester area around AD47, during their conquest of southern Britain. The Corieltauvian settlement lay near a bridge on the Fosse Way, in the 2nd century, it received a forum and bathhouse. In 2013, the discovery of a Roman cemetery found just outside the old city walls, the remains of the baths of Roman Leicester can be seen at the Jewry Wall, recovered artifacts are displayed at the adjacent museum. Knowledge of the following the Roman withdrawal from Britain is limited. Certainly there is continuation of occupation of the town, though on a much reduced scale in the 5th and 6th centuries. Its memory was preserved as the Cair Lerion of the History of the Britons, following the Saxon invasion of Britain, Leicester was occupied by the Middle Angles and subsequently administered by the kingdom of Mercia. It was elevated to a bishopric in either 679 or 680, this see survived until the 9th century and their settlement became one of the Five Burghs of the Danelaw, although this position was short-lived
5.
River Soar
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The River Soar is a major tributary of the River Trent in the English East Midlands and is the principal river of Leicestershire. The source of the river is midway between Hinckley and Lutterworth, the river then flows north through Leicester, where it is joined by the Grand Union Canal. Continuing on through the Leicestershire Soar Valley, it passes Loughborough, in the 18th century, the Soar was made navigable, initially between Loughborough and the Trent, and then through to Leicester. It was not until the early 19th century that it was linked by the Grand Union Canal to the network to the south. According to a due to William Somner the Soar river may formerly have been called the Leir, from Brittonic *Ligera or *Ligora. This theory is based on the name of Leicester being derived from the name of the river, before flowing through the centre of the city it meets the Grand Union Canal at Aylestone, where it is also joined by the River Biam. After passing over Freemens Weir, the splits and recombines with the canal. The navigable arm that runs to the east has been canalised with parallel banks and is known as ‘The Mile Straight’, beyond Blackfriars, the river splits again to form Frog Island and Abbey Park, it recombines at Belgrave where it passes beside the National Space Centre. Once out of the city the Soar passes Birstall and threads its way through the lakes of Watermead Country Park, the river then meets the once navigable River Wreake, near Cossington Mill, with another tributary the Rothley Brook, joining the river just downstream. Downstream of Stanford on Soar the river forms the county boundary between Nottinghamshire and Leicestershire, between Stanford and Normanton on Soar, the canal rejoins the river, which then continues to Zouch, passing the ‘Devils Elbow’ to reach Kegworth. Downstream of Kegworth, it meets the Kingston Brook, near the village of the name, passing Ratcliffe-on-Soar and its power station. The River Soar is rich in wildlife with thriving bird, fish, the river was once notorious for its unusual pink colour - a result of discharges from Leicesters prosperous textile industries. However the end to textile industries near the river in Leicester, industry now wanting to attempt to discharge any sewage waste into the river must now obtain an agreement from the Environment Agency. The quality of any water is determined by what is able to contaminate the river upstream, sewage works have an adverse effect on water life. 1634 Thomas Skipwith of Cotes obtained a grant from Charles I to make the river Soar portable for barges and boats,1794 The Leicester Canal was opened, making the Soar navigable for almost 40 miles. The western line was also opened- this was known as the Charnwood Forest Branch, however, most of the branch was made up of rail tracks rather than a waterway. This included a 2 1⁄2 mi uphill climb from Loughborough Basin, at the western end of the branch, rail lines travelled towards Coleorton and Swannington. A track to Cloudhill, which would have connected to lines on the Ashby Canal, was proposed
6.
ETFE
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Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene is a fluorine-based plastic. It was designed to have high resistance and strength over a wide temperature range. ETFE is a polymer and its name is poly. ETFE has a high melting temperature, excellent chemical, electrical. When burned, ETFE releases hydrofluoric acid, useful comparison tables of PTFE against FEP, PFA and ETFE can be found on DuPonts website, listing the mechanical, thermal, chemical, electrical, and vapour properties of each, side by side. ETFE is effectively the high-strength version of the three in this group, often featuring slightly diminished capacities in other fields by comparison. Combustion of ETFE occurs in the way as a number of other fluoropolymers. HF is extremely corrosive and toxic, and so caution must be exercised. ETFE film is self-cleaning and recyclable and it is prone to punctures by sharp edges and therefore mostly used for roofs. As a film for roofing it could be stretched and still be taut if some variation in size occurred, employing heat welding, tears can be repaired with a patch or multiple sheets assembled into larger panels. ETFE has a tensile strength of 42 MPa, with a working temperature range of 89 K to 423 K. ETFE resins are resistant to ultraviolet light. An accelerated weathering test produced almost no signs of film deterioration, an example of its use is as pneumatic panels to cover the outside of the football stadium Allianz Arena or the Beijing National Aquatics Centre – the worlds largest structure made of ETFE film. The panels of the Eden Project are also made from ETFE, another key use of ETFE is for the covering of electrical and fiber-optic wiring used in high-stress, low-fume-toxicity and high-reliability situations. Aircraft and spacecraft wiring are primary examples, some small cross-section wires like the wire used for the wire-wrap technique are coated with ETFE. As a dual laminate, ETFE can be bonded with FRP as a liner and used in pipes, tanks. ETFE is commonly used in the industry for tie or cable wraps and in the aviation. This is because ETFE has better mechanical toughness than PTFE, in addition, ETFE exhibits a high-energy radiation resistance and can withstand moderately high temperatures for a long period of time. Commercially deployed brand names of ETFE include Tefzel by DuPont, Fluon by Asahi Glass Company, Neoflon ETFE by Daikin, due to its high temperature resistance ETFE is also used in film mode as a mold-release film
7.
Nicholas Grimshaw
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He was President of the Royal Academy from 2004 to 2011. He is chairman of Grimshaw Architects, Grimshaw was born in Hove, East Sussex 9 October 1939. His father was an engineer, and his mother a painter and he inherited an interest in engineering. His father died when he was two and a half, and he grew up with his mother, grandmother who was also a portrait painter and he displayed an early interest in construction, his boyhood interests included Meccano, building tree houses and boats. He was educated at Wellington College, and left when he was 17 and he graduated from the AA in 1965 with an honours diploma, and having entered into a partnership with Terry Farrell, he joined the Royal Institute of British Architects two years later in 1967. He worked with Farrell for 15 years before establishing his own firm, Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners, in 1989, he won a RIBA national award for his design of the Financial Times printworks in east London. After designing Britains pavilion for the Seville Expo in 1992, he was appointed a CBE in 1993, and that same year also saw him elected a vice-chairman of the Architectural Association, a member of the Royal Academy and a member of the American Institute of Architects. Grimshaws architecture practice continues to grow, it has a profile, with offices in London, New York, Melbourne. In December 2004, Grimshaw was elected President of the Royal Academy of Arts, Grimshaw made a Knight Bachelor in 2002 New Year Honours, For services to Architecture. Grimshaw also received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 2004 Grimshaw is behind the National institute for research into aquatic habitats design, upon completion, this will become the worlds largest aquarium
8.
University of Leicester
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The University of Leicester is a public research university based in Leicester, England. The main campus is south of the city centre, adjacent to Victoria Park, the university established itself as a research-led university and was previously ranking among the top 20 universities in the United Kingdom. It was awarded University of the Year by The Times in 2008, the university is most famous for the invention of genetic fingerprinting and contributing to the discovery and identification of the remains of King Richard III. The university was founded as Leicestershire and Rutland University College in 1921, the site for the university was donated by a local textile manufacturer, Thomas Fielding Johnson, in order to create a living memorial for those who lost their lives in First World War. This is reflected in the Universitys motto Ut Vitam Habeant –so that they may have life, Students were first admitted to the college in 1921. In 1927, after it became University College, Leicester, students sat the examinations for degrees of the University of London. Two years later it merged with the Vaughan Working Mens College, in 1957 the University College was granted its Royal Charter, and has since then had the status of a university with the right to award its own degrees. Leicester University won the first ever series of University Challenge, in 1963, the main campus is a mile south of the city centre, adjacent to Victoria Park and Wyggeston and Queen Elizabeth I College. Opposite the Fielding Johnson Building are the Astley Clarke Building, home to the School of Economics, the Ken Edwards building, built in 1995, lies adjacent to the Fielding Johnson Building and is home to the School of Management. Built in 1957, the Percy Gee building is home to Leicester Universitys Students Union, the David Wilson Library was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 4 December 2008, following an extensive refurbishment with a budget of £32 million. The university campus is home to several examples of Brutalist architecture, including the Grade II listed Engineering Building. Another prominent building on campus is the 18-storey Attenborough Tower, home to the College of Social Sciences, the Bennett building, Physics and Astronomy building, the Chemistry building and the Adrian Building lie beyond the Charles Wilson Building. Across University Road lies the Maurice Shock and Hodgkin buildings, home to Leicesters Medical School, further along University Road and on Salisbury Road and Regents Road are the Department of Education and the Fraser Noble building. On Lancaster Road there is the Attenborough Arts Centre, the Universitys arts centre, the skyline of Leicester University is punctuated by three distinctive, towering, buildings from the 1960s, the Department of Engineering, the Attenborough tower and the Charles Wilson building. The Universitys Engineering Building was the first major building by British architect James Stirling and it comprises workshops and laboratories at ground level, and a tower containing offices and lecture theatres. It was completed in 1963 and is notable for the way in which its external form reflects its internal functions, the very compact campus contains a wide range of twentieth century architecture, though the oldest building is the Fielding Johnson building. The Attenborough Tower is undergoing extensive renovation, Leicesters halls of residence are noteworthy, many of the halls date from the early 1900s and were the homes of Leicester’s wealthy industrialists. In recent years the University has disposed of some of its poorer quality property in order to invest in new facilities, the new John Foster Hall of Residence opened in October 2006
9.
