1.
B. J. Habibie
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Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie pronunciation is an Indonesian engineer who was President of Indonesia from 1998 to 1999. He succeeded Suharto, who resigned in 1998 and his presidency is seen as a transition to the post-Suharto era. Upon becoming president, he liberalized Indonesias press and political party laws, and held an early election in 1999. His presidency was the third, and the shortest, after independence, Habibie was born in Parepare, South Sulawesi Province to Alwi Abdul Jalil Habibie and R. A. Tuti Marini Puspowardojo. His father was an agriculturist from Gorontalo descent and his mother was a Javanese noblewoman from Yogyakarta and his parents met while studying in Bogor. Habibies father died when he was 14 years old, in 1960, Habibie received a engineers degree in Germany with the title Diplom-Ingenieur. He remained in Germany as an assistant under Hans Ebner at the Lehrstuhl und Institut für Leichtbau. In 1962, Habibie returned to Indonesia for three months on sick leave, during this time, he was reacquainted with Hasri Ainun, the daughter of R. Mohamad Besari. Habibie had known Hasri Ainun in childhood, junior school and in senior high school at SMA Kristen Dago. The two married on 12 May 1962, returning to Germany shortly afterwards, Habibie and his wife settled in Aachen for a short period before moving to Oberforstbach. In May 1963 they had a son, Ilham Akbar Habibie, when Habibies minimum wage salary forced him into part-time work, he found employment with the automotive marque Talbot, where he became an advisor. Habibie worked on two projects received funding from Deutsche Bundesbahn. Due to his work with Makosh, the head of train constructions offered his position to Habibie upon retirement three years later, but Habibie refused. In 1965, Habibie delivered his thesis in engineering and received the grade of very good for his dissertation. During the same year, he accepted Hans Ebners offer to continue his research on Thermoelastisitas and work toward his Habilitation and his thesis about light construction for supersonic or hypersonic states also attracted offers of employment from companies such as Boeing and Airbus, which Habibie again declined. Habibie did accept a position with Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm in Hamburg, there, he developed theories on thermodynamics, construction, and aerodynamics known as the Habibie Factor, Habibie Theorem, and Habibie Method, respectively. He worked for Messerschmit on the development of the Airbus A-300B aircraft, in 1974, he was promoted to vice president of the company. In 1974, Suharto recruited Habibie to return to Indonesia as part of Suhartos drive to industrialize, Habibie initially served as a special assistant to Ibnu Sutowo, the CEO of state oil company Pertamina
2.
Batik
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Batik is a technique of wax-resist dyeing applied to whole cloth, or cloth made using this technique. Batik is made either by drawing dots and lines of the resist with a tool called a canting. In October 2009, UNESCO designated Indonesian batik as a Masterpiece of Oral, the word batik is Javanese in origin. It may either come from the Javanese word amba and titik, the word is first recorded in English in the Encyclopædia Britannica of 1880, in which it is spelled battik. It is attested in the Indonesian Archipelago during the Dutch colonial period in various forms, mbatek, mbatik, batek, wax resist dyeing of fabric is an ancient art form. It already existed in Egypt in the 4th century BC, where it was used to wrap mummies, linen was soaked in wax, in Asia, the technique was practised in China during the Tang Dynasty, and in India and Japan during the Nara Period. In Africa it was practised by the Yoruba tribe in Nigeria, Soninke. These African version however, uses cassava starch or rice paste, the art of batik is most highly developed in the island of Java in Indonesia. In Java, all the materials for the process are readily available — cotton and beeswax, Indonesian batik predates written records, G. P. Rouffaer argues that the technique might have been introduced during the 6th or 7th century from India or Sri Lanka. On the other hand, the Dutch archaeologist J. L. A, brandes and the Indonesian archaeologist F. A. Rouffaer reported that the gringsing pattern was already known by the 12th century in Kediri, East Java. The motif is thought to represent the lotus, a flower in Hindu-Buddhist beliefs. This evidence suggests that intricate batik fabric patterns applied with the canting existed in 13th-century Java or even earlier. In Europe, the technique was described for the first time in the History of Java, published in London in 1817 by Stamford Raffles, in 1873 the Dutch merchant Van Rijckevorsel gave the pieces he collected during a trip to Indonesia to the ethnographic museum in Rotterdam. Today the Tropenmuseum houses the biggest collection of Indonesian batik in the Netherlands, the Dutch and Chinese colonists were active in developing batik, particularly coastal batik, in the late colonial era. They introduced new patterns as well as the use of the cap to mass-produce batiks, displayed at the Exposition Universelle at Paris in 1900, the Indonesian batik impressed the public and artists. In the 1920s, Javanese batik makers migrating to Malaya introduced the use of wax, in Subsaharan Africa, Javanese batik was introduced in the 19th century by Dutch and English traders. The local people there adapted the Javanese batik, making larger motifs with thicker lines, in the 1970s, batik was introduced to Australia, where aboriginal artists at Erna Bella have developed it as their own craft. Firstly, a cloth is washed, soaked and beaten with a large mallet, patterns are drawn with pencil and later redrawn using hot wax, usually made from a mixture of paraffin or bees wax, sometimes mixed with plant resins, which functions as a dye-resist
3.
Kebaya
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It is sometimes made from sheer material such as silk, thin cotton or semi-transparent nylon or polyester, adorned with brocade or floral pattern embroidery. A kebaya is usually worn with a sarong, or a batik kain panjang, or other traditional woven garment such as ikat, the kebaya is the national costume of Indonesia, although it is more accurately endemic to the Javanese, Malay, Sundanese and Balinese peoples. Kebaya is inspired from Arab region clothing, the Arabic word abaya means clothing, aceh, Riau and Johor Kingdoms and Northern Sumatra adopted the Javanese style kebaya as a means of social expression of status with the more alus or refined Javanese overlords. The name of Kebaya as a particular clothing type was noted by the Portuguese when they landed in Indonesia, Kebaya is associated with a type of blouse worn by Indonesian women in 15th or 16th century. The earliest photographics evidence of the kebaya as known today date from 1857 of Javanese, Peranakan, the quintessential kebaya is the Javanese kebaya as known today is essentially unchanged as noted by Raffles in 1817. It consists of the blouse of cotton, silk, lace, brocade or velvet, traditional kebaya had no buttons down the front. A typical three-piece kerongsang is composed of a kerongsang ibu that is larger and heavier than the other two kerongsang anak, the blouse is commonly semi-transparent and worn over the torso wrap or kemben. The skirt or kain is an unstitched fabric wrap around three metres long, the blouse, known as baju kebaya may be of two main forms, the semi-transparent straighter cut blouse of Java, Bali, and the more tightly tailored Sunda kebaya. In Java, Bali and Sunda, the kain is commonly batik which may be from plain stamped cotton to elaborately hand-painted batik tulis embroidered silk with gold thread, in Lampung, the kain is the traditional tapis, an elaborate gold-thread embroidered ikat with small mica discs. Sumatra, Flores, Lemata Timor, and other islands commonly use kain of ikat or songket, sumba is famous for kain decorated with lau hada, shells and beads. In Malacca, Malaysia, a different variety of kebaya is called nyonya kebaya and worn by those of Chinese ancestry, the Nyonya kebaya is different in its famously intricately hand-beaded shoes and use of kain with Chinese motive batik or imported printed or hand-painted Chinese silks. Other than Malacca, the nyonya kebaya is also popular in other settlements, Penang. In Java, the worn by ladies of Chinese ancestry is called kebaya encim. It was commonly worn by Chinese ladies in Javan coastal cities with significant Chinese settlements, such as Semarang, Lasem, Tuban, Surabaya, Pekalongan and Cirebon. It marked differently from Javanese kebaya with its smaller and finer embroidery, lighter fabrics and more vibrant colors, made from imported materials such as silk, the encim kebaya fit well with vibrant-colored kain batik pesisiran. During the Dutch East Indies era of Indonesia, European women of high status adopted the kebaya, European women wore shorter sleeves and total length cotton in prints. The only woman present during Indonesias Proclamation of Independence, Dutch-educated activist SK Trimurti, wore kebaya, in Java, Bali and Sunda it is the kebaya. Kebayas as the costume of Indonesian women were often featured by Indonesian first ladies
4.
Songkok
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The songkok or peci or kopiah is a cap widely worn in Indonesia, Brunei, Malaysia, Singapore, the southern Philippines and southern Thailand, mostly among Muslim males. It has the shape of a cone, usually made of black or embroidered felt. It is also worn by males in formal situations such as wedding feasts, funerals or festive occasions such as the Muslim Eid ul-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. Songkok came to be associated with Islam in Brunei, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and it is called songkok in the Ethnic Malay cultural sphere in Malay Archipelago. While in Java, it is called kopiah or kopeah and it is also known widely in Indonesia as peci, although peci has a more ellipse shape and sometimes decorated. The name peci was probably derived from the Dutch word petje means literary small hat, all names refer to the same object. The origin of the songkok can be traced to the fez, the songkok used to be worn during the Ottoman Empire and in some parts of Africa. One Brunei newspaper account erroneously states that the songkok became a norm in Malay Archipelago in the 13th century with the coming of Islam in the region, the earliest written mention of the word songkok is in Syair Siti Zubaidah. The Malay Regiment have been using the songkok as part of their uniform since under British rule, traditionally songkok are associated with Muslim mens cap. However, in Indonesia, the songkok has become the national headress with secular nationalist connotations made popular by Sukarno, numbers of Indonesian nationalist movement activist in early 20th century wore peci such as Sukarno, Muhammad Hatta, and Agus Salim. Indonesian official palace guards also wore peci as part of their uniform, the Paskibraka or flag raising squad in Indonesian independence day ceremony also wear peci, and there is even female peci version with curved back. In Malaysia, traditional male Malay attire consists of a songkok, shirt, matching pants, in a Dewan Undangan Negeri or in Dewan Rakyat, a member is required to wear the songkok to comply with the dress code of the assembly. In Singapore, the songkok is not allowed to be worn in government schools as part of the uniform as Singapore is officially a secular state and it is part of the standard uniform at madrasahs. The songkok also once plays a role in the heraldry of the defunct-Sultanate of Sulu, dhaka topi Gandhi cap Fez Yarmulke
5.
Folk costume
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A folk costume expresses an identity through costume, which is usually associated with a geographic area or a period of time in history. It can also indicate social, marital and/or religious status, such costumes often come in two forms, one for everyday occasions, the other for festivals and formal wear. Following the outbreak of nationalism, the peasantry of Europe came to serve as models for all that appeared genuine. Their dress crystallised into so-called typical forms, and enthusiasts adopted that attire as part of their symbolism, in areas where Western dress codes have become usual, traditional garments are often worn at special events or celebrations, particularly those connected with cultural traditions, heritage or pride. International events may cater for non-Western attendees with a dress code such as business suit or national dress. In modern times, there are instances where traditional garments are required by sumptuary laws, in Bhutan, the traditional Tibetan-style clothing of gho and kera for men, kira and toego for women, must be worn by all citizens, including those not of Tibetan heritage. In Saudi Arabia, women are required to wear the abaya in public. Tibet – Chuba Inner Mongolia – Deel Japan – Kimono, Junihitoe, Sokutai Korea – Hanbok Mongolia – Deel Taiwan – Hanfu, Every ethnic group in the country has their national costume. Kebayas, sarongs and the Beskap jacket of the Javanese and the Kain batik, vietnam – Áo giao lĩnh, Áo dài, Áo tứ thân, Áo bà ba. Abkhazia – Chokha Armenia – Each region has its own style of folk costume, kuwait – Thawb Oman – Dishdasha Ossetia – Chokha Qatar – Kandura Palestine – Keffiyeh, Taqiyah, Palestinian costumes. Saudi Arabia – Thawb, Ghutrah, Agal, Bisht, Abaya, Jilbab, Niqab Syria – Dishdasha Turkey – Fez, Kaftan, Shalvar. United Arab Emirates – Kandura Yemen – Similar to Saudi Arabia, scotland – Highland dress, Kilt or trews, tam oshanter or Balmoral bonnet, doublet, Aboyne dress, and brogues or ghillies. Greek fishermans caps in many villages by the Aegean sea. Italy – Italian folk dance costumes, Roman clothing, Toga, Stola South Tyrol – Tracht, slovenia – Gorenjska noša Spain – Every autonomous region has its own national costume. For example, Bavarias well-known Tracht, Lederhosen and Dirndl, liechtenstein – Tracht, Dirndl Netherlands – Dutch cap, Klompen, poffer Switzerland – Every canton has its own specific design of a national costume. A good example is seen in the attire of Paul Bunyan. Deep South and other parts of the American South – Traditional Southern US wear includes white seersucker suits and string ties for men and these short pants remained commonplace among young urban American boys until the mid 20th century. Nantucket – Summer residents of Nantucket will often wear Nantucket Reds, amish, the Pennsylvania Dutch and some sects of Mormon fundamentalism preserve traditional 19th century clothing styles
6.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
7.