Millennium Commission
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The Millennium Commission, a United Kingdom public body, was set up to celebrate the turn of the millennium. It used funding raised through the UK National Lottery to assist communities in marking the close of the second millennium, the body was wound up in 2006. Set up in 1993 by the National Lottery etc, act 1993, the Commission was an independent non-departmental public body. During Tessa Jowells tenure as Chair the second Minister was Richard Caborn, the Commission was wound up in December 2006 and its role was transferred to the Big Lottery Fund. The number of commissioners was reduced to five as the work of the commission decreased
10.
Soyuz (spacecraft)
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Soyuz is a series of spacecraft designed for the Soviet space programme by the Korolyov Design Bureau in the 1960s that remains in service today. The Soyuz succeeded the Voskhod spacecraft and was built as part of the Soviet manned lunar programs. The Soyuz spacecraft is launched on a Soyuz rocket, the most frequently used, the Soyuz rocket design is based on the Vostok launcher, which in turn was based on the 8K74 or R-7A Semyorka, a Soviet intercontinental ballistic missile. All Soyuz spacecraft are launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, the first Soyuz flight was unmanned and started on November 28,1966. The first Soyuz mission with a crew, Soyuz 1, launched on 23 April 1967 but ended with a due to a parachute failure. Soyuz 3, launched on October 26,1968, became the programs first successful manned mission, the only other flight to suffer a fatal accident, Soyuz 11, killed its crew of three when the cabin depressurized prematurely just before reentry. These were the humans to date to have died above the Kármán line. Despite these early incidents, Soyuz is widely considered the worlds safest, most cost-effective human spaceflight vehicle, Soyuz spacecraft were used to carry cosmonauts to and from Salyut and later Mir Soviet space stations, and are now used for transport to and from the International Space Station. At least one Soyuz spacecraft is docked to ISS at all times for use as a craft in the event of an emergency. The spacecraft is intended to be replaced by the six-person Federation spacecraft, the orbital and service modules are single-use and are destroyed upon re-entry in the atmosphere. The orbital and reentry portions are habitable living space, Soyuz can carry up to three crew members and provide life support for about 30 person days. The life support system provides an atmosphere at sea level partial pressures. The atmosphere is regenerated through KO2 cylinders, which absorb most of the CO2 and water produced by the crew and regenerates the oxygen, the vehicle is protected during launch by a payload fairing, which is jettisoned along with the SAS at 2-1/2 minutes into launch. It has a docking system. The ship can be operated automatically, or by a pilot independently of ground control, inspired by the Mercury LES, Soviet designers began work on a similar system in 1962. This included developing a complex sensing system to monitor various launch vehicle parameters, the SAS could also be manually activated from the ground, but unlike American spacecraft, there was no way for the cosmonauts to trigger it themselves. Four folding stabilizers were added to improve stability during descent. Two test runs of the SAS were carried out in 1966-67, the basic design of the SAS has remained almost unchanged in 50 years of use and all Soyuz launches carry it
11.
Western world
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The Western world or the West is a term usually referring to different nations, depending on the context, most often including at least part of Europe. There are many accepted definitions about what they all have in common, the Western world is also known as the Occident. The concept of the Western part of the earth has its roots in Greco-Roman civilization in Europe, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Its political usage was changed by the antagonism during the Cold War in the mid-to-late 20th Century. The term originally had a literal geographic meaning, Western culture was influenced by many older great civilizations of the ancient Near East, such as Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, and also Ancient Egypt. It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity, Greece, over time, their associated empires grew first to the east and west to include the rest of Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal areas, conquering and absorbing. Later, they expanded to the north of the Mediterranean Sea to include Western, Central, numerous times, this expansion was accompanied by Christian missionaries, who attempted to proselytize Christianity. There is debate among some as to whether Latin America is in a category of its own, specifically, Western culture may imply, a Biblical Christian cultural influence in spiritual thinking, customs and either ethic or moral traditions, around the Post-Classical Era and after. European cultural influences concerning artistic, musical, folkloric, ethic and oral traditions, the concept of Western culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic, much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history is marked by European immigration or settlement, such as the Americas, and Oceania. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire, Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe, as such, maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant Reformation, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the civilized world. Use of the term West as a cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. Additionally, closer contacts between the West and Asia and other parts of the world in recent times have continued to cloud the use, herodotus considered the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC a conflict of Europa versus Asia. The terms West and East were not used by any Greek author to describe that conflict, the Great Schism and the Fourth Crusade confirmed this deviation. The Renaissance in the West emerged partly from currents within the Roman Empire, Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula about the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its 12-century existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy, to a republic, nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline of the Roman Empire
12.
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
13.
Blue Streak (missile)
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The de Havilland Propellers Blue Streak was a British medium-range ballistic missile, and later the first stage of the Europa satellite launch vehicle. Blue Streak was cancelled without entering full production, the project was intended to maintain an independent British nuclear deterrent, replacing the V bomber fleet which would become obsolete by 1965. The operational requirement for the missile was issued in 1955 and the design was complete by 1957, however, during development it became clear that the missile system was too expensive and too vulnerable to a pre-emptive strike. The missile project was cancelled in 1960, with US-led Skybolt the preferred replacement, partly to avoid political embarrassment from the cancellation, the UK Government proposed that the rocket be used as the first stage of a civilian satellite launcher called Black Prince. However, the cost was thought to be too great for the UK alone and this led to the formation of the European Launcher Development Organisation, with Blue Streak used as the first stage of a carrier rocket named Europa. Europa was tested at Woomera Test Range, Australia, and later at Kourou in French Guiana, following launch failures, the ELDO project was cancelled in 1972 and development of Blue Streak was halted. Post-war Britains nuclear weapons armament was based on free-fall bombs delivered by the V bomber force. It soon became clear that if Britain wanted to have a nuclear deterrent threat. There was a political need for an independent deterrent, so that Britain could remain a world power. Britain was unable to purchase American weapons wholesale due to the restrictions of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, in April 1954 the Americans proposed a joint development programme for ballistic missiles. The proposal was accepted as part of the Wilson-Sandys Agreement of August 1954, which provided for collaboration, exchange of information, the decision to develop was influenced by what could be learnt about missile design and development in the US. Initial requirements for the booster were made by the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough with input on the engine design from the Rocket Propulsion Establishment at Westcott. British Operational Requirement 1139 demanded a rocket of at least 1500 n. m. the de Havilland Propellers company won the contract to build the missile, which was to be powered by an uprated liquid-fuelled Rocketdyne S3D engine, developed by Rolls-Royce, called RZ.2. Two variants of this engine were developed, the first provided a static thrust of 137,000 lbf, the engines were unique at that time in that they could be vectored by seven degrees in flight and could therefore be used to guide the vehicle. The vibration was also a problem, particularly at engine cut-off, and the development of the autopilot for the satellite launcher was, in itself. Subcontractors included the Sperry Gyroscope Company who produced the guidance system whilst the nuclear warhead was designed by the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston. The missiles used liquid oxygen and kerosene propellants, whilst the vehicle could be left fully laden with over 20 tonnes of kerosene, the 60 tonnes of liquid oxygen had to be loaded immediately before launch or icing became a problem. Due to this, fuelling the rocket took 4.5 minutes, the missile was vulnerable to a pre-emptive nuclear strike, launched without warning or in the absence of any heightening of tension sufficient to warrant readying the missile
14.