Culture of Indonesia
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The culture of Indonesia has been shaped by long interaction between original indigenous customs and multiple foreign influences. The result is a cultural mixture very different from the original indigenous cultures. Balinese dances have stories about ancient Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms, while Islamic art forms and architecture are present in Sumatra, especially in the Minangkabau, traditional art, music and sport are combined in a martial art form called Pencak Silat. The Western world has influenced Indonesia in science, technology and modern entertainment such as shows, film and music, as well as political system. India has notably influenced Indonesian songs and movies, a popular type of song is the Indian-rhythmical dangdut, which is often mixed with Arab and Malay folk music. Despite the influences of culture, some remote Indonesian regions still preserve uniquely indigenous culture. Indigenous ethnic groups Mentawai, Asmat, Dani, Dayak, Toraja and many others are still practising their ethnic rituals, customs, Indonesia is home to with those from the islands of Java, Sumatra and Bali being frequently recorded. The traditional music of central and East Java and Bali is the gamelan, on 29 June 1965, Koes Plus, a leading Indonesian pop group in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, was imprisoned in Glodok, West Jakarta, for playing Western-style music. After the resignation of President Sukarno, the law was rescinded, Kroncong is a musical genre that uses guitars and ukulele as the main musical instruments. This genre had its roots in Portugal and was introduced by Portuguese traders in the 15th century, There is a traditional Keroncong Tugu music group in North Jakarta and other traditional Keroncong music groups in Maluku, with strong Portuguese influences. This music genre was popular in the first half of the 20th century, the soft Sasando music from the province of East Nusa Tenggara in West Timor is completely different. Sasando uses an instrument made from a leaf of the Lontar palm. Indonesian dance reflects the diversity of culture from ethnic groups that composed the nation of Indonesia, each ethnic group has their own distinct dances, makes total dances in Indonesia are more than 3000 Indonesian original dances. However, the dances of Indonesia can be divided into three eras, the Prehistoric Era, the Hindu/Buddhist Era and the Era of Islam, and into two genres, court dance and folk dance. There is a continuum in the traditional dances depicting episodes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata from India, ranging through Thailand, There is a marked difference, though, between the highly stylised dances of the courts of Yogyakarta and Surakarta and their popular variations. While the court dances are promoted and even performed internationally, the forms of dance art. During the last few years, Saman from Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam has become popular and is often portrayed on TV. Reog Ponorogo is also a dance that originated from the district Ponorogo, East Java, which is a visualisation of the legendary story Wengker kingdom and the kingdom of Kediri
8.
Java
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Java is an island of Indonesia. With a population of over 141 million or 145 million as of 2015 Census released in December 2015, the Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is located on western Java. Much of Indonesian history took place on Java and it was the center of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. Java was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s, Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Formed mostly as the result of eruptions, Java is the 13th largest island in the world. A chain of mountains forms an east–west spine along the island. Three main languages are spoken on the island, Javanese, Sundanese, of these, Javanese is the dominant, it is the native language of about 60 million people in Indonesia, most of whom live on Java. Furthermore, most residents are bilingual, speaking Indonesian as their first or second language, while the majority of the people of Java are Muslim, Java has a diverse mixture of religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures. Java is divided into four provinces, West Java, Central Java, East Java, and Banten, the origins of the name Java are not clear. One possibility is that the island was named after the plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time. There are other sources, the word jaú and its variations mean beyond or distant. And, in Sanskrit yava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous, Yawadvipa is mentioned in Indias earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Ramas army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa and it was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name yāvaka dvīpa. Java is mentioned in the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai by Chithalai Chathanar that states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram, another source states that the Java word is derived from a Proto-Austronesian root word, Iawa that meaning home. The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned in Ptolemys Geographia composed around 150 CE Roman Empire, Iabadiu is said to mean barley island, to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicate Java, and seems to be derived from Hindu name Java-dvipa, Java lies between Sumatra to the west and Bali to the east. Borneo lies to the north and Christmas Island is to the south and it is the worlds 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the Java Sea to the north, Sunda Strait to the west, Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin, it contains thirty-eight mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes
9.
Bali
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Bali is an island and province of Indonesia. The province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller neighbouring islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan and it is located at the westernmost end of the Lesser Sunda Islands, between Java to the west and Lombok to the east. Its capital, Denpasar, is located in the part of the island. With a population of 3,890,757 in the 2010 census, and 4,225,000 as of January 2014, the island is home to most of Indonesias Hindu minority. According to the 2010 Census,83. 5% of Balis population adhered to Balinese Hinduism, followed by 13. 4% Muslim, Christianity at 2. 5%, Bali is a popular tourist destination, which has seen a significant rise in tourists since the 1980s. Tourism-related business makes up 80% of its economy and it is renowned for its highly developed arts, including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music. The Indonesian International Film Festival is held every year in Bali, in March 2017, Tripadvisor named the island the worlds top destination in its Travelers choice award. Bali is part of the Coral Triangle, the area with the highest biodiversity of marine species, in this area alone over 500 reef building coral species can be found. For comparison, this is about 7 times as many as in the entire Caribbean, most recently, Bali was the host of the 2011 ASEAN Summit,2013 APEC and Miss World 2013. Bali is the home of the Subak Irrigation System, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Bali was inhabited around 2000 BC by Austronesian people who migrated originally from Southeast Asia and Oceania through Maritime Southeast Asia. Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are closely related to the people of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the islands west. In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, namely Pasupata, Bhairawa, Siwa Shidanta, Waisnawa, Bodha, Brahma, Resi, Sora, each sect revered a specific deity as its personal Godhead. Inscriptions from 896 and 911 dont mention a king, until 914 and they also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, where Buddhism and Sivaism were practiced simultaneously. Mpu Sindoks great-granddaughter, Mahendradatta, married the Bali king Udayana Warmadewa around 989 and this marriage also brought more Hinduism and Javanese culture to Bali. Suradhipa reigned from 1115 to 1119, and Jayasakti from 1146 until 1150, jayapangus appears on inscriptions between 1178 and 1181, while Adikuntiketana and his son Paramesvara in 1204. Balinese culture was influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture. The name Bali dwipa has been discovered from inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD. It was during this time that the people developed their complex irrigation system subak to grow rice in wet-field cultivation, some religious and cultural traditions still practiced today can be traced to this period
10.
Javanese people
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The Javanese are an ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Java. With approximately 100 million people, they form the largest ethnic group in Indonesia and they are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of the island. There are also significant numbers of people of Javanese descent in most Provinces of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Suriname, Saudi Arabia, the Javanese ethnic group has many sub-groups, such as the Mataram, Cirebonese, Osing, Tenggerese, Samin, Naganese, Banyumasan, etc. A majority of the Javanese people identify themselves as Muslims, with a minority identifying as Christians, Hindu and Buddhist influences arrived through trade contacts with the Indian subcontinent. Hindu and Buddhist - traders and visitors, arrived in the 5th century, the Hindu, Buddhist and Javanese faiths blended into a unique local philosophy. The cradle of Javanese culture is described as being in Kedu. The earliest Sanjaya and Sailendra dynasties had their base there. The move was most likely caused by the eruption of Merapi and/or invasion from Srivijaya. The major spread of Javanese influence occurred under King Kertanegara of Singhasari in the late 13th century, the expansionist king launched several major expeditions to Madura, Bali in 1284, Borneo and most importantly to Sumatra in 1275. Following the defeat of the Melayu Kingdom, Singhasari controlled trade in the Strait of Malacca, Singhasari dominance was cut short in 1292 by Kediris rebellion under Jayakatwang, killing Kertanegara. However, Jayakatwangs reign as king of Java soon ended as he was defeated by Kertanegaras son-in-law, Raden Wijaya would later establish Majapahit near the delta of the Brantas River in modern-day Mojokerto, East Java. Kertanegara policies were continued by the Majapahits under King Hayam Wuruk. Various kingdoms of Java were actively involved in the trade in the sea route of the Silk Road. Although not major producers, these kingdoms were able to stockpile spice by trading for it with rice. Majapahit is usually regarded as the greatest of these kingdoms and it was both an agrarian and a maritime power, combining wet-rice cultivation and foreign trade. The ruin of their capital can be found in Trowulan, Islam gained its foothold in port towns on Javas northern coast such as Gresik, Ampel Denta, Tuban, Demak and Kudus. The spread and proselytising of Islam among the Javanese was traditionally credited to Wali Songo, Java underwent major changes as Islam spread. Following succession disputes and civil wars, Majapahit power collapsed, after this collapse, its various dependencies and vassals broke free
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Sundanese people
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The Sundanese are an ethnic group native to the western part of the Indonesian island of Java. They number approximately 40 million, and are the second most populous of all the nations ethnicities, in their own language, Sundanese, the group is referred to as Urang Sunda, and Orang Sunda or Suku Sunda in the national language, Indonesian. The Sundanese have traditionally been concentrated in the provinces of West Java, Banten, Jakarta, Sundanese migrants can also be found in Lampung and South Sumatra. The provinces of Central Java and East Java are home to the Javanese, the name Sunda derives from the Sanskrit prefix su- which means goodness or possessing good quality. The example is used to describe gold. Sunda is also name for Hindu God Vishnu. In Sanskrit, the term Sundara or Sundari means beautiful or excellence, the term Sunda also means bright, light, purity, cleanness and white. The Sundanese are of Austronesian origins who are thought to have originated in Taiwan, migrated though the Philippines, the Sunda Wiwitan belief contains the mythical origin of Sundanese people, Sang Hyang Kersa, the supreme divine being in ancient Sundanese belief created seven bataras in Sasaka Pusaka Buana. The oldest of these bataras is called Batara Cikal and is considered the ancestor of the Kanekes people, other six bataras ruled various locations in Sunda lands in Western Java. This legend suggested the Parahyangan highland as the playland or the abode of gods, the earliest historical polity appeared in Sundanese realm in Western part of Java was the kingdom of Tarumanagara, flourished between 4th to 7th century. Hindu influences have reached Sundanese people as early as the 4th century CE as evident in Tarumanagara inscriptions, the adoption of these dharmic faith in Sundanese way of life however, was never as intense as their Javanese counterpart. It seems that despite the court began to adopt Hindu-Buddhist culture and institution. By the 4th century, the megalithic culture probably still alive. Court cultures flourished in ancient times, for example, during the era of Sunda Kingdom, however, the Sundanese appear not to have had the resources nor desire to construct large religious monuments similar to those built by Javanese in Central and East Java. Geographic constrains that isolate each regions, also led Sundanese village to enjoy their simple way of life and that was probably the factors that would contribute to the carefree nature, egalitarian, conservative, independent and somewhat individualistic social outlook of Sundanese people. The Sundanese seems to love and revere their nature in spiritual ways, the conservative tendency and somewhat their opposition of foreign influences, is demonstrated in extreme isolationist measures adopted keenly by Kanekes or Baduy people. They have these rules against interacting to outsiders and adopting foreign ideas, technology and they also has set some taboos, such as not to cut the trees nor harm the forest creatures, in order to conserve their natural ecosystem. One of the earliest historical record that mention the name Sunda appear in Sanghyang Tapak inscription dated 952 saka discovered in Cibadak, near Sukabumi
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Balinese people
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The Balinese are an ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Bali. The Balinese population of 4.2 million live mostly on the island of Bali, there are also significant populations on the island of Lombok, and in the eastern-most regions of Java. The Balinese originated from three periods of migration, the first waves of immigrants came from Java and Kalimantan in prehistoric times and were of proto-Malay stock. The second wave of Balinese came slowly over the years from Java during the Hindu period and this in turn reshaped the Balinese culture into a syncretic form of classical Javanese culture mixed with many Balinese elements. A DNA study in 2005 by Karafet et al. found that 12% of Balinese Y-chromosomes are of likely Indian origin, while 84% are of likely Austronesian origin, Balinese culture is a mix of Balinese Hindu-Buddhist religion and Balinese customs. It is perhaps most known for its dance, drama and sculpture, the island is also known for its Wayang kulit or Shadow play theatre. Even in poor rural and neglected villages, beautiful temples are a common sight, even layered pieces of palm leaf and neat fruit arrangements made as offerings by Balinese women have an artistic side to them. Balinese artists are skilled in duplicating art works such as carvings that resemble Chinese deities or decorating vehicles based on what is seen in foreign magazines. The culture is noted for its use of the gamelan in music, each type of music is designated for a specific type of event. For example, music for a piodalan is different from music used for a ceremony, just as it is for weddings, Ngaben, Melasti. The diverse types of gamelan are also specified according to the different types of dance in Bali, according to Walter Spies, the art of dancing is an integral part of Balinese life as well as an endless critical element in a series of ceremonies or for personal interests. Traditionally, displaying of female breasts is not regarded as immodest, Balinese women can often be seen with bared chests, however, a display of the thigh is considered immodest. In modern Bali these customs are not strictly observed. In the Balinese naming system, a rank of birth or caste is reflected in the name. A puputan is an act of mass suicide through frontal assaults in battle, the latest act of puputan was during the Indonesian war of Independence, with Lt. Colonel I Gusti Ngurah Rai as the leader in the battle of Margarana. The airport in Bali is named after him in commemoration, the vast majority of the Balinese believe in Agama Tirta, holy-water religion. It is a Shivaite sect of Hinduism, traveling Indian priests are said to have introduced the people to the sacred literature of Hinduism and Buddhism centuries ago. The people accepted it and combined it with their own pre-Hindu mythologies, the Balinese from before the third wave of immigration, known as the Bali Aga, are mostly not followers of Agama Tirta, but retain their own animist traditions
13.