PGM-17 Thor
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Thor was the first operational ballistic missile deployed by the U. S. Air Force. Named after the Norse god of thunder, it was deployed in the United Kingdom between 1959 and September 1963 as a ballistic missile with thermonuclear warheads. Thor was 65 feet in height and 8 feet in diameter and it was later augmented in the U. S. IRBM arsenal by the Jupiter. A large family of space launch vehicles—the Thor and Delta rockets—were derived from the Thor design. Fearful that the Soviet Union would deploy a long-range ballistic missile before the U. S. in January 1956 the USAF began developing the Thor, a 1,500 miles intermediate-range ballistic missile. The program proceeded quickly, and within three years of inception the first of 20 Royal Air Force Thor squadrons became operational in the UK, the UK deployment carried the codename Project Emily. One of the advantages of the design was that, unlike the Jupiter IRBM, the Thor could be carried by the USAFs cargo aircraft of the time, the launch facilities were not transportable, and had to be built on site. The Thor was a measure, and once the first generation of ICBMs based in the US became operational. The last of the missiles was withdrawn from operational alert in 1963, a small number of Thors, converted to Thrust Augmented Delta launchers, remained operational in the anti-satellite missile role as Program 437 until April 1975. These missiles were based on Johnston Island in the Pacific Ocean and had the ability to destroy satellites in low Earth orbit, with prior warning of an impending launch, they could destroy a Soviet spy satellite soon after orbital insertion. These missiles remain in storage, and could be reactivated, although the W-49 Mod 6 warheads were all dismantled by June 1976, development of the Thor was initiated by the USAF in 1954. The goal was a system that could deliver a nuclear warhead over a distance of 1,150 to 2,300 miles with a CEP of 2 miles. This range would allow Moscow to be hit from a site in the UK. The initial design studies were headed by Cmdr, robert Truax and Dr. Adolph K. Thiel. On November 30,1955, three companies were given one week to bid on the project, Douglas, Lockheed, and they were asked to create a management team that could pull together existing technology, skills, abilities, and techniques in an unprecedented time. On December 27,1955 Douglas was awarded the contract for the airframe. Douglas further refined the design by choosing bolted tank bulkheads and a fuel tank for improved aerodynamics. The engine was developed as a descendant of the Atlas MA-3 booster engine
15.
Beagle 2
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The Beagle 2 was a British Mars lander that was transported by the European Space Agencys 2003 Mars Express mission. It was an astrobiology mission that would have looked for past life on the shallow surface of Mars. The Beagle 2s fate remained a mystery until January 2015 when it was located intact on the surface of Mars in a series of images from NASAs Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter HiRISE camera. The images suggest that two of the four solar panels failed to deploy, blocking the spacecrafts communications antenna. The Beagle 2 is named after HMS Beagle, the used by Charles Darwin. The Beagle 2 was conceived by a group of British academics headed by Professor Colin Pillinger of the Open University, the project was designed and developed by several UK academics and companies. We hope Beagle 2 will do the thing for life on Mars. 53°N90. 50°E /11.53,90.50 was selected. The lander was expected to operate for about 180 days and a mission of up to one Martian year was thought possible. The Principal Investigator, Colin Pillinger, set up a consortium to design, in an effort to publicise the project and gain financial support, its designers sought and received the endorsement and participation of British artists. The missions call-sign was composed by the band Blur, and the test card intended for calibrating Beagle 2s cameras and spectrometers after landing was painted by Damien Hirst. The Lander Operations Control Centre was located at the National Space Centre in Leicester, from which the spacecraft was being controlled, the GTM was composed of various builds of the Beagle 2 systems, collected together to provide a full set of lander electronics. The GTM was used continuously to validate the engineering and science commands, to rehearse the landing sequence. Funding also came from the National Space Science Centre and the Wellcome Foundation, UK principal investigators for Beagle 2 came from the Open University, Leicester University and Mullard Space Science Laboratory. The budget was secret at that time but has been estimated to be between 30 and 50 million pounds, which at current exchange rates would be about 43-71 million euros or 54-89 million USD. New Scientist magazine reported a budget of 40 million pounds for Beagle 2, however, some of the work is known to have been donated or done at-cost. Robotic arm and analysers Beagle 2 has an arm known as the Payload Adjustable Workbench. The arm is 109 cm long when extended, and it can reach about 70 cm to the nearest rocks. The PAW contains a pair of cameras, a microscope, a Mössbauer spectrometer, an X-ray spectrometer, a drill for collecting rock samples
16.
Mars
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Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, after Mercury. Named after the Roman god of war, it is referred to as the Red Planet because the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance. Mars is a planet with a thin atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps of Earth. The rotational period and seasonal cycles of Mars are likewise similar to those of Earth, Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the largest volcano and second-highest known mountain in the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, one of the largest canyons in the Solar System. The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere covers 40% of the planet, Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped. These may be captured asteroids, similar to 5261 Eureka, a Mars trojan, there are ongoing investigations assessing the past habitability potential of Mars, as well as the possibility of extant life. Future astrobiology missions are planned, including the Mars 2020 and ExoMars rovers, liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric pressure, which is about 6⁄1000 that of the Earths, except at the lowest elevations for short periods. The two polar ice caps appear to be largely of water. The volume of ice in the south polar ice cap, if melted. On November 22,2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior, Mars can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye, as can its reddish coloring. Its apparent magnitude reaches −2.91, which is surpassed only by Jupiter, Venus, the Moon, optical ground-based telescopes are typically limited to resolving features about 300 kilometers across when Earth and Mars are closest because of Earths atmosphere. Mars is approximately half the diameter of Earth with an area only slightly less than the total area of Earths dry land. Mars is less dense than Earth, having about 15% of Earths volume and 11% of Earths mass, the red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron oxide, or rust. It can look like butterscotch, other common colors include golden, brown, tan. Like Earth, Mars has differentiated into a metallic core overlaid by less dense materials. Current models of its interior imply a core with a radius of about 1,794 ±65 kilometers, consisting primarily of iron and this iron sulfide core is thought to be twice as rich in lighter elements than Earths. The core is surrounded by a mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet
17.
Near-Earth object
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A near-Earth object is any small Solar System body whose orbit brings it into proximity with Earth. By definition, a solar system body is a NEO if its closest approach to the Sun is less than 1.3 astronomical unit and it is now widely accepted that collisions in the past have had a significant role in shaping the geological and biological history of the Earth. NEOs have become of increased interest since the 1980s because of increased awareness of the potential danger some of the asteroids or comets pose, and mitigations are being researched. In January 2016, NASA announced the Planetary Defense Coordination Office to track NEOs larger than 30 to 50 meters in diameter and coordinate an effective threat response, NEAs have orbits that lie partly between 0.983 and 1.3 AU away from the Sun. When a NEA is detected it is submitted to the IAUs Minor Planet Center for cataloging, some NEAs orbits intersect that of Earths so they pose a collision danger. The United States, European Union, and other nations are currently scanning for NEOs in an effort called Spaceguard. In the United States and since 1998, NASA has a mandate to catalogue all NEOs that are at least 1 kilometer wide. In 2006, it was estimated that 20% of the objects had not yet been found. In 2011, largely as a result of NEOWISE, it was estimated that 93% of the NEAs larger than 1 km had been found, as of 5 February 2017, there have been 875 NEAs larger than 1 km discovered, of which 157 are potentially hazardous. The inventory is much less complete for smaller objects, which still have potential for scale, though not global. Potentially hazardous objects are defined based on parameters that measure the objects potential to make threatening close approaches to the Earth. Mostly objects with an Earth minimum orbit intersection distance of 0.05 AU or less, objects that cannot approach closer to the Earth than 0.05 AU, or are smaller than about 150 m in diameter, are not considered PHOs. This makes them a target for exploration. As of 2016, three near-Earth objects have been visited by spacecraft, more recently, a typical frame of reference for looking at NEOs has been through the scientific concept of risk. In this frame, the risk that any near-Earth object poses is typically seen through a lens that is a function of both the culture and the technology of human society, NEOs have been understood differently throughout history. Each time an NEO is observed, a different risk was posed and it is not just a matter of scientific knowledge. Such perception of risk is thus a product of religious belief, philosophic principles, scientific understanding, technological capabilities, and even economical resourcefulness.03 E −0.4 megatonnes. For instance, it gives the rate for bolides of 10 megatonnes or more as 1 per thousand years, however, the authors give a rather large uncertainty, due in part to uncertainties in determining the energies of the atmospheric impacts that they used in their determination
18.