Indonesia Museum
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The Indonesia Museum, is an anthropology and ethnological museum located in Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, Jakarta, Indonesia. The museum is concentrated on arts and cultures of ethnic groups that inhabit Indonesian archipelago. The museum is a richly decorated building in Balinese architecture, it houses traditional and contemporary arts, crafts, if tourist wants to take a picture with their camera, a ticket pass of Rp.5000 must be given to the counter in the first floor. However, it is free to take pictures with cellphones, the museum was designed as the integral part of the whole Taman Mini Indonesia Indah complex. It was meant as a center of Indonesian culture, one stop to learn about Indonesia. The museum and the whole TMII complex was built and inaugurated in 1975 under the patronage of Mrs. Tien Suharto, the museum is elaborately decorated with Balinese statues and ornaments. It was built in exquisite Balinese architectural style, some large Paduraksa and Candi Bentar style Balinese gates, as well as several corner towers adorn the complex. The museum park took the theme of Ramayana Hindu epic, such as the bridge to main building took form of Nāga serpents with vanara ape army that built a bridge to Lanka. The permanent exhibit and collections of Indonesia museum is arranged within three sections located on three floors. The theme of first floor exhibit is Bhinneka Tunggal Ika and it features traditional formal dress and wedding costumes of 27 provinces of Indonesia. The exhibit also displays Indonesian artforms, such as types of dances, wayang and gamelan. Manusia dan Lingkungan is the theme of second floor exhibit and it meant to showcase the interactions of Indonesian people with their nature and environment. The exhibit featured different traditional houses, religious buildings, rice barn, such as the houses that built on elevated platform, built on trees or on the river, and various style of traditional vernacular buildings. The dioramas of the parts of Indonesian traditional houses is also in display, such as Palembang wedding room, Javanese middle living room, the objects used in daily life, such as for hunting, gathering, farming, and agriculture objects also in display. Seni dan Kriya is the theme of third floor, the room showcases the traditional and contemporary arts and crafts of Indonesian people. Traditional textile crafts such as Songket, Tenun, and Batik is in display as well as metal, the intricate traditional wooden carving traditions, such as the ones belongs to the Jepara, Bali, Toraja, and Asmat culture also in display on this floor. The centerpiece of this section is a wooden carving of Kalpataru tree. This eight meters high and four meters wide tree symbolize the nature and universe and contains five basic elements, air, water, wind, earth, the centerpiece conclude the whole displays of the museum
14.
East Java
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East Java is a province of Indonesia. Its capital is Surabaya, the second largest city in Indonesia, the Dinoyo inscriptions found near the city of Malang is the oldest written sources in East Java, written in the year AD760. This inscription tells many political and cultural events in the Kingdom of Dinoyo, Malang name itself is estimated to come from the name of a sacred building called Malangkuseswara. This name is contained in at least one inscription, namely, in 1222, Ken Arok founded the Kingdom of Singhasari. He ruled the kingdom until 1292, before coming to power, Ken Arok seize power in Tumapel, Kediri from Tungul Ametung. Ken Arok dynastys descendants became kings of Singhasari and Majapahit in the 13th century until the 15th century, in 1227, Anusapati kill Ken Arok. Anusapati power only lasted 20 years, three years later, Tohjaya killed in the uprising led by Jaya Wisnuwardhana, son of Anusapati. In 1268, Wisnuwardhana died, his throne as the king of Singasari was replaced by Kertanegara, in 1292 knowledge, Kertanegara defeated by a rebel named Jayakatwang, it ended Kertanegara power, ending the history of Singhasari. In 1294, the Kingdom of Majapahit was founded, Majapahit reached its peak during the reign of Hayam Wuruk. He was accompanied by the mahapatih Gajah Mada, together they managed to unite the vast territory under the name Dwipantara. In 1357, the Bubat event occurred, the war between the King of Sunda and the Majapahit Patih Gajah Mada and this event stems from the desire to take the king Hayam Wuruk Sundanese princess named Dyah Pitaloka as queen. However, because of a misunderstanding about the procedure of marriage, Majapahit troops, under the command of Gajah Mada conquered Pajajaran in the Bubat war. This era is the beginning of the collapse of Majapahit, one of them due to their disappointment Hayam Wuruk other children, namely Wirabumi. After that period, began the spread of Islam in Java, other developments, the Europeans started coming to the archipelago and trying to build strength. In the end they implement colonialism, at the beginning of the 20th century, the royal government system was abolished, replaced by a system of residency. During the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies, there is persistent resistance against the Japanese rule, in Blitar, an uprising by PETA occurred in early 1945. The uprising was led by Supriyadi, Moeradi, Halir Mangkudijoyo, although at the end the uprising was crushed by the Japanese, the uprising is able to rekindle the spirit of rebellion for independence to the entire people of East Java. Two weeks after the proclamation of independence, Surabaya has established its own government in shape of a resident, the first resident is R. Sudirman
15.
President of Indonesia
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The President of the Republic of Indonesia is the head of state and head of government of the Republic of Indonesia. The President leads the executive branch of the Indonesian government and is the commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, on 20 October 2014, Joko Widodo became the 7th and current President of Indonesia. The Indonesian presidency was established during the formulation of the 1945 Constitution by the Committee for Preparatory Work for Indonesian Independence, on 16 October 1945, Vice-President Mohammad Hatta announced a vice-presidential decree which turned the Central National Committee of Indonesia equal status with that of the president. On 11 November 1945, the KNIP made the decision to separate the role of Head of State with that of Head of Government, during the Indonesian National Revolution, both Sukarno and Hatta were captured by the Dutch in Yogyakarta on 18 December 1948. Sukarno then gave a mandate for Sjafruddin Prawiranegara to form an emergency Government and this was done and the Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia was formed in Sumatra with Prawiranegara as its Chairman. Prawiranegara handed back his mandate to Sukarno on 13 July 1949, on 17 December 1949, Sukarno was elected president of the Republic of the United States of Indonesia and presidential mandate passed to Assaat. When it became clear that RIS was going to be replaced by a state, Asaat stepped down from the presidency. Indonesia now adopted the constitution that had been intended for RIS, officially known as the Provisional Constitution, the document confirmed the presidents role as the Head of State, but limited him to a mostly ceremonial role. He appointed a Prime Minister on the advice of formateurs, despite his limited constitutional role, Sukarno commanded great moral authority. Nonetheless, he was never content with the role of ceremonial Head of State, the rest of the decade saw a series of unstable governments. Taking advantage of the situation, Sukarno made a speech in April 1959, the People reacted enthusiastically and there was strong pressure on the Constituante, the body responsible for formulating a new constitution, to adopt the 1945 Constitution. When the Constituante did not budge, Sukarno issued a Presidential Decree on 5 July 1959 declaring that Indonesia was returning to the 1945 Constitution and that document made the president head of government as well as head of state. In 1963, Sukarno declared himself president for Life, although Indonesia had re-adopted the 1945 Constitution, it did not mean that it was strictly adhered to. The MPR, which at this stage was still on a basis, was subservient to the president despite its status of the Nations highest Governing Body. It was only in 1966, when the tide began to turn against Sukarno that the MPRS nominally regained its rightful constitutional status. All throughout his rise to power, General Suharto seemed determined to do things constitutionally, Suharto allowed the MPR to execute its constitutional duty of formulating the Broad Outlines of State Policy whilst he as the president would be responsible for implementing GBHN. Suharto also made it an obligation to deliver accountability speeches towards the end of his terms. During the speech, Suharto outlined the achievements that his administration had made, despite the constitutional and democratic façade, Suharto made sure that the MPR was also subservient to him
16.
First Lady
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First Lady is an unofficial title used for the wife or hostess of a non-monarchical head of state or chief executive. The term is used to describe a woman seen to be at the top of her profession or art. Collectively, the President of the United States and his spouse are known as the First Couple and, if they have children, they are usually referred to as the First Family. The term is used, primarily in the U. S. to refer to the spouse of other non-monarchical heads of state. Some other countries have a title, formal or informal, that is or can be translated as first lady, the title is not normally used for the wife of a head of government who is not also head of state. The term in the United States is also used to refer to wives of governors and, less formally, to wives of college and it has even been used in reference to female spouses of men who were chairmen of major corporations. While there has never been a spouse of a U. S. President. First Gentleman is the equivalent of the title in countries where the head of states husband has been a man. The designation First Lady seems to have originated in the United States, in the early days of the United States, there was no generally accepted title for the wife of the president. Many early first ladies expressed their own preference for how they were addressed, indulging in no indolence, she left the pillow at dawn, and after breakfast, retired to her chamber for an hour for the study of the scriptures and devotion. However, the term first lady would not come into use until the late 1800s. Harriet Lane, niece of bachelor President James Buchanan, was the first woman to be called first lady while actually serving in that position. The phrase appeared in Frank Leslies Illustrated Monthly in 1860, when he wrote, The Lady of the White House, and by courtesy, once Harriet Lane was called first lady, the term was applied retrospectively to her predecessors. The title first gained recognition in 1877, when Mary C. Ames wrote an article in the New York City newspaper The Independent describing the inauguration of President Rutherford B and she used the term to describe his wife, Lucy Webb Hayes. The current First Lady of the United States is Melania Trump, the entire family of the head of state may be known familiarly as the First Family. The spouse of the second-in-command may be known as the Second Lady, less frequently, the family would be known as the Second Family. The spouse of the governor of a U. S. state is referred to as the First Lady or First Gentleman of that state
17.
Joko Widodo
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Joko Widodo is the seventh President of Indonesia, in office since 2014. Previously he was the Mayor of Surakarta from 2005 to 2012 and he is the first Indonesian president without a high-ranking political or military background. Jokowi was nominated by his party, the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle, Jokowi was elected as Governor of Jakarta on 20 September 2012 after a second round runoff election in which he defeated the incumbent governor Fauzi Bowo. Jokowis win was seen as reflecting popular voter support for new or clean leaders rather than the old style of politics in Indonesia. His nomination as PDI-P candidate for the 2014 presidential election was announced on 14 March 2014, the presidential election was held on 9 July 2014. After some controversy about the result of the election, Jokowi was named as president-elect on 22 July, Joko Widodo is of Javanese descent. Before changing his name, Jokowi was called Mulyono and his father came from Karanganyar, his grandparents came from a village in Boyolali. His education began in State Primary School 111, Tirtoyoso, known for being a school for the wealthy citizens. At the age of twelve, he started working in his fathers furniture workshop, the evictions he experienced three times in his childhood affected his way of thinking and his leadership later on as the mayor of Surakarta as he organised housing in the city. After primary school, he continued his studies in SMP Negeri 1 Surakarta and he had wanted to continue his education in SMA Negeri 1 Surakarta, but he failed the entrance exam and went to SMA Negeri 6 Surakarta instead. Joko Widodo graduated from Faculty of Forestry at Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta in 1985 to study, Jokowi began his tenure at a state-owned enterprise company called PT Kertas Kraft Aceh, but went home not long after due to his disinterest. He then began working for his grandfathers furniture factory, before establishing his own company called Rakabu, the companys fine product has its fame heard internationally, as they are also exported to the Western World. It was in France where his furniture product first start penertrating European market and this brought Widodo to a customer named Bernard, who gave him the nickname he is famous for, Jokowi. Ultimately he was inspired to become a politician so that he can transform his hometown, Surakarta, Jokowi ran for mayoral race in 2005 together with his running mate, F. X. Hadi Rudyatmo, winning 36. 62% of the vote against the incumbent Slamet Suryanto and 2 other candidates, when he first ran for the office of mayor of Surakarta, his background as a property and furniture businessman was questioned. He adopted the development framework of European cities into his own city of Surakarta, in 2007, Surakarta had also hosted the World Music Festival which was held at the complex of Fort Vastenburg. The FMD in 2008 was held in the Mangkunegaran Palace Complex, part of Jokowis personal style was his populist can-do elements designed to build bonds with the broad electorate. Following the electric company policy to pursue a more disciplined approach to collecting overdue bills, the city government quickly authorized payment but in settling the bill protested that it should consider the public interest before taking this type of action
18.