Apollo program
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Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. In these six spaceflights, twelve men walked on the Moon, Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972, with the first manned flight in 1968. It achieved its goal of manned lunar landing, despite the setback of a 1967 Apollo 1 cabin fire that killed the entire crew during a prelaunch test. After the first landing, sufficient flight hardware remained for nine follow-on landings with a plan for extended lunar geological and astrophysical exploration, Budget cuts forced the cancellation of three of these. The crew returned to Earth safely by using the Lunar Module as a lifeboat for these functions, Apollo set several major human spaceflight milestones. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit, Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while the final Apollo 17 mission marked the sixth Moon landing and the ninth manned mission beyond low Earth orbit. The program returned 842 pounds of rocks and soil to Earth, greatly contributing to the understanding of the Moons composition. The program laid the foundation for NASAs subsequent human spaceflight capability, Apollo also spurred advances in many areas of technology incidental to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers. The Apollo program was conceived during the Eisenhower administration in early 1960, while the Mercury capsule could only support one astronaut on a limited Earth orbital mission, Apollo would carry three astronauts. Possible missions included ferrying crews to a station, circumlunar flights. The program was named after the Greek god of light, music, and the sun by NASA manager Abe Silverstein, who later said that I was naming the spacecraft like Id name my baby. Silverstein chose the name at home one evening, early in 1960, in July 1960, NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden announced the Apollo program to industry representatives at a series of Space Task Group conferences. Preliminary specifications were laid out for a spacecraft with a mission module cabin separate from the module. On August 30, a feasibility study competition was announced, and on October 25, meanwhile, NASA performed its own in-house spacecraft design studies led by Maxime Faget, to serve as a gauge to judge and monitor the three industry designs. In November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised American superiority over the Soviet Union in the fields of space exploration and missile defense. Beyond military power, Kennedy used aerospace technology as a symbol of prestige, pledging to make the US not first but, first and, first if. Despite Kennedys rhetoric, he did not immediately come to a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he became president and he knew little about the technical details of the space program, and was put off by the massive financial commitment required by a manned Moon landing. On April 12,1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, Kennedy was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on Americas response to the Soviets
19.
Buzz Aldrin
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Buzz Aldrin is an American engineer and former astronaut. As the Lunar Module Pilot on Apollo 11, he was one of the first two humans to land on the Moon, and the person to walk on it. He set foot on the Moon at 03,15,16 on July 21,1969 and he is a former U. S. Air Force officer with the Command Pilot rating. Aldrin was born January 20,1930, in Mountainside Hospital, in Glen Ridge and his parents were Edwin Eugene Aldrin Sr. a career military man, and Marion Aldrin, who lived in neighboring Montclair. He is of Scottish, Swedish, and German ancestry, Aldrin was a Boy Scout and earned the rank of Tenderfoot Scout. The nickname Buzz originated in childhood, the younger of his two elder sisters mispronounced brother as buzzer, and this was shortened to Buzz, Aldrin made it his legal first name in 1988. Aldrin graduated third in his class at West Point in 1951 with a Bachelor of Science degree in mechanical engineering and he was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the United States Air Force and served as a jet fighter pilot during the Korean War. He flew 66 combat missions in F-86 Sabres and shot down two Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 aircraft, the June 8,1953, issue of Life magazine featured gun camera photos taken by Aldrin of one of the Soviet pilots ejecting from his damaged aircraft. That same year, he graduated from the Squadron Officer School at Maxwell Air Force Base in Alabama and he flew F-100 Super Sabres as a flight commander at Bitburg Air Base, West Germany, in the 22d Fighter Squadron. In January 1963, Aldrin earned a Sc. D. degree in astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, if only I could join them in their exciting endeavors. On completion of his doctorate, he was assigned to the Gemini Target Office of the Air Force Space Systems Division in Los Angeles before his selection as an astronaut, Aldrin was selected as a member of the third group of NASA astronauts in October 1963. Because test pilot experience was no longer a requirement, this was the first selection for which he was eligible, after the deaths of the original Gemini 9 prime crew, Elliot See and Charles Bassett, Aldrin and Jim Lovell were promoted to backup crew for the mission. He was confirmed as pilot on Gemini 12, the last Gemini mission and he set a record for EVA, demonstrating that astronauts could work outside spacecraft. Aldrin was chosen for the crew of Apollo 11 and made the first lunar landing with commander Neil Armstrong on July 20,1969. The next day, Aldrin became the person to walk on the Moon. Aldrins first words on the Moon were Beautiful view, then, in response to Armstrong asking, Isnt it magnificent. He was also the first person to urinate while on the Moon, there has been speculation about the extent of Aldrins desire at the time to be the first astronaut to walk on the Moon and its impact on his pre-flight, in-mission and post-flight actions. Also, Armstrong was the Mission Commander, and other astronauts who would command later Apollo missions were not sympathetic to Aldrins views
20.
Star Wars
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Star Wars is an American epic space opera franchise, centered on a film series created by George Lucas. It depicts the adventures of characters a long time ago in a galaxy far, far away. The franchise began in 1977 with the release of the film Star Wars and it was followed by the successful sequels The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi, these three films constitute the original Star Wars trilogy. A prequel trilogy was released between 1999 and 2005, which received mixed-to-negative reactions, a sequel trilogy began in 2015 with the release of Star Wars, The Force Awakens. All seven films were nominated for Academy Awards and have been successes, with a combined box office revenue of over $7.5 billion. Spin-off films include Star Wars, The Clone Wars and Rogue One, Star Wars also holds a Guinness World Records title for the Most successful film merchandising franchise. In 2015, the value of the Star Wars franchise was estimated at USD $42 billion. In 2012, The Walt Disney Company acquired Lucasfilm for $4.06 billion and earned the rights to all subsequent Star Wars films. Walt Disney Studios owns digital distribution rights to all the Star Wars films, the events depicted in the Star Wars franchise take place in an unnamed fictional galaxy at an undetermined point in the distant past. Many species of creatures are depicted. Robotic droids are also commonplace and are built to serve their owners. Space travel is common, and many planets in the galaxy are members of a single galactic government. In the prequel trilogy, this is depicted in the form of the Galactic Republic, at the end of the trilogy and throughout the original trilogy. Preceding and during the trilogy, this government is the New Republic. One of the prominent elements of Star Wars is the Force and it is described in the first produced film as an energy field created by all living things surrounds us, penetrates us, binds the galaxy together. While the Force can be used for good, known as the side, it also has a dark side that, when pursued, imbues users with hatred, aggression. The sequel trilogy introduces the Knights of Ren, an order of practitioners of the side of the Force aligned with the First Order. The first film in the series, Star Wars, was released on May 25,1977 and this was followed by two sequels, The Empire Strikes Back, released on May 21,1980, and Return of the Jedi, released on May 25,1983
21.
Doctor Who
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Doctor Who is a British science-fiction television programme produced by the BBC since 1963. The programme depicts the adventures of a Time Lord called The Doctor and he explores the universe in a time-travelling space ship called the TARDIS. Its exterior appears as a blue British police box, which was a sight in Britain in 1963 when the series first aired. Accompanied by a number of companions, the Doctor combats a variety of foes, while working to save civilisations, the show is a significant part of British popular culture, and elsewhere it has gained a cult following. It has influenced generations of British television professionals, many of whom grew up watching the series, the programme originally ran from 1963 to 1989. There was an attempt to revive regular production in 1996 with a backdoor pilot. The programme was relaunched in 2005, and since then has been produced in-house by BBC Wales in Cardiff, twelve actors have headlined the series as the Doctor. The conceit is that this is a Time Lord trait through which the character of the Doctor takes on a new body, each actors portrayal differs, but all represent stages in the life of the same character and form a single narrative. The time-travelling feature of the means that different incarnations of the Doctor occasionally meet. The current lead, Peter Capaldi, took on the role after Matt Smiths exit in the 2013 Christmas special The Time of the Doctor, in 2017, Capaldi confirmed he would be leaving at the end of the tenth series. Doctor Who follows the adventures of the character, a rogue Time Lord from the planet Gallifrey. He fled from Gallifrey in a stolen TARDIS – Time and Relative Dimension in Space – a machine which allows him to travel across time, the TARDIS has a chameleon circuit which normally allows the machine to take on the appearance of local objects as a disguise. However, the Doctors TARDIS remains fixed as a blue British police box due to a malfunction in the chameleon circuit, the Doctor rarely travels alone and often brings one or more companions to share these adventures. His companions are usually humans, as he has found a fascination with planet Earth, as a Time Lord, the Doctor has the ability to regenerate when his body is mortally damaged, taking on a new appearance and personality. The Doctor has gained numerous reoccurring enemies during his travels, including the Daleks, the Cybermen, and the Master, another renegade Time Lord. Doctor Who first appeared on BBC TV at 17,16,20 GMT, eighty seconds after the programme time,5,15 pm. It was to be a weekly programme, each episode 25 minutes of transmission length. Discussions and plans for the programme had been in progress for a year, writer Anthony Coburn, story editor David Whitaker and initial producer Verity Lambert also heavily contributed to the development of the series
22.
Alien War
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Alien War was a total reality experience in the United Kingdom that originally opened at the Arches in Glasgow in April 1992 themed around the Alien series of films. Created by John Gorman and Gary Gillies, the attraction had a run as a mobile event at various exhibition centres in the UK. On 15 October 1993 it opened in the basement of the Trocadero centre in London, the permanent attraction in London closed after a flood in August 1996 and was never reopened. It made a return between December 1999 and January 2000 in the Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre in Glasgow in a modified form. The marines originally carried blank firing pistols, for Alien War London, an innovative electronic system called Soundfire was developed to allow the weapons to sound like those used in the film Aliens. The system consisted of M41A pulse rifles with infrared transmitters and small strobe lights, when the trigger is pulled a signal is transmitted to receivers hidden in the set. A central computer then plays gunfire sound effects to speakers in the area of the set. The method of producing the effect was entirely different from how it would be imagined the weapons would discharge, the strobe lights also resembled blue camera flashes, and did not resemble a muzzleflash. The show was seen in various guises and briefly featured an actor dressed as the Predator for a prior to it closing in Glasgow. Alien War opened at its home at the Arches Glasgow on 6 December 2008. It opened in Liverpool at Wirrals spaceport and ran until March 2010, the Harry Harris Aliens Collection & Archive, About Alien War Aliens Collection, Alien War coverage International Herald Tribune Article about Alien War
23.
NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
24.
Brian Duffy (astronaut)
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Brian Duffy is a retired U. S. Air Force colonel and a former NASA astronaut. He flew aboard four Space Shuttle missions, graduated from Rockland High School, Rockland, Massachusetts in 1971. In 1975 he received a Bachelor of Science degree in Mathematics from the United States Air Force Academy, in 1981 he received a Master of Science degree in Systems Management from the University of Southern California. Duffy graduated from the USAF Academy in 1975 and he completed Undergraduate Pilot Training at Columbus Air Force Base, Mississippi, in 1976, and was selected to fly the F-15. He was stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, until 1979, at the end of 1979 he transferred to Kadena Air Base, Okinawa, Japan. He flew F-15’s there until 1982 when he was selected to attend the U. S. Air Force Test Pilot School, following graduation, he served as the Director of F-15 Tests at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida. He has logged over 5,000 hours of time in more than 25 different aircraft. Selected by NASA in June 1985, Duffy became an astronaut in July 1986 and he participated in the development and testing of displays, flight crew procedures, and computer software to be used on Shuttle flights. He served as spacecraft communicator in Mission Control during numerous Space Shuttle missions and he also served as Assistant Director and as Deputy Director of the Johnson Space Center. In this role he assisted the Center Director in the direction and management of JSC’s resources, functions, programs, a veteran of four space flights, he has logged a total of 40 days,17 hours,34 minutes and 59 seconds in space. Duffy retired from the Air Force and NASA in 2001 and he was Vice President of Mission Operations and Support Services for the Lockheed Martin Corporation from 2004 to 2008. He is currently Vice President and JSC Program Manager for Exploration Systems at ATK, Duffy was the pilot on STS-45 Atlantis, the first of the ATLAS series of missions to address the atmosphere and its interaction with the Sun. He also was the pilot on STS-57 Endeavour, Duffy next commanded a six-man crew on STS-72 Endeavour. Duffy commanded a crew of seven on STS-92 Discovery and this expansion of the ISS opened the door for future assembly missions and prepared the station for its first resident crew. Helms of West Lafayette, Indiana and they have two children, NASA Bio of Duffy Spacefacts biography of Brian Duffy Appearances on C-SPAN
25.
STS-121
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STS-121 was a 2006 NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station flown by Space Shuttle Discovery. After two weather-related delays, the shuttle launched on Tuesday,4 July 2006 at 14,37,55 EDT. It was the first and only launch on the United States Independence Day. The mission lasted for 13 days before landing at the Kennedy Space Center on 17 July 2006 at 09,14,43 EDT, STS-121 was also designated the ISS Assembly Mission ULF1.1. As the mission followed on from STS-114 in carrying out the recommendations made in response to the Columbia Accident Investigation Board report and its successful launch and landing led NASA to fully resume regular Space Shuttle launches in the construction of the ISS. Thomas Reiters position was previously planned to be filled by Sergey Volkov before the launch of STS-121 was postponed until July 2006, british-born astronaut Piers Sellers replaced Carlos Noriega who was originally scheduled to be on the STS-121 mission NASA announced on Thursday,15 July 2004. This was due to an undisclosed, temporary medical condition, the transfer of Reiter to the ISS returned the station to a three crew member staffing level. After the loss of Columbia and the grounding of the Shuttle fleet and it also delivered more supplies and cargo for future ISS expansion. Before the accident, Columbia had been assigned to missions STS-118, the STS-118 mission, also an International Space Station flight, was at first reassigned to Discovery, but was later assigned to Space Shuttle Endeavour. The STS-121 mission was originally to have sent Columbia to service the Hubble Space Telescope, however, that servicing mission was given another designation on the manifest before the disaster and the designation of STS-121 once again became available. Since STS-115 through STS-120 were already delegated to existing missions, NASA selected the lowest available mission designation for the second test flight, hence, the mission following STS-114 is STS-121. After the return of Discovery to California following the completion of STS-114, atlantis was moved up to fly the STS-115 mission and Discovery was to fly the STS-121 mission as originally planned. The launch of the STS-121 mission was delayed until July 2006 as well, due to an unresolved foam debris, on 12 May 2006, Discovery was moved from the Orbiter Processing Facility to the Vehicle Assembly Building, where it was mated to its External Tank and SRBs. Rollout to Pad 39B occurred on 19 May 2006 ahead of the launch, during the July 2006 launch window. The French-built unit comprises four independent drawers which can be set to operate at different temperatures, initially, temperatures of −80 °C, −26 °C, and +4 °C will be used during on-orbit ISS operations. Both reagents and samples will be stored in the freezer, as well as storage, the freezer is designed to be used to transport samples to and from the ISS in a temperature controlled environment. The total capacity of the unit is 300 liters, the European Modular Cultivation System for biological experiments. This consists of a gas tight incubator in which there are two centrifuges, each able to carry four experimental cartridges, two Ground controls—exact copies of the equipment and experiments—will be run on the ground, one in Europe and one at NASAs Ames Research Center
26.