Google
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Google is an American multinational technology company specializing in Internet-related services and products. These include online advertising technologies, search, cloud computing, software, Google was founded in 1996 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were Ph. D. students at Stanford University, in California. Together, they own about 14 percent of its shares, and they incorporated Google as a privately held company on September 4,1998. An initial public offering took place on August 19,2004, in August 2015, Google announced plans to reorganize its various interests as a conglomerate called Alphabet Inc. Google, Alphabets leading subsidiary, will continue to be the company for Alphabets Internet interests. Upon completion of the restructure, Sundar Pichai became CEO of Google, replacing Larry Page, rapid growth since incorporation has triggered a chain of products, acquisitions, and partnerships beyond Googles core search engine. The company leads the development of the Android mobile operating system, the Google Chrome web browser, and Chrome OS, the new hardware chief, Rick Osterloh, stated, a lot of the innovation that we want to do now ends up requiring controlling the end-to-end user experience. Google has also experimented with becoming an Internet carrier, alexa, a company that monitors commercial web traffic, lists Google. com as the most visited website in the world. Several other Google services also figure in the top 100 most visited websites, including YouTube, Googles mission statement, from the outset, was to organize the worlds information and make it universally accessible and useful, and its unofficial slogan was Dont be evil. In October 2015, the motto was replaced in the Alphabet corporate code of conduct by the phrase Do the right thing, Google began in January 1996 as a research project by Larry Page and Sergey Brin when they were both PhD students at Stanford University in Stanford, California. They called this new technology PageRank, it determined a websites relevance by the number of pages, and the importance of those pages, Page and Brin originally nicknamed their new search engine BackRub, because the system checked backlinks to estimate the importance of a site. Originally, Google ran under Stanford Universitys website, with the domains google. stanford. edu, the domain name for Google was registered on September 15,1997, and the company was incorporated on September 4,1998. It was based in the garage of a friend in Menlo Park, craig Silverstein, a fellow PhD student at Stanford, was hired as the first employee. The first funding for Google was an August 1998 contribution of $100,000 from Andy Bechtolsheim, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, given before Google was incorporated. At least three other investors invested in 1998, Amazon. com founder Jeff Bezos, Stanford University computer science professor David Cheriton. Author Ken Auletta claims that each invested $250,000, early in 1999, Brin and Page decided they wanted to sell Google to Excite. They went to Excite CEO George Bell and offered to sell it to him for $1 million, vinod Khosla, one of Excites venture capitalists, talked the duo down to $750,000, but Bell still rejected it. Googles initial public offering took place five years later, on August 19,2004, at that time Larry Page, Sergey Brin, and Eric Schmidt agreed to work together at Google for 20 years, until the year 2024
19.
Sundar Pichai
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Pichai Sundararajan, also known as Sundar Pichai, is an Indian American business executive. Pichai is the executive officer of Google Inc. Pichai was born in Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India, to Lakshmi, Sundar grew up in a two-room apartment on 46th Street, 7th Avenue, in Ashok Nagar, Chennai. Sundar completed schooling in Jawahar Vidyalaya, Ashok Nagar Chennai and completed the Class XII from Vana Vani school located in the IIT, Pichai earned his degree from Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur in Metallurgical Engineering. Pichai worked in engineering and product management at Applied Materials and in management consulting at McKinsey & Company and he went on to oversee the development of different applications such as Gmail and Google Maps. On 19 November 2009, Pichai gave a demonstration of Chrome OS and the Chromebook was released for trial and testing in 2011, on 20 May 2010, he announced the open-sourcing of the new video codec VP8 by Google, and introduced the new video format, WebM. On 13 March 2013, Pichai added Android to the list of Google products, Android was formerly managed by Andy Rubin. He was a director of Jive Software from April 2011 to 30 July 2013, Pichai was selected to become the next CEO of Google on 10 August 2015 after previously being appointed Product Chief by CEO, Larry Page. On 24 October 2015, once he stepped into the new position at the completion of the formation of Alphabet Inc. the new holding company for the Google company family. Pichai had been suggested as a contender for Microsofts CEO in 2014, Pichai is married, has two children, and lives in Los Altos Hills, in a home designed by Robert Swatt of Swatt Miers. Pichais interests include soccer and cricket and he is an avid fan of Lionel Messi and FC Barcelona, and he states that he watches every game of the club. Sundar Pichai on Twitter Sundar Pichais rise to fame in 90 seconds
20.
Sarong
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A sarong or sarung is a large tube or length of fabric, often wrapped around the waist, worn in South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, East Africa, and on many Pacific islands. The fabric often has woven plaid or checkered patterns, or may be colored by means of batik or ikat dyeing. Many modern sarongs have printed designs, often depicting animals or plants, the sarong is similar to or synonymous with the lungi of South India and the izaar of the Arabian Peninsula. Sarong or sarung denotes the lower garment worn by the Indonesian men and this consists of length of fabric about a yard wide and two-and-a-half yards long. This sheet is stitched at the edges to form a tube. Malay men wear sarongs woven in a pattern, women wear sarongs dyed in the batik method, with, for example, flower motifs. However, in Javanese culture, the wearing of batik sarung is not restricted to women on formal occasions such as weddings, the sarong is common wear for women, in formal settings with a kebaya blouse. Sarongs known under a variety of names are traditionally worn by the people of Yemen. Local names for the garment include fūṭah, izaar, wizār, in Hadhramawt sarong is called ṣārūn in the interior and ṣārūm in the coastal region. In Oman, sarongs are called wizār and are white in color, similar to the Keralan mundu of South Asia. In Saudi Arabia, sarongs are known as izaar, designs can be checkered or striped as well floral or arabesque, but double plaid designs from Indonesia are also very popular. In southwestern Saudi Arabia, tribal groups have their own style of unstitched izaar and this is also worn in northern Yemen. However, the groups in Yemen each have their own design for their fūṭah. It is thought that these tribal futah resemble the original izaar as worn on the Arabian Peninsula since pre-Islamic times such as the Shendyt and they are generally worn open and unstitched in such a way that the garment does not reach over ones ankles. Other izaars, often imported from Bangladesh, are the clothing of Arab fishermen of the Persian Gulf, the Indian Ocean. It was the garment for men before the introduction of pant-like pyjamas and kaftans during the Turkish. Tube-stitched as well as open sarongs are worn, even in formal dishdasha-wearing countries, as casual sleep wear and at home. A standard lungi measures 2.12 by 1.2 metres, unlike the brightly coloured Southeast Asian sarongs, the Kerala variety is more often plain white and is worn for ceremonial or religious purposes
21.
UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
22.
Silk
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Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity, Silk is produced by several insects, but generally only the silk of moth caterpillars has been used for textile manufacturing. There has been research into other types of silk, which differ at the molecular level. Silk is mainly produced by the larvae of insects undergoing complete metamorphosis, Silk production also occurs in Hymenoptera, silverfish, mayflies, thrips, leafhoppers, beetles, lacewings, fleas, flies, and midges. Other types of arthropod produce silk, most notably various arachnids such as spiders, the word silk comes from Old English sioloc, from Greek σηρικός serikos, silken, ultimately from an Asian source. Several kinds of silk, which are produced by caterpillars other than the mulberry silkworm, have been known and used in China, South Asia. However, the scale of production was far smaller than for cultivated silks. Thus, the way to obtain silk suitable for spinning into textiles in areas where commercial silks are not cultivated was by tedious. Commercial silks originate from reared silkworm pupae, which are bred to produce a silk thread with no mineral on the surface. The pupae are killed by either dipping them in boiling water before the adult moths emerge or by piercing them with a needle. These factors all contribute to the ability of the cocoon to be unravelled as one continuous thread. Wild silks also tend to be difficult to dye than silk from the cultivated silkworm. Genetic modification of domesticated silkworms is used to facilitate the production of more types of silk. Silk fabric was first developed in ancient China, the earliest example of silk fabric is from 3630 BC, and it was used as wrapping for the body of a child from a Yangshao culture site in Qingtaicun at Xingyang, Henan. Legend gives credit for developing silk to a Chinese empress, Leizu, because of its texture and lustre, silk rapidly became a popular luxury fabric in the many areas accessible to Chinese merchants. Silk was in demand, and became a staple of pre-industrial international trade. In July 2007, archaeologists discovered intricately woven and dyed silk textiles in a tomb in Jiangxi province, Silk is described in a chapter on mulberry planting by Si Shengzhi of the Western Han
23.
Cotton
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Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus Gossypium in the family of Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose, under natural conditions, the cotton bolls will tend to increase the dispersal of the seeds. The plant is a native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, Africa. The greatest diversity of wild species is found in Mexico, followed by Australia. Cotton was independently domesticated in the Old and New Worlds, the fiber is most often spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile. Current estimates for world production are about 25 million tonnes or 110 million bales annually, China is the worlds largest producer of cotton, but most of this is used domestically. The United States has been the largest exporter for many years, in the United States, cotton is usually measured in bales, which measure approximately 0.48 cubic meters and weigh 226.8 kilograms. Cotton cultivation in the region is dated to the Indus Valley Civilization, the Indus cotton industry was well-developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be used until the industrialization of India. Between 2000 and 1000 BC cotton became widespread across much of India, for example, it has been found at the site of Hallus in Karnataka dating from around 1000 BC. Cotton fabrics discovered in a cave near Tehuacán, Mexico have been dated to around 5800 BC, the domestication of Gossypium hirsutum in Mexico is dated between 3400 and 2300 BC. Cotton was grown upriver, made into nets, and traded with fishing villages along the coast for supplies of fish. The Spanish who came to Mexico and Peru in the early 16th century found the people growing cotton and this may be a reference to tree cotton, Gossypium arboreum, which is a native of the Indian subcontinent. According to the Columbia Encyclopedia, Cotton has been spun, woven and it clothed the people of ancient India, Egypt, and China. Hundreds of years before the Christian era, cotton textiles were woven in India with matchless skill, in Iran, the history of cotton dates back to the Achaemenid era, however, there are few sources about the planting of cotton in pre-Islamic Iran. The planting of cotton was common in Merv, Ray and Pars of Iran, in Persian poets poems, especially Ferdowsis Shahname, there are references to cotton. Marco Polo refers to the products of Persia, including cotton. John Chardin, a French traveler of the 17th century who visited the Safavid Persia, during the Han dynasty, cotton was grown by Chinese peoples in the southern Chinese province of Yunnan. Mohamed Ali Pasha accepted the proposition and granted himself the monopoly on the sale and export of cotton in Egypt, and later dictated cotton should be grown in preference to other crops
24.
Nylon
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Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers, more specifically aliphatic or semi-aromatic polyamides. They can be melt-processed into fibers, films or shapes, the first example of nylon was produced on February 28,1935, by Wallace Carothers at DuPonts research facility at the DuPont Experimental Station. Nylon polymers have significant commercial applications in fibers, in shapes. Nylon is made of repeating units linked by bonds and is a type of polyamide and is frequently referred to as such. Nylon was the first commercially successful synthetic thermoplastic polymer, commercially, nylon polymer is made by reacting monomers which are either lactams, acid/amines or stoichiometric mixtures of diamines and diacids. Mixtures of these can be polymerized together to make copolymers, Nylon polymers can be mixed with a wide variety of additives to achieve many different property variations. Nylon was invented accidentally by Julian W. Hill, a chemist for DuPont under Wallace Carotherss supervision and it was only given this name at the 1939 New York Worlds Fair. The patents were owned by DuPont, Nylon was intended to be a synthetic replacement for silk and substituted for it in many different products after silk became scarce during World War II. It replaced silk in military applications such as parachutes and flak vests, after initial commercialization of nylon as a fiber, applications in the form of shapes and films were also developed. The main market for nylon shapes now is in auto components, in 1940, John W. Eckelberry of DuPont stated that the letters nyl were arbitrary and the on was copied from the suffixes of other fibers such as cotton and rayon. A later publication by DuPont explained that the name was intended to be No-Run. Since the products were not really run-proof, the vowels were swapped to produce nuron, for clarity in pronunciation, the i was changed to y. Most nylons are made from the reaction of an acid with a diamine or a lactam or amino acid with itself. In the first case, the structure is so-called ABAB similar to polyesters and polyurethanes, in the second case, the repeating unit corresponds to the single monomer. It is difficult to get the proportions exactly correct, and deviations can lead to termination at molecular weights less than a desirable 10,000 daltons. To overcome this problem, a crystalline, solid nylon salt can be formed at room temperature, using an exact 1,1 ratio of the acid, the salt is crystallized to purify it and obtain the desired precise stoichiometry. Heated to 285 °C, the salt reacts to form nylon polymer with the production of water, Wallace Carothers at DuPont patented nylon 66, but overlooked the possibility to use lactams. That synthetic route was developed by Paul Schlack at IG Farben, leading to nylon 6, the peptide bond within the caprolactam is broken with the exposed active groups on each side being incorporated into two new bonds as the monomer becomes part of the polymer backbone
25.