Piers Sellers
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Piers John Sellers OBE was a British-American meteorologist, NASA astronaut and Director of the Earth Science Division at NASA/GSFC. He was a veteran of three shuttle missions. Sellers attended Cranbrook School, Cranbrook, Kent, United Kingdom, until 1973, in 1981 he gained a doctorate in biometeorology from the University of Leeds. In 2011, Sellers retired from the NASA Astronaut Corps, before joining the astronaut corps, Sellers worked at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center on research into how the Earths biosphere and atmosphere interact. This work involved climate system computer modelling and field work utilising aircraft, satellites, Sellers was born in Crowborough, Sussex, the second born of five boys. He earned a Bachelor of Science degree in science from the University of Edinburgh. Sellers married the former Amanda Lomas, a nurse from Hebden Bridge, in January 2016, he revealed that he had been diagnosed with stage 4 pancreatic cancer. Sellers died 23 December 2016 at the age of 61, Sellers appeared in the Leonardo DiCaprio-produced documentary film Before the Flood. Sellers and his left the UK in 1982, moving to the United States. Sellerss work in the field of meteorology focused primarily on computer modelling of climate systems, Sellers began applying annually to become an astronaut in 1984, but his lack of US citizenship was a problem. In 1991 he became a citizen of the United States. Selected as a candidate by NASA in April 1996, Sellers reported to the NASA Johnson Space Center in August 1996. During that time, he worked part-time in Moscow as a liaison on ISS computer software. Sellers logged over 559 hours in space, including almost 41 EVA hours in 6 spacewalks, to outfit and activate the new component, Sellers performed three spacewalks and logged a total of 19 hours and 41 minutes of EVA. The crew also transferred cargo between the two vehicles and used the shuttles thruster jets during two manoeuvres to raise the stations orbit. STS-112 was the first shuttle mission to use a camera on the External Tank, providing a view of the launch to flight controllers. The mission was accomplished in 170 orbits, travelling 4.5 million miles in 10 days,19 hours, STS-121 Space Shuttle Discovery was a return-to-flight test mission and assembly flight to the International Space Station. The crew also performed maintenance on the station and delivered and transferred more than 28,000 pounds of supplies and equipment
27.
British National Space Centre
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The British National Space Centre was an agency of the Government of the United Kingdom, organised in 1985, that coordinated civil space activities for the UK. It was replaced on 1 April 2010 by the United Kingdom Space Agency, BNSC operated as a voluntary partnership of ten British government departments and agencies and Research Councils. The civil portion of the British space programme focused on science, Earth observation, satellite telecommunications. The latest version of the UK civil space strategy which defined the goals of BNSC was published in February 2008, notably the BNSC had a policy against human spaceflight, and did not contribute to the International Space Station. Rather than being a space agency as maintained by some other countries. The Department for Business, Innovation and Skills was the host department, the last DG, Dr. David Williams, was the first to have been externally appointed. BNSC staff represented the UK at the various boards of ESA. In 2004, the budget for BNSC headquarters was approximately £500,000, from January 2009, the BNSC was headquartered in Swindon, Wiltshire, in the same building as the Science and Technology Facilities Council and the Technology Strategy Board. BNSC was directed by the Minister for Science and Innovation, Paul Drayson, the BNSC partnership co-funded a private sector project led by Avanti Communications to build a satellite called HYLAS to provide broadband communications to rural and remote users. The UK has contributed the SPIRE instrument for the Herschel Space Observatory and detector, recent BNSC activities include the Mosaic small satellite programme, which led to the launch of the TopSat high resolution EO mission and also the Disaster Monitoring Constellation. In November 2008, BNSC announced new contributions to ESA and an agreement in principle to establish an ESA centre at the Harwell Science, the ESA facility at Harwell was opened officially on 22 July 2009. The name of the ESA centre is the European Robotics and Climate Change Centre, in February 2009, BNSC, ESA and Reaction Engines Limited announced a public–private partnership funding scheme to demonstrate key technologies of the SABRE engine for the proposed Skylon spaceplane
28.
Abbey Pumping Station
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The Abbey Pumping Station is a museum of science and technology in Leicester, England, on Corporation Road, next to the National Space Centre. With four working steam-powered beam engines from its time as a pumping station, it also houses exhibits for transport, public health, light and optics, toys. The building was constructed in 1891 by Leicester Corporation on the side of Leicester, alongside the River Soar. The grand Victorian building, designed by Stockdale Harrison in 1890, houses four Arthur Woolf compound beam engines built by Gimson, limited capacity and high costs meant that a Pail closet system continued to be used for poorer neighbourhoods. As the town expanded so did the problems of pollution in the River Soar from the treatment works, disposal of the Night soil from the pail closets, via railway wagons and canal barges, caused complaints of smell and pollution. A new solution was needed and the answer was to pump everything to a Sewage farm on higher ground at Beaumont Leys. It continued pumping Leicesters sewage until 1964, when electric pumps took over, and within a few years the Wanlip Sewage Treatment plant took over, in 1972 the building re-opened as a museum of science and technology, run by Leicestershire Museums. The huge beam engines were retained intact, and were restored to full working order. It is one of a number of pumping stations which have been preserved. Leicester City Council became an authority in 1997 and the Abbey Pumping Station is one of the museums that is within their jurisdiction. The steam engines which drive the pumps can be seen. In addition, there is combination of educational displays, an old-fashioned film theatre. An eclectic collection of items of industrial archeology is in the grounds. This includes a gauge railway and some transport items. The four steam engines were built in Leicester by Gimson and Company, at the time these engines were built they were considered an old-fashioned but very well-established design. The cylinders are 30 inches x 69.5 inches and 48 inches x 102 inches, the cast-iron flywheels are 21 feet diameter and the beams are of plain steel plate construction and 28 feet long. The engines are of 200 indicated horsepower each and these engines are rated at 200 hp, at 12–19 rpm, of which they pumped 208,000 imperial gallons of sewage an hour. All four engines have been restored back to working condition by a team of volunteers
29.
BBC
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The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. It is headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, the BBC is the worlds oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total,16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting, the total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed contract staff are included. The BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office, was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests, John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers, to this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate and entertain. The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate, set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee and this was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBCs broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, the BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00, and required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee, by now the BBC under Reiths leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production and with restrictions on news bulletins waived the BBC suddenly became the source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position, the Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PMs own
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Leicester Mercury
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The Leicester Mercury is a British regional newspaper for the city of Leicester and the counties of Leicestershire and Rutland. The paper began in the 19th century as the Leicester Daily Mercury, the paper was founded by James Thompson, already proprietor of the Leicester Chronicle which he had merged with the Leicestershire Mercury ten years earlier. The Leicester Daily Mercury would be a paper, the first to be published in Leicester. The first issue was published on 31 January 1874 from the offices at 3 St Martins. The paper had a staff of 25 and a circulation of 5000, along with the rest of Britains regional daily press, the Leicester Mercury has struggled in circulation terms over the past two decades. The paper had a circulation of 69,069 per day in the first half of 2008. This represents a decline of some 5. 7% and a drop of 47% when compared with a sale of 139,357 copies in the equivalent audit period for 1989. The newspaper is the sixth largest-selling regional title in England, in 2001, after a re-design and relaunch, it was named Regional Newspaper of the Year. In 2006 the paper attempted to reduce costs by ceasing publication of its weekday editions for Loughborough, Hinckley, North West Leicestershire, Melton Mowbray. They have been replaced with two editions, covering the east and west of Leicestershire respectively. There are however still two editions published daily to cover the city of Leicester itself, the Mercury has retained its reporting staff in each of the market towns, despite substantial editorial staff cuts in other areas - achieved through non-replacement of departing staff. In addition, the paper relaunched its Sporting Blue sports newspaper with tête-bêche binding to cover the two major sports teams, Leicester City and Leicester Tigers. From January 2010 to September 2011 the paper also championed its own youth paper and its content was entirely written by people under the age of 25, often taking unique angles on some of the Mercurys hard hitting stories by illustrating how they would affect young people. During 2011 it was edited by Sam Newton, the offices of the paper are on the corner of St Georges Way and Queen Street. Since June 2016 the paper has been edited by George Oliver, the newspapers headquarters have undergone a complete external transformation, at a reported cost of £12. 5m, and has now reopened to the general public. The new-look building is in keeping with the plans for an office core close to the Mercurys head office. However, in April 2009, some of the production work was moved to a hub in Nottingham which also carries out work for the Nottingham Post. However, about 60 journalists remain in the main Leicester office, all of the newspapers reporters remain in Leicester or other Leicestershire towns, as do the sports writers, photographers and feature writers, along with the proofing function
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United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
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Science and technology in the United Kingdom