Polyester
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Polyester is a category of polymers that contain the ester functional group in their main chain. As a specific material, it most commonly refers to a type called polyethylene terephthalate, polyesters include naturally occurring chemicals, such as in the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as synthetics through step-growth polymerization such as polybutyrate. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not and this material is used very widely in clothing. Depending on the structure, polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermoset. There are also polyester resins cured by hardeners, however, the most common polyesters are thermoplastics, industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in car tire reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and insulating material in pillows, comforters, Polyester fabrics are highly stain-resistant— in fact, the only class of dyes which can be used to alter the color of polyester fabric are what are known as disperse dyes. Polyester fibers are spun together with natural fibers to produce a cloth with blended properties. Cotton-polyester blends can be strong, wrinkle and tear-resistant, and reduce shrinking, synthetic fibers in polyester also create materials with water, wind and environmental resistance compared to plant-derived fibers. Disadvantages of cotton and polyester blends include being less breathable than cotton and they are also less fire resistant and can melt when ignited. Polyester blends have been renamed so as to suggest their similarity or even superiority to natural fibers. Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, tarpaulin, canoes, liquid crystal displays, holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire, polyesters are widely used as a finish on high-quality wood products such as guitars, pianos and vehicle/yacht interiors. Thixotropic properties of spray-applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable finish. Liquid crystalline polyesters are among the first industrially used liquid crystal polymers and they are used for their mechanical properties and heat-resistance. These traits are important in their application as an abradable seal in jet engines. Polyesters as thermoplastics may change shape after the application of heat, while combustible at high temperatures, polyesters tend to shrink away from flames and self-extinguish upon ignition. Polyester fibers have high tenacity and E-modulus as well as low water absorption and they are used in the liquid state as casting materials, in sheet molding compounds, as fiberglass laminating resins and in non-metallic auto-body fillers. They are also used as the polymer matrix in pre-pregs. Fiberglass-reinforced unsaturated polyesters find wide application in bodies of yachts and as parts of cars
26.
Brocade
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Brocade is a class of richly decorative shuttle-woven fabrics, often made in colored silks and with or without gold and silver threads. Brocade is typically woven on a draw loom and it is a supplementary weft technique, that is, the ornamental brocading is produced by a supplementary, non-structural, weft in addition to the standard weft that holds the warp threads together. The purpose of this is to give the appearance that the weave was actually embroidered on, in Guatemala, brocade is the most popular technique used to decorate fabric woven by Maya weavers on backstrap looms. Ornamental features in brocade are emphasized and wrought as additions to the fabric, sometimes stiffening it. When the weft is floating on the back, this is known as a continuous brocade, the yarns are cut away in cutwork and broché. Also, a discontinuous brocade is where the yarn is only woven in the patterned areas. Dating back to the Middle Ages, brocade fabric was one of the few luxury fabrics worn by nobility throughout China, India, Greece, Japan, Korea, Woven by the Byzantines, brocades were an especially desirable fabric. From the 4th to the 6th centuries, production of silk was seemingly non-existent, as linen, during this period, there was no public knowledge of silk fabric production except for that which was kept secret by the Chinese. Over the years, knowledge of production became known among other cultures. As silk production became known to western cultures, trade from the east began to decrease and it was discovered by Byzantine historians that in the 6th century a pair of monks brought the secret of sericulture – silk production – to the Byzantine emperor. As a result, western cultures were able to learn how to breed, raise, during the Early Middle Ages, brocade fabrics were only available to the wealthiest of people as the Byzantine Emperor charged extreme prices for the fabric. The designs woven into brocade fabrics were often Persian in origin and it was also common to see Christian subjects depicted in the complex weaves of the fabric. When these luxurious fabrics were made into clothing or wall hangings, they were at times adorned with precious and semiprecious stones, small medallions of enamel, embroidery and/or appliqués. The life of a noble during the Late Middle Ages was filled with entertainment, riding and hunting, music and dancing, all of these activities became a stage for the display of fashion. Wealthy noblemen and noblewomen dressed in silk brocades from Italy, during the 14th and 15th centuries, the Court of Burgundy was made known for their continuous fashionable tastes and luxurious dress. Brocades were also an important fabric during the Renaissance, and especially the Italian Renaissance, the complexity and high quality of luxurious silk fabrics caused Italy to become the most important and superior manufacturer of the finest silk fabrics for all of Europe. The almost sculptural lines of the fashions during the Renaissance were paired perfectly with the beauty and elegance of brocade, damask. The motifs remained Chinese, Indian and Persian in origin and were a reflection of the trading between the Far East and Italy and it is said that some Renaissance painters designed and sketched textile designs for fabrics production as well as incorporation into their paintings
27.
Embroidery
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Embroidery is the handicraft of decorating fabric or other materials with needle and thread or yarn. Embroidery may also incorporate materials such as, pearls, beads, quills. Today, embroidery is most often seen on caps, hats, coats, blankets, dress shirts, denim, stockings, Embroidery is available with a wide variety of thread or yarn color. The process used to tailor, patch, mend and reinforce cloth fostered the development of sewing techniques, indeed, the remarkable stability of basic embroidery stitches has been noted, It is a striking fact that in the development of embroidery. There are no changes of materials or techniques which can be felt or interpreted as advances from a primitive to a later, on the other hand, we often find in early works a technical accomplishment and high standard of craftsmanship rarely attained in later times. The art of embroidery has been found world-wide and several examples have been found. Works in China have been dated to the Warring States period, depending on time, location and materials available, embroidery could be the domain of a few experts or a wide-spread, popular technique. This flexibility led to a variety of works, from the royal to the mundane, in 18th century England and its colonies, samplers employing fine silks were produced by the daughters of wealthy families. Embroidery was a marking a girls path into womanhood as well as conveying rank. Conversely, embroidery is also an art, using materials that were accessible to nonprofessionals. Examples include Hardanger from Norway, Merezhka from Ukraine, Mountmellick embroidery from Ireland, Nakshi kantha from Bangladesh and West Bengal, many techniques had a practical use such as Sashiko from Japan, which was used as a way to reinforce clothing. Embroidery was an important art in the Medieval Islamic world, the 17th century Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi called it the craft of the two hands. Because embroidery was a sign of social status in Muslim societies. Craftsmen embroidered items with gold and silver thread, Embroidery cottage industries, some employing over 800 people, grew to supply these items. Taste for fine material has become general, and the drapery of embroidered fabrics used at feasts surpasses every description. The development of embroidery and its mass production came about in stages in the Industrial Revolution. The earliest machine embroidery used a combination of machine looms and teams of women embroidering the textiles by hand and this was done in France by the mid-1800s. The manufacture of machine-made embroideries in St. Gallen in eastern Switzerland flourished in the half of the 19th century
28.
Ikat
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Ikat, or ikkat, is a dyeing technique used to pattern textiles that employs resist dyeing on the yarns prior to dyeing and weaving the fabric. In ikat the resist is formed by binding individual yarns or bundles of yarns with a tight wrapping applied in the desired pattern, the bindings may then be altered to create a new pattern and the yarns dyed again with another colour. This process may be repeated multiple times to produce elaborate, multicolored patterns, when the dyeing is finished all the bindings are removed and the yarns are woven into cloth. In other resist-dyeing techniques such as tie-dye and batik the resist is applied to the woven cloth, because the surface design is created in the yarns rather than on the finished cloth, in ikat both fabric faces are patterned. A characteristic of ikat textiles is an apparent blurriness to the design, the blurriness is a result of the extreme difficulty the weaver has lining up the dyed yarns so that the pattern comes out perfectly in the finished cloth. The blurriness can be reduced by using yarns or by the skill of the craftsperson. Ikats with little blurriness, multiple colours and complicated patterns are more difficult to create, however, the blurriness that is so characteristic of ikat is often prized by textile collectors. Ikat is produced in traditional textile centres around the world, from India to Central Asia, Southeast Asia, Japan, Africa. Double ikats—in which both the warp and weft yarns are tied and dyed before being woven into a single textile—are relatively rare because of the skilled labour required to produce them. They are produced in Okinawa islands of Japan, the village of Tenganan in Indonesia, in warp ikat it is only the warp yarns that are dyed using the ikat technique. The weft yarns are dyed a solid colour, the ikat pattern is clearly visible in the warp yarns wound onto the loom even before the weft is woven in. Warp ikat is, amongst others, produced in Indonesia, more specifically in Kalimantan, Sulawesi, in weft ikat it is the weaving or weft yarn that carries the dyed patterns. Therefore, the pattern appears as the weaving proceeds. Weft ikats are much slower to weave than warp ikat because the weft yarns must be adjusted after each passing of the shuttle to maintain the clarity of the design. Double Ikat is a technique in both warp and the weft are resist-dyed prior to weaving. Obviously it is the most difficult to make and the most expensive, double ikat is only produced in three countries, India, Japan and Indonesia. The double ikat made in Patan, Gujarat in India is the most complicated, called patola, it is made using fine silk yarns and many colours. It may be patterned with a motif that is repeated many times across the length of a six-meter sari
29.
Songket
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Songket is a fabric that belongs to the brocade family of textiles of Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei. It is hand-woven in silk or cotton, and intricately patterned gold or silver threads. The metallic threads stand out against the background cloth to create a shimmering effect, in the weaving process the metallic threads are inserted in between the silk or cotton weft threads in a technique called supplementary weft weaving technique. The term songket comes from the Malay word sungkit, which means to hook and it has something to do with the method of songket making, to hook and pick a group of threads, and then slip the gold and silverthreads in it. Another theory suggested that it was constructed from the combination of two terms, tusuk and cukit that combined as sukit, modified further as sungki and finally songket, some says that the word songket was derived from songka, a Palembang cap in which gold threads was first woven. The Indonesian word menyongket means ‘to embroider with gold or silver threads’, Songket is a luxury product traditionally worn during ceremonial occasions as sarong, shoulder cloths or head ties and tanjak, a headdress songket. Songket were worn at the courts of Kingdoms in Sumatra especially the Srivijaya, as the source, traditionally women are the weavers of songket, however in this modern time men also are known to weave it as well. Songket is known in many names in vernacular Indonesian languages, other than in Sumatra and Malay peninsula, it is also commonly known as songket in Bali and Java. While it is known as songke in Manggarai, Flores, the Karo Batak of North Sumatra, call it jongkit. People in Ternate, Maluku, call it suje, while the Buginese in South Sulawesi call it subbi’ and arekare’, the historical records of use of gold thread in Indonesia is somewhat sketchy. Songket weaving is first, historically associated with areas of Malay settlement in Sumatra, in Indonesian tradition, songket is associated with Srivijaya, a wealthy 7th to 13th century maritime trading empire based on Sumatra, because Palembang is the famous songket producer in Indonesia. Songket probably developed in later period somewhere in Sumatra, the weaving of songket continues as a small cottage industry on the outskirts of Kota Bharu and Terengganu. Much documentation is sketchy about the origins of the songket but it is most likely that songket weaving was brought to Peninsular Malaysia through intermarriages between royal families and this was a common occurrence in the 15th century for sealing strategic alliances. Production was located in politically significant kingdoms because of the high cost of materials, Songket as kings dress was also mentioned by Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir writings in 1849. Songket is traditionally held as an exquisite, luxurious and prestigious traditional fabrics and they were only worn in special occasion, religious festival and traditional social function. It has become a required garment for brides and grooms in their wedding, such as the traditional wedding costumes of Palembang, Minangkabau, today, songket is mostly worn in traditional settings as traditional costumes for weddings or any traditional ceremonies. Several efforts has been conducted to promote songket as a popular fabrics for fashion, either locally, during the Dutch colonial era, West Sumatran songket were exhibited in the Netherlands. The Sawahlunto Songket Carnival was held in Sawahlunto, West Sumatra in August 2015, the songket carnival featuring parade and exhibition with participants from numbers of songket studios across West Sumatra
30.
Majapahit
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The Majapahit Empire was a vast thalassocracy based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500. Majapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk and his achievement is also credited to his prime minister, Gajah Mada. Its influence extended beyond the territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies. The name Majapahit derives from local Javanese, meaning bitter maja, german orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that maja came from the Javanese name of Aegle marmelos, an Indonesian tree. The name originally referred to the area in and around Trowulan, the cradle of Majapahit and it was said that the workers clearing the Tarik timberland encountered some bael trees and consumed its bitter-tasting fruit that subsequently become the villages name. In ancient Java it is common to refer the kingdom with its capitals name, Majapahit is also known by other names, Wilwatikta, although sometimes the natives refer to their kingdom as Bhumi Jawa or Mandala Jawa instead. Little physical evidence of Majapahit remains, and some details of the history are rather abstract, nevertheless, local Javanese people did not forget Majapahit completely, as Mojopait is mentioned vaguely in Babad Tanah Jawi, a Javanese chronicle composed in the 18th century. Majapahit did produce physical evidence, the ruins dating from the Majapahit period are clustered in the Trowulan area. The Trowulan archaeological site was discovered in the 19th century by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles and he reported the existence of ruins of temples. Scattered about the country for miles, and referred to Trowulan as this pride of Java. By the early 20th century, Dutch colonial historians began to study old Javanese and Balinese literature to explore the past of their colony, two primary sources were available to them, the Pararaton manuscript was written in the Kawi language c. 1600, and Nagarakretagama was composed in Old Javanese in 1365, Pararaton focuses on Ken Arok, the founder of Singhasari, but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. The Nagarakretagama is an old Javanese epic poem written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk, the Dutch acquired the manuscript in 1894 during their military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of Lombok. There are also inscriptions in Old Javanese and Chinese. The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements, and scholars such as C. C, berg, an Indonesia-born Dutch naturalist, have considered the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by which the future can be determined. Most scholars do not accept this view, as the record corresponds with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The list of rulers and details of the structure show no sign of being invented. The Chinese historical sources on Majapahit, mainly owed to Zheng Hes account — a Ming Dynasty admiral reports during his visit to Majapahit, Zheng Hes translator Ma Huan wrote a detailed description of Majapahit and where the king of Java lived
31.
Sukarno
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Sukarno was the first President of Indonesia, serving in office from 1945 to 1967. Sukarno was the leader of his countrys struggle for Independence from the Netherlands and he was a prominent leader of Indonesias nationalist movement during the Dutch colonial period, and spent over a decade under Dutch detention until released by the invading Japanese forces. Sukarno and his fellow nationalists collaborated to support for the Japanese war effort from the population. Upon Japanese surrender, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence on 17 August 1945 and he led Indonesians in resisting Dutch re-colonization efforts via diplomatic and military means until the Dutch acknowledgment of Indonesian independence in 1949. The early 1960s saw Sukarno veering Indonesia to the left by providing support and protection to the Indonesian Communist Party to the irritation of the military and he also embarked on a series of aggressive foreign policies under the rubric of anti-imperialism, with aid from the Soviet Union and China. The 30 September Movement led to the destruction of the PKI and his replacement in 1967 by one of his generals, Suharto, the spelling Soekarno, based on Dutch orthography, is still frequently used, mainly because he signed his name in the old spelling. Sukarno himself insisted on a u, not oe, but said that he had told in school to use the Dutch style. He said that it was too difficult to change his signature, official Indonesian presidential decrees from the period 1947–1968, however, printed his name using the 1947 spelling. The Soekarno–Hatta International Airport which serves near Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, Indonesians also remember him as Bung Karno or Pak Karno. Like many Javanese people, he had one name. He is sometimes referred to in accounts as Achmad Sukarno. The first name was added by a British journalist, who felt his readers would be confused over someone with just a single name. He was originally named KusnoJavanese pronunciation, following Javanese custom, he was renamed after surviving a childhood illness. After graduating from a primary school in 1912, he was sent to the Europeesche Lagere School in Mojokerto. Subsequently, in 1916, Sukarno went to a Hogere Burgerschool in Surabaya, where he met Tjokroaminoto, in 1920, Sukarno married Tjokroaminotos daughter Siti Oetari. In 1921, he began to study engineering at the Technische Hoogeschool te Bandoeng. During his study in Bandung, Sukarno became romantically involved with Inggit Garnasih, the wife of Sanoesi, Inggit was 13 years older than Sukarno. In March 1923, Sukarno divorced Siti Oetari to marry Inggit, Sukarno later divorced Inggit and married Fatmawati
32.
Fez
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The tarboosh and the modern fez, which is similar, owe much of their development and popularity to the Ottoman era. Geography affects culture and Fez is situated in the Berber lands between the Atlas mountains and the Western Sahara desert which experiences both high wind, and strong sunlight, the traditional local headgear is a light turban that can be pulled over the neck and face to protect the skin. Because the area is defensible it has occupied since Roman times. The fez is a part of the clothing of Cyprus. Traditionally, women wore a red fez over their heads, instead of a headscarf, the fez was sometimes worn by men with material around the base. In his 1811 journey to Cyprus, John Pinkerton describes the fez, in the Karpass Peninsula, white caps are worn, a style considered to be based on ancient Cypriot Hellenic-Phoenician attire, thus preserving mens head-wear from 2,700 years earlier. In 1826 Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire suppressed the Janissaries and his modernized military adopted Western style uniforms and, as headdresses, the fez with a cloth wrapped around it. In 1829 the Sultan ordered his officials to wear the plain fez. The intention was to coerce the populace at large to update to the fez, although tradesmen and artisans generally rejected the fez, it became a symbol of modernity throughout the Near East, inspiring similar decrees in other nations. To meet escalating demand, skilled fez makers were induced to immigrate from North Africa to Constantinople, styles soon multiplied, with nuances of shape, height, material, and hue competing in the market. The striking scarlet and merlot colors of the fez were initially achieved through an extract of cornel, however, the invention of low-cost synthetic dyes soon shifted production of the hat to the factories of Strakonice, Czech Republic. Although the headdress survived, the year-long boycott brought the end of its universality in the Ottoman Empire as other styles became socially acceptable, the fez was initially a brimless bonnet of red, white, or black with a turban woven around. Later the turban was eliminated, the shortened, and the color fixed to red. Praying while wearing a fez—instead of a headdress with brim—was easier because Muslims put their foreheads on the many times during the prayer sessions. Initially a symbol of Ottoman modernity, the fez over time came to be seen as part of an Oriental cultural identity. Seen as exotic and romantic in the west, it enjoyed a vogue as part of mens luxury smoking outfit in the United States, the fez had become traditional to the point that Mustafa Kemal Atatürk banned it in Turkey in 1925 as part of his modernizing reforms. A version of the fez was used as a cap for the 1400–1700s version of the mail armour head protector. The red fez with blue tassel was the headdress of the Turkish Army from the 1840s until the introduction of a khaki service dress and peakless sun helmet in 1910
33.
Velvet
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Velvet is a type of woven tufted fabric in which the cut threads are evenly distributed, with a short dense pile, giving it a distinctive feel. By extension, the word velvety means smooth like velvet, Velvet can be made from either synthetic or natural fibers. Velvet is woven on a loom that weaves two thicknesses of the material at the same time. The two pieces are cut apart to create the pile effect, and the two lengths of fabric are wound on separate take-up rolls. This complicated process meant that velvet was expensive to make before industrial power looms became available, Velvet is difficult to clean because of its pile, but modern dry cleaning methods make cleaning more feasible. Velvet pile is created by warp or vertical yarns and velveteen pile is created by weft or fill yarns, Velvet can be made from several different kinds of fibers, traditionally, the most expensive of which is silk. Much of the velvet sold today as silk velvet is actually a mix of rayon, Velvet made entirely from silk is rare and usually has market prices of several hundred US dollars per yard. Cotton is also used to make velvet, though this results in a less luxurious fabric. Velvet can also be made from such as linen, mohair. A cloth made by the Kuba people of the Democratic Republic of Congo from raffia is often referred to as Kuba velvet. More recently, synthetic velvets have been developed, mostly from polyester, nylon, viscose, acetate, a small percentage of spandex is sometimes added to give the final material a certain amount of stretch. Because of its softness and appearance as well as its high cost of production. Velvet was introduced to Baghdad during the rule of Harun al-Rashid by Kashmiri merchants, in the Mamluk era, Cairo was the worlds largest producer of velvet. Much of it was exported to Venice, Al-Andalus and the Mali Empire, musa I of Mali, the ruler of the Mali Empire, visited Cairo on his pilgrimage to Mecca. Many Arab velvet makers accompanied him back to Timbuktu, later Ibn Battuta mentions how Suleyman, the ruler of Mali, wore a locally produced complete crimson velvet caftan on Eid. During the reign of Mehmed II, assistant cooks wore blue-coloured dresses, conical hats, king Richard II of England directed in his will that his body should be clothed in velveto in 1399. Chiffon velvet, Very lightweight velvet on a silk or rayon chiffon base. Ciselé, Velvet where the pile uses cut and uncut loops to create a pattern, crushed, This type of velvet can be produced by pressing the fabric down in different directions
34.
Muhammad Hatta
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Mohammad Hatta was Indonesias first vice president, later also serving as the countrys prime minister. Known as The Proclamator, he and a number of Indonesians, including the first president of Indonesia, Sukarno, Hatta was born in Fort De Kock, West Sumatra, Dutch East Indies. After his early education, he studied in Dutch schools in the Dutch East Indies, Mohammad Hatta is often remembered as Bung Hatta. Hatta was born in Fort De Kock on 12 August 1902 into a prominent and his grandfather was a respected ulema in Batuhampar, near Payakumbuh. His father, Haji Mohammad Djamil, died when he was eight months old and he was left with his six sisters, as in the matrilineal society of Minangkabau tradition, he was then raised in his mothers family. His mothers family was wealthy, and Hatta was able to study Dutch as well as finishing Quran after school and he went to the Dutch language elementary school in Padang from 1913 to 1916 after he had finished Sekolah Melayu in Bukittinggi. When he was thirteen, he passed an exam that entitled him to enroll in the Dutch secondary school in Batavia, however his mother asked him to stay in Padang because he was still too young to go to the capital alone. Hatta then entered junior secondary school or MULO, during his spare time, he worked part-time in a post office. Normally, MULO students were not allowed to work, but he was able to work there because of the HBS exam qualification, Hatta was interested in football, he joined his schools football team and was made its chairman. He broadened his sphere of contacts by using his position, Hatta used to visit the office of the Sarikat Usaha, led by Taher Marah Soetan. In the office, he read Dutch newspapers, particularly about political debates in the Volksraad of the Dutch East Indies and it was at the age of sixteen that Hatta began to be interested in politics and national movements. He was chosen the treasurer of the branch of the Jong Sumatranen Bond, in 1919, Hatta finally went to the HBS in Batavia. He completed his study with distinction in 1921, and was allowed to continue to study at the Rotterdam School of Commerce in Rotterdam and he took economics as his major and earned a doctorandus degree in 1932. The degree entitled him to follow a doctorate program and he then continued to pursue the doctorate degree, and completed all requirements to be awarded it, but he never finished his thesis. Politics had taken over Hattas life, in the Netherlands, Hatta joined the Indische Vereeniging. In 1922, the changed its name to Indonesische Vereeniging and later to its Indonesian translation. Hatta was the treasurer, and then the chairman, the Perhimpoenan Indonesia then changed from being a student organization into a political organization and had an unequivocal demand for Indonesias independence. It expressed its voice through the magazine called Indonesia Merdeka of which Hatta was the editor, to gain more support from other nations, Hatta attended congresses all over Europe, always as the chairman of the Indonesian delegation
35.
Agus Salim
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Haji Agus Salim was one of Indonesias founding fathers and prominent diplomats. He played a role in the creation of the Indonesian constitution in 1945. Salim was born in Kota Gadang, Agam, West Sumatra to Sutan Muhammad Salim, a court official and his birth name was Musyudul Haq, Agus was his nickname. His father was a prosecutor in Riau High Court and once received the highest civilian medal from Queen Wilhelmina, in 1890, he began to study in Europeese Lagere School and graduated in 1897. During that period, he furthered his studies of Islam. In 1897, he studied at Hogere Burger School and he earned the highest rank of HBS, Salim was interested in studying medicine applied for a scholarship from the Dutch colonial government, but was refused. In respect of his mothers last wish, at the age of 22 he took a job at the Dutch consulate in Jeddah and his family expected him to study religious science from his uncle, Syaikh Ahmad Khatib. At the embassy, Salim translated and managed Indonesians hajj pilgrimages, in 1915, he joined Sarekat Islam under Tjokroaminotos leadership and soon became second in command, Salim and Tjokorminoto became known as the dwi tunggal due to their close cooperation. Salim later replaced Tjokroaminoto after Tjokrominotos death in 1934, in his hometown he opened a public school for native Indonesians, or Hollandsch Inlandsche School. Three years later, he worked as translator for the Landsdrukkerij in Batavia, in 1917 he also worked as Editor in Chief for the Neradja, and then as chief editor at Balai Pustaka. From 1917-1919, he director of Bataviaasch Nieuwsblad, a Dutch-language newspaper. During the same period Salim wrote extensively on human rights and Indonesian independence, as long as Indonesians lacked political rights and independence, he argued, they would never gain economic advancement. After the failure of the Linggadjati Agreement with the Dutch in March 1947, facilitate by Salims command of Arabic, they succeeded, Egypt recognized Indonesias independence on 10 June 1947, Iran in July 1947, and Lebanon and Saudi Arabia on 24 November 1947. Upon his return to Indonesia, Salim was hailed as an exemplary diplomat, Salim was also a member of the Indonesian delegation to the United Nations Security Council session at Lake Success, New York under Prime Minister Syahrir. During his political career, he served as minister during Sjahrir II Cabinet, Sjahrir III Cabinet, Amir Sjarifuddin I Cabinet, Hatta I Cabinet. Salim died 27 days after his 70th birthday, on 4 November 1954 and he then buried in Kalibata Heroes Cemetery in Jakarta, thus becoming the first person to be interred there. Salim has been described as the Grand Old Man of the Indonesian Independence movement, sukarno described him as a intellectual ulama, a leader combining Islamic science and Western teachings. Mohammad Hatta, called the Arabic de jure recognition of Indonesian independence Salims greatest contribution to Indonesia, Salim was posthumously declared a National Hero of Indonesia in 1961
36.
Muslim
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A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco
37.