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Science and technology in the United Kingdom has a long history, producing many important figures and developments in the field. Major scientific discoveries include hydrogen by Henry Cavendish, penicillin by Alexander Fleming, the UK continues to play a major role in the development of science and technology and major technological sectors include the aerospace, motor and pharmaceutical industries. Some of the theories, discoveries and applications advanced by people from the UK are given below. The development of empiricism and its role in scientific method, by Francis Bacon, the laws of motion and illumination of gravity, by physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist and theologian, Sir Isaac Newton. The discovery of hydrogen, by Henry Cavendish, the steam locomotive, by Richard Trevithick and Andrew Vivian. An early electric motor, by Michael Faraday, who largely made electricity viable for use in technology, the theory of aerodynamics, by Sir George Cayley. The first public railway, by George Stephenson. The first commercial telegraph, co-invented by Sir William Fothergill Cooke. First tunnel under a river, first all iron ship and first railway to run express services. Evolution by natural selection, by Charles Darwin, the invention of the incandescent light bulb, by Joseph Swan. The unification of electromagnetism, by James Clerk Maxwell, the first practical telephone, patented by Alexander Graham Bell. The discovery of penicillin, by biologist and pharmacologist, Sir Alexander Fleming, the worlds first working television system, and colour television, by John Logie Baird. The first meaningful synthesis of quantum mechanics with special relativity by Paul Dirac in the named after him. The invention of the jet engine, by Frank Whittle, the invention of the hovercraft, by Christopher Cockerell. The colossus computer, by Alan Turing, a digital computer computer. The structure of DNA, by Francis Crick and others, the theoretical breakthrough of the Higgs mechanism to explain electroweak symmetry breaking and why some particles have mass, by Peter Higgs. Theories in cosmology, quantum gravity and black holes, by Stephen Hawking, the invention of the World Wide Web, by Tim Berners-Lee. The UK remains a centre of automotive design and production, particularly of engines
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Economy of the United Kingdom
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It is the second-largest economy in the European Union by both metrics. The UK is one of the strongest EU countries in regards to GDP growth, job creation and it is one of the most globalised economies, and is composed of the economies of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Britains aerospace industry is the second- or third-largest national aerospace industry depending on the method of measurement and its pharmaceutical industry plays an important role in the economy and the UK has the third-highest share of global pharmaceutical research and development. Of the worlds 500 largest companies,26 are headquartered in the UK, the British economy is boosted by North Sea oil and gas production, its reserves were estimated at 2.9 billion barrels in 2015, although it has been a net importer of oil since 2005. There are significant regional variations in prosperity, with South East England, the size of Londons economy makes it the largest city by GDP in Europe. In the 18th century the UK was the first country to industrialise, from the late 19th century the Second Industrial Revolution was also taking place rapidly in the United States and the German Empire, this presented an increasing economic challenge for the UK. The costs of fighting World War I and World War II further weakened the UKs relative position, in the 21st century, however, it remains a great power and has an influential role in the world economy. Since 1979 management of the economy has followed a broadly laissez-faire approach, the Bank of England is the UKs central bank and its Monetary Policy Committee is responsible for setting interest rates, quantitative easing, and forward guidance. 5% until the early 1970s. According to the OECD, the rate of growth between 1960 and 1973 averaged 2. 9%, although this figure was far behind the rates of other European countries such as France, West Germany. Deindustrialization meant the closure of operations in mining, heavy industry and manufacturing. A certain amount of turnover had always taken place, with older businesses shutting down, however, the post-1973 scene was different, with a worldwide energy crisis, and a dramatic influx of low-cost manufactured goods from Asia. Coal mining quickly collapsed, and practically disappeared in the 21st century, the consumption of coal--mostly for electricity--plunged from 157 million tonnes in 1970 to 37 million tonnes in 2015, nearly all of it imported. Employment in the mines fell from a peak of 1,191,000 in 1920 to 695,000 in 1956,247,000 in 1976,44,000 in 1993. The railways were decrepit, more textile mills closed than opened, steel employment fell sharply, popular responses varied a great deal. Tim Strangleman et al. found a range of responses from the affected workers, some nostalgically invoked a glorious industrial past or the bygone British Empire to cope with their newfound personal economic insecurity. Others looked to the EU for help, some turned to exclusionary Englishness as the solution to current grievances. By the 21st century, grievances accumulated enough to have a political impact, the United Kingdom Independence Party, based in white working-class towns, gained increasing share of the vote while warning against the dangers of immigration. The political reverberations came to a head in the vote in favor of Brexit in 2016
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Defence Science and Technology Laboratory
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The Defence Science and Technology Laboratory is a trading fund of the Ministry of Defence of the United Kingdom. Responsibility for it lies with the Minister for Defence Equipment, Support and Technology and its board is chaired by Sir David Pepper. Its stated purpose is to maximise the impact of science and technology for the defence, in July 2001, the Defence Evaluation and Research Agency was split into two parts, Dstl and Qinetiq. Dstl is a fund owned by the Secretary of State for Defence. Most funding comes from the Ministry of Defence, while a small portion comes from government departments. According to 2012/13 figures, 93% of Dstls income comes from the MOD, from its creation in 2001 the Chief Executive was Martin J Earwicker until he left in 2006 for the Science Museum. Dr Frances Saunders took over as acting Chief Executive in May 2006 and was appointed as Chief Executive in August 2007, on 29 June 2011 Dr Saunders announced to staff that her post had been advertised and that she would not be applying. On 13 December 2011 the MOD announced that Jonathan Lyle, Director of the Programme Office at Dstl, in 2015 Dstl completed a major reorganisation, merging twelve operating departments into five divisions on 1 April 2015. The motivation behind this change was to more coherent and productive delivery to customers. It has done work for around 40 government departments and agencies including the Home Office and it undertakes research with both industry and academia to achieve its role. Within the Programme Office are 16 domains with some established as Science and Technology Centres, including Armour and Protection, Cyber and Influence, Counter Terrorism and these centres fund research via the Centre for Defence Enterprise, also part of the Programme Office. Within the Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 was a proposal to create a Government-backed service designed to help small, sites include, In April 2005 the technology transfer company Ploughshare Innovations Ltd was formed to manage and exploit intellectual property within Dstl. Dstl and Ploughshare Innovations have successfully spun-out several new companies including Alaska Food Diagnostics, the Technical Cooperation Program – an international defence science and technology collaboration between Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States. DARPA – US Defence Agency responsible for the development of new technology for the US military, Defence Science and Technology Organisation – a branch of the Australian Department of Defence that researches and develops technologies for the Australian defence industry. Qinetiq – the part of Defence Evaluation and Research Agency privatised in June 2001, with the remainder of DERA renamed Dstl
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Fera Science
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Fera Science Limited, formerly the Food and Environment Research Agency, is a joint venture based in the United Kingdom owned by Capita and the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. Its aim is to support and develop a sustainable food chain, a natural environment. On 1 April 2015, DEFRA placed Fera into a joint venture, Fera Science Limited,2014,100 Years of Science Solutions 2014 marked the centenary of the formation of the first organisations that have evolved into what is known today as Fera. Then in 1916 the Food Investigation Board was established to look at new ways of preserving food due the wartime experience of high levels of wastage in imported perishable goods, in effect this kick started food science in Great Britain. Today, the drivers for Feras work and scientific developments are remarkably similar to those that existed in 1914, a timeline shows some of the key stages in the development of Fera. As part of the programme Newcastle University and Fera will form a joint institute, from 1 April Fera is no longer an operational government agency. Fera specialises in the sciences underpinning agriculture for sustainable production, environmental management. Fera has statutory responsibilities for delivering policy and inspectorate functions in relation to Plant Health, Bee Health and Plant Varieties, Fera is part of the UK capability to respond to, and recover from, emergency situations, including accidental or deliberate release of hazardous materials. Feras food and drink analytical testing services are supported by scientific expertise, Fera provides a full range of analytical tests addressing food contaminants that are restricted under EU food safety legislation. Fera specialises in testing for contaminants migrating from food packaging materials, testing, identifying and measuring the levels of mycotoxins, Fera also offers a complete package of services to help protect against mites in commodities and premises. The services cover detection, monitoring and prevention of mites in the food and feed processing and storage, grain and other commodity storage, veterinary, the Fera activities in wildlife were transferred to the Animal and Plant Health Agency in 2013. Fera responsibility for implementing the plant health Regulations in England, Fera acts as a specialist service provider to companies in the agrochemical, pharmaceutical and industrial chemicals sectors. Fera covers a number of areas including Environmental Fate and Exposure, Ecotoxicity testing of terrestrials, the UK Government Decontamination Service returned to Defra in 2014
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Government Office for Science