Jakarta
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Jakarta /dʒəˈkɑːrtə/, officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta, is the capital and most populous city of the Republic of Indonesia. Located on the northwest coast of the worlds most populous island of Java, Jakarta is the economic, cultural and political centre. The official metropolitan area, known as Jabodetabek, is the second largest in the world, established in the fourth century, the city became an important trading port for the Kingdom of Sunda. It was the de facto capital of the Dutch East Indies, today, the city has continued as the capital of Indonesia since the countrys independence was declared in 1945. Jakarta is listed as a city in the 2012 Globalization and World Cities Study Group. Based on the global metro monitor by the Brookings Institution, in 2014, Jakarta has grown more rapidly than Kuala Lumpur, Beijing, and Bangkok. Jakarta has been home to multiple settlements along with their names, Sunda Kelapa, Jayakarta, Batavia, Djakarta. Its current name derives from the word Jayakarta, the origins of this word can be traced to the Old Javanese and ultimately to the Sanskrit language. Jayakarta translates as victorious deed, complete act, or complete victory, Jakarta is nicknamed the Big Durian, the thorny strongly-odored fruit native to the region, as the city is seen as the Indonesian equivalent of the US city of New York. In the colonial era, the city was known as Koningin van het Oosten, initially in the 17th century for the urban beauty of downtown Batavias canals, mansions. After expanding to the south in the 19th century, this came to be more associated with the suburbs, with their wide lanes, many green spaces. The area in and around modern Jakarta was part of the fourth century Sundanese kingdom of Tarumanagara, following the decline of Tarumanagara, its territories, including the Jakarta area, became part of the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda. From 7th to early 13th century port of Sunda was within the sphere of influence of the Srivijaya maritime empire. According to the Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written circa 1225, Chou Ju-kua reported in the early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the source reports the port of Sunda as strategic and thriving, pepper from Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden piles, the harbour area became known as Sunda Kelapa and by the fourteenth century, it was a major trading port for Sunda kingdom. The first European fleet, four Portuguese ships from Malacca, arrived in 1513 when the Portuguese were looking for a route for spices, in 1527, Fatahillah, a Javanese general from Demak attacked and conquered Sunda Kelapa, driving out the Portuguese. Sunda Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta, and became a fiefdom of the Sultanate of Banten which became a major Southeast Asia trading centre, through the relationship with Prince Jayawikarta from the Sultanate of Banten, Dutch ships arrived in Jayakarta in 1596. In 1602, the English East India Companys first voyage, commanded by Sir James Lancaster, arrived in Aceh and this site became the centre of English trade in Indonesia until 1682
38.
Betawi people
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Betawi people often described as the native Jakartans. They are the descendants of the living in and around Batavia from around the 17th century. Although the term itself is questionable, since Betawi people was formed in the 18th century as an amalgamation of various immigrant ethnic groups into Batavia. The name Betawi is derived from Batavia, the old name of Jakarta. In neighboring Javanese and Sundanese languages, the term Betawi originally referred to colonial Batavia, the Betawis are one of the youngest, or the latest formed ethnic group in Indonesia. They are an ethnic group that their ancestors came from various parts of Indonesia. Prior to the 19th century, the self-identity of Betawi people was not yet formed, in the 17th century, Dutch colonials began to imported servants and labours from all over the archipelago into Batavia. One of the earliest are Balinese slaves brought from Bali and Ambonese mercenaries, subsequently other ethnic groups follow suit, they are Malays, Sundanese, Javanese, Minangkabau, Bugis and Makassarese. Foreign ethnic groups were included, such as Mardijker, Portuguese, Dutch, Arabs, Chinese and Indian. This was shown in the Batavia census record that listed immigrants ethnic background of Batavias citizen and these ethnic groups merged and formed in around 18th to 19th century. The term Betawi was first listed as a category in 1930 census of Batavia residents. The Betawi people have a culture and language distinct from the surrounding Sundanese and Javanese, the Betawis are known for their traditions in music and food. The Betawi language—also known as Betawi Malay, is a Malay-based creole language, Betawi vocabulary has large amount of Hokkien Chinese, Arabic, and Dutch loanwords. Today the Betawi language is an informal language in Indonesia. It has become one of language in Indonesia, and also one of active local dialect in the country. Majority of the Betawi people follow Sunni Islam, however, there are significant number of them who profess the Christian faith. Although today Betawi culture is perceived as a Muslim culture. The culture and artform of the Betawi people demonstrate the influences experienced by them throughout their history, foreign influences are visible, such as Portuguese and Chinese influences on their musics, and Sundanese, Javanese and Chinese influences in their dances
39.
Provinces of Indonesia
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Indonesian territory is composed of 34 provinces. A province is the highest tier of the local government divisions of Indonesia, provinces are further divided into regencies and cities, which are in turn subdivided into sub-districts. Each province has its own government, headed by a governor. The governor and members of representative bodies are elected by popular vote for five-year terms. Five provinces have special status, Aceh, for the use of the law as the regional law of the province. Special Region of Yogyakarta, a sovereign monarchy within Indonesia with the sultan Hamengkubuwono as hereditary Governor, SR Yogyakarta refused to call themselves as the province according to Law No. 12/2012 about The Speciality of Special Region of Yogyakarta, Papua, for implementation of sustainable development. West Papua, for granting implementation of sustainable development, the provinces are officially grouped into seven geographical units. This clickable map shows provinces of Indonesia as of 25 October 2012, click on a province name to go to its main article. A considerable number of new provinces have been proposed in addition to the 34 existing provinces of Indonesia, as of 2013, the government has targeted the creation of eight new provinces by 2020, by splitting several of the existing provinces. On 25 October 2013, the Indonesian House of Representatives began reviewing draft laws on the establishment of 57 prospective regencies and 8 new provinces
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Ethnic groups in Indonesia
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There are over 300 ethnic groups in Indonesia. 95% of those are of Native Indonesian ancestry, the largest ethnic group in Indonesia is the Javanese who make up about 40% of the total population. The Javanese are concentrated on the island of Java but millions have migrated to other islands throughout the archipelago because of the transmigration program, the Sundanese, Malay, and Madurese are the next largest groups in the country. Many ethnic groups, particularly in Kalimantan and Papua, have only hundreds of members, most of the local languages belong to Austronesian language family, although a significant number, particularly in Papua, speak Papuan languages. The Tionghoa population makes up a less than 1% of the total Indonesian population according to the 2000 census. Some of these Indonesians of Chinese descent speak various Chinese dialects, most notably Hokkien and this is the same case with Baduy people that share many cultural similarities with the Sundanese people. Number and percentage of population of ethnic groups according to a 2010 census, the proportions of Indonesian ethnic groups according to the are as follows, The regions of Indonesia have some of their indigenous ethnic groups. Due to migration within Indonesia, there are significant populations of ethnic groups who reside outside of their traditional regions, Chinese, The most significant ethnic minority of foreign origin in Indonesia. Chinese began inhabiting Indonesia since the 15th century with significant waves in 18th and 19th century, mostly concentrated in pecinan in urban Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan cities with significant numbers in Jakarta, North Sumatra, Riau, Riau Islands, Bangka-Belitung Islands, and West Kalimantan. Arabs, Historically Arab traders were responsible for the spread of Islam in the Indonesian archipelago, spread throughout Indonesian cities, significant numbers can be found in Medan, Banda Aceh, Padang, Jakarta, Surabaya, Gresik and many coastal cities in Indonesia. Indian, Indian people also had settled the Indonesian archipelago, however, concentrated in urban centres with significant numbers around Pasar Baru in Jakarta, and Kampung Keling in Medan. Indos, Indos or Eurasians, of mixed ancestry between Indonesian native ethnic groups and European/Dutch ancestry, they emerged during the Dutch East Indies period, around one million Indonesians with various degrees of mixed ancestry today can trace their ancestry to Europeans. During the colonial period, their numbers were greater, but since Indonesian independence most chose to go to the Netherlands, eurasian Indonesians dwindle in number as an ethnic group since major emigration from Indonesia after World War II. Significant numbers of Japanese expatriates stay in Indonesia, especially in Jakarta, Korean, They are a recent addition of Indonesian foreign origin ethnicities, dated back only several decades ago. Mostly driven by the increase of Korean business and investment in Indonesia, and most are expatriates that still maintain their Korean citizenship
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Indonesian language
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Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. It is a register of Malay, an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. Indonesia is the fourth most populous nation in the world, of its large population, the majority speak Indonesian, making it one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. However, most formal education, and nearly all national mass media, governance, administration, judiciary, the Indonesian name for the language is Bahasa Indonesia or sometimes simplified as Bahasa. This term is occasionally found in English and other languages. Indonesian is a register of Riau Malay, which despite its common name is not the Malay dialect native to Riau. Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra, Malay has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium and it might be attributed to its ancestor, the Old Malay language. The Kedukan Bukit Inscription is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, trade contacts carried on by various ethnic peoples at the time were the main vehicle for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main communications medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago, Indonesian is essentially the same language as the official Malaysian, Singaporean and Brunei standards of Malay. However, it does differ from Malaysian in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and these differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar, which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands. Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax. The question of whether High Malay or Low Malay was the parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language, however, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the language of their trading outpost in the east. Following the bankruptcy of the VOC the Dutch crown took control of the colony in 1799 and it was then that education in. Even then, Dutch administrators were reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a elite, in 1940
42.
Bride
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A bride is a woman who is about to be married or who is newlywed. When marrying, the future spouse, or husband is usually referred to as the bridegroom or groom. In Western culture, a bride may be attended by one or more bridesmaids, the word may come from the Proto-Germanic verb root *brū-, meaning to cook, brew, or make a broth, which was the role of the daughter-in-law in primitive families. But Aoife Curran, in Ireland Legends And Folklore, suggests that the bride may be named for Saint Brigit. In Europe and North America, the attire for a bride is a formal dress. Usually, in the white wedding model, the dress is bought specifically for the wedding. For first marriages in Western countries, a wedding dress is usually worn, a tradition started by Queen Victoria. Today, Western brides frequently wear white, cream, or ivory dresses for any number of marriages, outside of Western countries, brides most commonly wear national dress. White wedding dresses are particularly uncommon in Asian traditions, because white is the color of mourning, in many Asian cultures, red is usual for brides, as this colour indicates vibrance and health and has over time been associated with brides. However, in modern times other colours may be worn, or Western styles preferred, regardless of colour in most Asian cultures bridal clothes are highly decorative, often covered with embroidery, beading or gold. In some traditions brides may wear more than one outfit, this is true for example in Japan, parts of India, particular styles of jewelry are often associated with bridal wear, for example wedding rings in most Western cultures, or chura in Punjabi Sikh culture. Hindu brides are presented with a mangalsutra during the wedding ceremony, wedding jewellery has traditionally been used to demonstrate the value of the brides dowry. In addition to the gown, brides wear a veil and carry a bouquet of flowers, a small heirloom such as a lucky coin. In Western countries, a bride may wear something old, something new, something borrowed, and something blue, the term bride appears in combination with many words, some of which are obsolete. Thus bridegroom is a married man, and bride-bell, bride-banquet are old equivalents of wedding-bells. Bridal, originally the wedding-feast itself, has grown into a general descriptive adjective, the cake-eating went out of fashion, but the wheat ears survived. In the Middle Ages they were either worn or carried by the bride, eventually it became the custom for the young girls to assemble outside the church porch and throw grains of wheat over the bride, and afterwards a scramble for the grains took place. In time the wheat-grains came to be cooked into thin dry biscuits, which were broken over the head, as is the custom in Scotland today
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Bridegroom
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A bridegroom is a man who will soon be or has recently been married. A bridegroom is typically attended by a best man and groomsmen, in the United States, the bridegroom usually wears a dark-colored suit for a daytime wedding or tuxedo for an evening ceremony. British tradition for a formal wedding requires the bridegroom, male ushers, bridegrooms of Scottish descent often wear full Highland dress, as do their groomsmen. His speech will normally be followed by one from the best man, the first mention of the term bridegroom dates to 1604, from the Old English brȳdguma, a compound of brȳd and guma. It is related to the Old Saxon brūdigomo, the Old High German brūtigomo, the German Bräutigam, in Christianity, Jesus Christ is called a bridegroom in relation to the Church as his bride. In the Gospel of John, John the Baptist speaks of Jesus Christ as the bridegroom and mentions the bride. That is the place in the Gospels that the bride is mentioned
44.
Aceh
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Aceh, is a special region of Indonesia. The territory is located at the end of Sumatra. It is close to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India, there are 10 indigenous ethnic groups in this region, the largest being the Acehnese people, accounting for approximately 80% to 90% of the regions population. Aceh is thought to have been the place where the spread of Islam in Indonesia began, Islam reached Aceh around 1250 AD. In the early seventeenth century the Sultanate of Aceh was the most wealthy, powerful, Aceh has a history of political independence and resistance to control by outsiders, including the former Dutch colonists and the Indonesian government. Aceh has substantial natural resources, including oil and natural gas, relative to most of Indonesia, it is a religiously conservative area. It has the highest proportion of Muslims in Indonesia, who live according to Sharia customs. Aceh was the closest point of land to the epicenter of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, approximately 170,000 Indonesians were killed or went missing in the disaster. The disaster helped precipitate the peace agreement between the government of Indonesia and the Free Aceh Movement, Aceh was first known as Aceh Darussalam and then later as the Daerah Istimewa Aceh, Nanggroë Aceh Darussalam and Aceh. Past spellings of Aceh include Acheh, Atjeh, and Achin, according to several archaeological findings, the first evidence of human habitation in Aceh is from a site near the Tamiang River where shell middens are present. Stone tools and faunal remains were found on the site. Archeologists believe the site was first occupied around 10,000 BC, historic names such as Indrapurba, Indrapurwa, Indrapatra, and Indrapuri gave some hint of Indian influence on this region. However, there are no archaeological findings that link this region with Hinduism, evidence concerning the initial coming and subsequent establishment of Islam in Southeast Asia is thin and inconclusive. The historian Anthony Reid has argued that the region of the Cham people on the south-central coast of Vietnam was one of the earliest Islamic centers in Southeast Asia. Furthermore, as the Cham people fled the Vietnamese, one of the earliest locations that they established a relationship with was Aceh, furthermore, it is thought that one of the earliest centers of Islam was in the Aceh region. When Venetian traveller Marco Polo passed by Sumatra on his way home from China in 1292 he found that Peureulak was a Muslim town while nearby Basma, Basma and Samara are often said to be Pasai and Samudra but evidence is inconclusive. The gravestone of Sultan Malik as-Salih, the first Muslim ruler of Samudra, has found and is dated AH696. This is the earliest clear evidence of a Muslim dynasty in the Indonesia-Malay area, ibn Batutah, a Moroccan traveller, passing through on his way to China in 1345 and 1346, found that the ruler of Samudra was a follower of the Shafii school of Islam
45.
Gayo people
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The Gayo people are an ethnic group living in the highlands of Aceh Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. The Gayo tribe has a population of 336,856 and they live predominantly in the mountains, most Gayo live in three regencies in Aceh namely Bener Meriah, Central Aceh, and Gayo Lues. Some of them live in districts in other regencies, such as Serbejadi District, Simpang Jernih District. Other than that, the Gayo population also covers Southeast Aceh Regency and their homeland lies in the Barisan Mountains which has elevations of over 12,000 feet and extends more than one thousand miles. The Gayonese language has four dialects, Lut, Serbejadi-Lukup, Lut and their language does not have a writing system, but folk tales, stories and poetry are passed down in oral tradition. The traditional house of the Gayo is called Umah, Raja Linge I is said to have four children. The eldest was his daughter, Empu Beru or Datu Beru, Sebayak Lingga wandered off to Karo land and founded a country there and he was known as Raja Lingga Sibayak. Meurah Johan ventured on to Aceh Besar and established his kingdom by the name of Lam Krak or Lam Oeii or also known as Lamuri or Lamuri Sultanate. This would mean that the Lamuri Sultanate was founded by Meurah Johan, while Meurah Lingga who was living in Linge, Gayo, Meurah Silu migrated to Pasai and became an officer to the Pasai Sultanate there. Meurah Mege himself was buried in Wih Ni Rayang at the slopes of Keramil Paluh in Linge, Central Aceh, the cause of migrating was unknown. However, according to history, Raja Linge favoured his youngest son, Meurah Mege, Adi Genali Raja Linge I in Gayo. Raja Sebayak Lingga became King of Karo in Karo land, Raja Meurah Johan, founded the Lamuri Sultanate. Meurah Silu, son of Meurah Sinabung, founded Samudera Pasai Sultanate, Raja Linge II also known as Marah Lingga in Gayo. Raja Lingga III to XII in Gayo, Raja Lingga XIII became Amir al-Harb of Aceh Sultanate. In 1533, the new Johor Empire was founded in pre-independence Malaysia led by Sultan Alauddin Mansyur Syah, Raja Lingga XIII was appointed to be in the cabinet of the new government. His descendants established the Lingga Sultanate in Lingga Island of the Riau Islands, no documentation were recorded on the rulers of Sebayak Lingga Karo. During the era of Dutch East Indies, the monarchy was appointed again, Raja Sendi Sibayak Lingga, as chosen by the Dutch East Indies. Raja Kalilong Sibayak Lingga After initial Dutch resistance, which many Gayonese and Dutch were killed, during this time, the Gayonese developed a thriving cash crop economy in vegetables and coffee
46.
Malays (ethnic group)
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These locations today are part of the modern nations of Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei, and southern Thailand. In literature, architecture, culinary traditions, traditional dress, performing arts, martial arts, throughout their history, the Malays have been known as a coastal-trading community with fluid cultural characteristics. The epic literature, the Malay Annals, associates the etymological origin of Melayu to Sungai Melayu in Sumatra, the English term Malay was adopted via the Dutch word Malayo, itself derived from Portuguese, Malaio, which originates from the original Malay word, Melayu. Prior to the 15th century, the term Melayu and its variants appear to apply as an old toponym to the Strait of Malacca region in general. Malaya Dwipa, Malaya Dvipa, is described in chapter 48, Vayu Purana as one of the provinces in the sea that was full of gold. Some scholars equate the term with Sumatra, but several Indian scholars believe the term should refer to the mountainous Malay peninsula, maleu-kolon - appeared in Ptolemys work, Geographia. Mo-lo-yu - mentioned by Yijing, a Tang dynasty Chinese Buddhist monk who visited the Southeast Asia in 688–695, according to Yijing, the Mo-Lo-Yu kingdom was located in a distance of 15 day sail from Bogha, the capital of Sribhoga. It took a 15-day sail as well to reach Ka-Cha from Mo-lo-yu, therefore, a popular theory relates Mo-Lo-Yu with the Jambi in Sumatra, however the geographical location of Jambi contradicts with Yi Jings description of a half way sail between Ka-Cha and Bogha. Among the terms used was Bok-la-yu, Mok-la-yu, Ma-li-yu-er, Oo-lai-yu - traced from the source of monk Xuanzang). Malayur - inscribed on the wall of the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tamil Nadu. It was described as a kingdom that had a mountain for its rampart in Malay peninsula. Bhūmi Mālayu -, a transcription from Padang Roco Inscription dated 1286 CE by Slamet Muljana, the term is associated with Dharmasraya kingdom. Ma-li-yu-er - mentioned in the chronicle of Yuan Dynasty, referring to a nation of Malay peninsula that faced the southward expansion of Sukhothai Kingdom, the chronicle stated. Animosity occurred between Siam and Ma-li-yu-er with both killing each other. In response to the Sukhothais action, a Chinese envoy went to the Ram Khamhaengs court in 1295 bearing an imperial decree, Keep your promise and do no evil to Ma-li-yu-er. Malauir - mentioned in Marco Polos account as a kingdom located in the Malay peninsula, malayapura -, inscribed on the Amoghapasa inscription dated 1347 CE. The term was used by Adityawarman to refer to Dharmasraya. The word Malay refer to Mountain, other evidence that supports this theory include, stone tools found in the Malay Archipelago are analogous to Central Asian tools, the similarity of Malay customs and Assam customs. The New Guinea theory - The proto-Malays are believed to be knowledgeable in oceanography. Over the years they settled at places and adopted various cultures
47.
Riau
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Riau, is a province of Indonesia. It is located in the eastern coast of Sumatra along the Strait of Malacca. The provincial capital of Riau Province and its largest city is Pekanbaru, other major cities include Dumai, Selat Panjang, Bagansiapiapi, Bengkalis, Bangkinang, Rengat and Siak Sri Indrapura. The total area for Riau province is 87,023.66 km², Riau has a wet tropical climate with average rainfall ranging between 2000-3000 millimeters per year, and the average rainfall per year is about 160 days. Riau is currently one of the richest provinces in Indonesia and is rich in resources, particularly petroleum, natural gas, rubber, palm oil. Extensive logging and plantation development in has led to a decline in forest cover Riau. Since the 1970s, much of Indonesia has experienced a decline in growth rates. Riau has been a significant exception, with increasing rates every decade since 1970 to a 4.35 percent annual rise for the 1990s, however, the provincial population was 5,538,367 at the 2010 census. And according to the estimate for January 2014 this had risen to 6,358,636, etymology There are three possibilities for the origin of the word Riau province in the name of the singer. First, from the Portuguese word, meaning rio river, the second version says that Riau riahi comes from the word meaning the sea air. Said the singer came from al-Bahar Sinbad character from the book of a thousand. The third version says that the singer says is derived from the account of communities, derived from the word rioh or boisterous. It is probable that in the name is derived from the naming of the local people, i. e. orangutan Malay who live in the area of Bintan. The name may have started since the famous Raja Kecik move to the center of Johor Malay kingdom to Ulu Riau in 1719. Dutch colonial period Dutch invasion aggressive to the east coast of Sumatra can not be intercepted by Siak, Dutch narrowed the sovereign territory of the Siak, by establishing the residency of Riau under the rule of the Dutch East Indies, located in Tanjung Pinang. The sultan Siak can not do anything because they had tied to an agreement with the Netherlands. Siak notch further weakened by the push-pull between the Netherlands and the United Kingdom who was then control the Strait of Malacca, to strategic areas on the east coast of Sumatra. At almost the time period, Indragiri also started to be influenced by the Dutch
48.
Riau Islands
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Riau Islands Province, is a province of Indonesia. It comprises the principal group of the Riau Archipelago along with other groups to the south. In Indonesian, Riau Islands and Riau Archipelago are synonymous and are distinguished by the word for province, originally part of the Riau province, the Riau Islands were split off as a separate province in September 2002. The island of Batam, which lies within the core group of islands. Since becoming part of a Demilitarized Zone with Singapore in 2006, other highly populated islands in the Riau Archipelago include Bintan and Karimun, while the archipelago also includes islands such as Bulan and Kundur. There are around 3,200 islands in the province, which has its capital at Tanjung Pinang in the south of Bintan Island, the 2015 census count was 1,968,313, less than estimated but nevertheless the second fastest growing province in Indonesia. The language of the Riau Islands is known as Riau Malay, Singapore island, that had been for centuries part of the same greater Malay kingdoms and sultanates, and under direct control of the Sultan of Johor, came under control of the British. The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 consolidated this separation, with the British controlling all territories north of the Singapore strait, after the European powers withdrew from the region, the new independent governments had to reorganise and find balance after inheriting 100 years of colonial boundaries. Some level of unity returned in the Riau region for the first time after 150 years, but while bringing back some economical wealth to Riau, the Sijori Growth Triangle somewhat further broke the cultural unity within the islands. However, the upside of this shift is that Batam is more multi-cultural and than how it was before, with a greater potential for better economic. Batam has become an island with a booming tourism sector. There have been attempts at both independence and autonomy for this part of Indonesia since the founding of Indonesia in 1945. The rate of growth of Riau Islands Province in 2005 amounted to 6. 57%. GDP per capita in the Riau Islands province last five years tends to increase, in 2001 GDP per capita amounted to Rp.22.808 million, and in 2005 rose to become of Rp.29,348 million. However, in real terms GDP per capita in 2001 only amounted to Rp.20,397 million, as an island province, 96% of the province is covered with ocean. This condition is very conducive to the development of aquaculture enterprises ranging effort to use seeding cultivation technology, in the Karimun Island, there are snapper fish farming and seaweed cultivation. In Batam, Bintan Regency, Lingga and Natuna also has potential in the field of fisheries. In addition to capture fisheries in four districts were also developed aquaculture sea water, in the city of Batam, precisely in Setoko Island, there is even a grouper hatchery facility capable of producing more than 1 million seeds annually
49.
Bantenese people
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The Bantenese are people living in Banten Province in Java, just west of Jakarta. The area of Banten province corresponds more or less with the area of the former Banten Sultanate. In his book The Sultanate of Banten, Guillot Claude writes on page 35, “These estates, owned by the Bantenese of Chinese origin, were concentrated around the village of Kelapadua. ”People living in Banten, including Chinese, were called Bantenese. Bantenese is actually not a group, but more as a term for people originated from Banten with Sundanese language as their first language. The most dominant language is Sundanese, the indigenous people living in Banten Province speak a Sundanese dialect derived from archaic Sundanese language. The dialect is classified as informal or harsh layer in modern Sundanese language, mataram Sultanate tried to take control over Java island, including Banten territory covering the whole West Java region. But the Sultanate of Banten could defend its territory except Parahyangan area, in the mountainous regions and most of present-day Banten, the loma version of Sundanese language is the most dominant. By contrast, this version is considered harsh by people from Parahyangan, however, around Serang and Cilegon, Banten Province, a dialect of the Javanese language, the Banyumasan is also spoken by about 500,000 people. And, in Northern part of Tangerang, Indonesian language with Betawi dialect is used by Betawi immigrants. Besides Sundanese, Javanese and Betawi dialect, Indonesian language is widely spoken especially by other ethnic immigrants from other parts of Indonesia especially in urban centers
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