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The Government Office for Science is part of the British government. This organisation advises the UK Government on policy and decision-making based on robust scientific evidence and it is led by the Government Chief Scientific Adviser, Sir Mark Walport who reports to the Prime Minister and Cabinet. The Government Office for Science works collaboratively, using formal and informal networks, including colleagues in other departments, the guidance and frameworks encourage and support departments’ use and management of science, as well as challenging them to match best practice across Government and outside. Government departments each have their own Chief Scientific Adviser, and CSAs work together on cross-cutting issues, in some cases the GCSA leads in advising the Government on major cross-cutting issues, working with other CSAs. In doing so he engages the best scientists nationally and often internationally to help him, the Foresight program and its Horizon Scanning Center enable the Government to plan for the long term by providing a view of potential futures under a variety of conditions. Foresight projects are in-depth and long term studies looking at major issues, examples are, Tackling Obesities, Future Flooding, Mental Capital and Wellbeing
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Innovate UK
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Innovate UK is the operating name of the Technology Strategy Board, the UKs innovation agency. It is a UK non-departmental public body operating at arms length from the Government reporting to the Department for Business, Energy, in August 2014 the Technology Strategy Board fully adopted the name Innovate UK. The original Technology Strategy Board had its roots in the Innovation Review published by the DTI in December 2003 and these changes all took place in 2004 - with the Advisory Board being appointed in October of that year. In the 2006 Budget Gordon Brown announced the intention to set up the Technology Strategy Board as a public body operating at arms length from the UK Government. It was decided to locate the new organisation in Swindon, in August 2014 the organisation adopted the name Innovate UK, and began a transition to use the new name in all its communications. However the legal name of the organisation currently remains as the Technology Strategy Board, in 2012 the Technology Strategy Board began to establish the network of Catapult centres. Innovate UK maintains an online platform, where members of the Knowledge Transfer Network and other groups concerned with innovation can meet, share information. _connect is a business networking and open innovation portal. The site currently has over 90,000 active user profiles, is home to the Knowledge Transfer Network, businesses can use _connect as a place to meet and network with other organisations and to find business partners for collaborative projects. An example of the work was the UK-wide ultra low carbon vehicle demonstrator programme
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Intellectual Property Office (United Kingdom)
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The Intellectual Property Office of the United Kingdom is, since 2 April 2007, the operating name of The Patent Office. It is the government body responsible for intellectual property rights in the UK and is an executive agency of the Department for Business, Innovation. As in most countries, there is no register of copyright such that there is no direct administration required in copyright matters by the IPO. The Intellectual Property Office is led by the Comptroller General of Patents, Designs and Trade Marks, since 15 February 2010 the Comptroller has been John Alty, following the resignation of Ian Fletcher, who took over after the retirement of Ron Marchant on 30 March 2007. The previous comptroller was Alison Brimelow who was afterwards, between July 2007 and June 2010, President of the European Patent Office, the Patent Office was established by the Patents Law Amendment Act 1852 and opened on 1 October that year. This act consolidated patent scrutiny and awards into an office serving the whole of the United Kingdom. Initially, people applying for a patent often used to submit a model of their submission, these were retained. More recently, having also acquired responsibility for regulation, the Patent Office has become known as the Intellectual Property Office. On 1 October 2008, the position of the Company Names Adjudicator was introduced under the Companies Act 2006, the Company Names Adjudicators powers are enforced through the Company Names Tribunal which forms part of the Intellectual Property Office. From its early days, the Patent Office was based in the Chancery Lane area of London, the principal entrance was at 25 Southampton Buildings, where a purpose-built headquarters was constructed in 1899–1902. In 1991, having outgrown its premises, the Patent Office moved to Newport, South East Wales. A small branch office in London has been maintained for the benefit of the professional community based there
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Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology
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POST serves BOTH Houses of Parliament as a joint establishment, through output that is apolitical and of widely acclaimed value to Parliamentarians of all parties. Thorough quality-control, which POST has pioneered, ensures that MPs and these principles are reflected in the structure of POST’s Board with members from the Commons and Lords together with distinguished scientists and engineers from the wider world. The choice of the word of rather than for in the title was a formal recognition of a fundamental consideration. POST was not, in any way, to be a body promoting special interests of the science and technology community, rather it was to provide analysis and interpretation of issues, current and prospective, with a significant scientific or technological dimension. POST was not expected to make recommendations for any specific policy, as the UK economy became more dependent on technological progress, and the negative effects of technology became more apparent, it was felt that UK Parliament needed its own resources on such issues. This thinking was influenced by the fact that specialised parliamentary science. Initially they asked the then Thatcher government to such services at Westminster but were asked first to demonstrate a real need. This led to the P&S creating a foundation to raise funds from P&S members. The reaction was positive to be able to recruit a Director, Dr Michael Norton. POST had attracted more resources by 1992 and then recruited 3 specialist science advisers and this was the result of POST demonstrating real interest and demand from MPs and peers. The financial reliance on donations from external to Parliament, even those as prestigious as the Royal Society, had always slightly compromised the perceived independence of the office. From 1997 the chair of the POST board was appointed by government Whips, previous chairs have been Dr Ian Gibson MP 1997-2001, Dr Phyllis Starkey MP 2001-2005, and Dr Ashok Kumar MP 2005-2010. In 1998 Professor David Cope took over as Director of POST, Prof Cope guided the Office through the period towards the goal of establishing POST as a permanent office of the UK Parliament - and dramatically expanded its staffing and wider links. In 2009 POST celebrated its 20th anniversary with, among other events, the keynote participants were the Hon. Bart Gordon, Chair of the US House of Representatives Committee on Science and Technology and Dr Jim Dator of the University of Hawaii Futures Research Centre. Because of the enthusiasm of Members of both Houses, POST had enjoyed a status within Parliament. These conduct derivative analysis for both Houses, POST - on the other hand - was expected to provide proactive analysis and advice, freed from the immediate pressure of political or administrative expectations. The Director, Prof David Cope, moved to Cambridge University in 2012 and was succeeded by Dr Chris Tyler, Parliamentarians are bombarded daily with lobbying, public enquiries and media stories about science and technology. These cover diverse areas such as medical advances, environmental issues, POST helps parliamentarians examine such issues effectively by providing information resources, in depth analysis and impartial advice
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Research Councils UK
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It enables the Councils to work together more effectively to enhance the overall impact and effectiveness of their research, training, and innovation. Research councils are non-departmental government bodies incorporated by Royal Charter, each is governed by its own governing council comprising a mix of academic and non-academic members, appointed by the Secretary for Innovation, Universities and Skills following a public nomination. The councils receive public funds from the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, in 2008 the combined annual budget was £3.5 billion, of which over £1 billion went to research grants and training at universities. This is one element of the UKs dual system of research funding, Research Council grants support around 50,000 researchers through 18,000 grants at any one time. About 8,000 PhDs are awarded annually as a result of their funding, however, in the UK funding system only a few permanent institutes that require permanent infrastructure are directly controlled or core-funded by the Councils. Most funding is allocated competitively and few awards last more than ten years, Research council funding decisions are guided by the Haldane Principle, the idea that decisions are best made by researchers independently from government. Research council funding competitions use open peer review, there are seven Research Councils, The MRCs headquarters is in central London and the other six research councils and the RCUK operate from a single complex in Swindon. In 2007 the Government raised the status of the Technology Strategy Board to become, in effect, the TSB has set up its headquarters next door to the Swindon offices of the research councils. Government funding of science in the United Kingdom began in 1675 when the Royal Observatory was established in Greenwich. This trend continued in the 19th century with the creation of the British Geological Survey in 1832, by the First World War in 1915, claims about the poor state of British manufacturing compared to Germanys led to the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. It was a part of government, staffed by servants who distributed grants, operated laboratories. Examples included the Radio Research Station, established in Ditton Park in 1924, lord Hailsham dubbed this separation of duties as the Haldane principle in 1964 when he was Minister of Science, it has remained a guiding principle ever since. In 1931 the Agricultural Research Council was established by incorporating 12 major agricultural research institutes that had created in England. In 1949 Nature Conservancy was established as a Research Council in all, the National Research Development Corporation was also created to provide financial assistance for the development of inventions. In 1957 the National Institute for Research in Nuclear Science was formed to operate the Rutherford High Energy Laboratory, to respond to this growth, in 1963 Sir Burke Trend chaired a committee to enquire into the organisation of civil science. Under the control of the Department of Education and Science, the Science & Technology Act of 1965 created both the Science Research Council and the Natural Environment Research Council, NERC incoporporated the Nature Conservancy and British Geological Survey. In 1981, the emphasis in policy on innovation rather than pure science increased so the SRC became the Science, in 1983 the ARC also changed its focus to outputs rather than methods to become the Agricultural and Food Research Council. Given a lack of control over exchange rate fluctuations and the need to meet commitments, cuts regularly fell on the short-term grants
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