1.
Mythology
–
Mythology refers variously to the collected myths of a group of people or to the study of such myths. Myths are the people tell to explain nature, history. Myth is a feature of every culture, mythologizing continues, as shown in contemporary mythopoeia such as urban legends and the expansive fictional mythoi created by fantasy novels and comics. A cultures collective mythology helps convey belonging, shared and religious experiences, behavioral models, the study of myth began in ancient history. Rival classes of the Greek myths by Euhemerus, Plato and Sallustius were developed by the Neoplatonists, the nineteenth-century comparative mythology reinterpreted myth as a primitive and failed counterpart of science, a disease of language, or a misinterpretation of magical ritual. Recent approaches often view myths as manifestations of psychological, cultural, or societal truths, the term mythology predates the word myth by centuries. It first appeared in the fifteenth-century, borrowed from the Middle French term mythologie, the word mythology, comes from Middle French mythologie, from Late Latin mythologia, from Greek μυθολογία mythología from μῦθος mythos and -λογία -logia. The word mythología appears in Plato, but was used as a term for fiction or story-telling of any kind, combining mỹthos. From Lydgate until the seventeenth or eighteenth-century, mythology was similarly used to mean a moral, fable, from its earliest use in reference to a collection of traditional stories or beliefs, mythology implied the falsehood of the stories being described. It came to be applied by analogy with similar bodies of traditional stories among other cultures around the world. The Greek loanword mythos and Latinate mythus both appeared in English before the first example of myth in 1830, in present use, mythology usually refers to the collected myths of a group of people, but may also mean the study of such myths. For example, Greek mythology, Roman mythology and Hittite mythology all describe the body of myths retold among those cultures, dundes defined myth as a sacred narrative that explains how the world and humanity evolved into their present form. Lincoln defined myth as ideology in narrative form, scholars in other fields use the term myth in varied ways. In a broad sense, the word can refer to any traditional story, due to this pejorative sense, some scholars opted for the term mythos. Its use was similarly pejorative and now commonly refers to its Aristotelian sense as a plot point or to a collective mythology. The term is distinguished from didactic literature such as fables. Main characters in myths are usually gods, demigods or supernatural humans, however, many exceptions or combinations exist, as in the Iliad, Odyssey and Aeneid. Myths are often endorsed by rulers and priests and are linked to religion or spirituality
Mythology
–
Prometheus (1868) by
Gustave Moreau. In the mythos of
Hesiodus and possibly
Aeschylus (the
Greek trilogy
Prometheus Bound,
Prometheus Unbound and
Prometheus Pyrphoros), Prometheus is bound and tortured for giving fire to humanity at its creation.
Mythology
–
1929
Belgian banknote, depicting
Ceres,
Neptune and
caduceus.
Mythology
–
Fu Xi and
Nüwa represented as half-snake, half-human creatures
2.
National symbol
–
National symbols intend to unite people by creating visual, verbal, or iconic representations of the national people, values, goals, or history. These symbols are often rallied around as part of celebrations of patriotism or aspiring nationalism and are designed to be inclusive and representative of all the people of the national community, list of national symbols Cultural icon Floral emblem National cockade Religion in national symbols
National symbol
3.
Value (personal and cultural)
–
It may be described as treating actions themselves as abstract objects, putting value to them. What makes an action valuable may in turn depend on the values of the objects it increases, decreases or alters. An object with ethic value may be termed an ethic or philosophic good, values can be defined as broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes. As such, values reflect a sense of right and wrong or what ought to be. Equal rights for all, Excellence deserves admiration, and People should be treated with respect, values tend to influence attitudes and behavior. Types of values include ethical/moral values, doctrinal/ideological values, social values, ethical value may be regarded as a study under ethics, which, in turn, may be grouped as philosophy. Similar to that ethics may be regarded as a subfield of philosophy, ethical value denotes somethings degree importance, with the aim of determining what action or life is best to do, or at least attempt to describe the value of different actions. It may be described as treating actions themselves as abstract objects, the study of ethical value is also included in value theory. Ethical value is used synonymously with goodness. However, goodness has many meanings as well, and may be regarded as more ambiguous. Personal values exist in relation to values, either in agreement with or divergence from prevailing norms. A culture is a system that shares a set of common values, in which such values permit social expectations and collective understandings of the good, beautiful. Without normative personal values, there would be no cultural reference against which to measure the virtue of individual values, personal values provide an internal reference for what is good, beneficial, important, useful, beautiful, desirable and constructive. Values generate behaviour and influence the choices made by an individual, moral, religious, and personal values, when held rigidly, may also give rise to conflicts that result from a clash between differing world views. Over time the expression of personal values that groups of people find important in their day-to-day lives, lay the foundations of law, custom. Recent research has thereby stressed the nature of value communication. Individual cultures emphasize values which their members broadly share, one can often identify the values of a society by noting which people receive honor or respect. In the United States of America, for example, professional athletes at the top levels in some sports receive more honor than university professors
Value (personal and cultural)
–
The
Inglehart–Welzel cultural map of the world, constructed by sociopolitical scientists
Ronald Inglehart and
Christian Welzel based on the
World Values Survey.
4.
Civil religion
–
Civil religion is a concept that originated in French political thought and became a major topic for American sociologists since its use by Robert Bellah in the 1960s. It means the religious values of a nation, as expressed through public rituals, symbols and ceremonies on sacred days. It stands outside the churches, although church officials and ceremonies are sometimes incorporated into the practice of civil religion. Jean-Jacques Rousseau coined the term in chapter 8, book 4 of The Social Contract, for Rousseau, civil religion was intended simply as a form of social cement, helping to unify the state by providing it with sacred authority. In the sociology of religion, civil religion is the religion of a nation or a political culture. Civil religion is practiced by political leaders who are laypeople. These two conceptions of civil religion substantially overlap, in Britain, where church and state are constitutionally joined, the monarchs coronation is an elaborate religious rite celebrated by the Archbishop of Canterbury. In France, secular ceremonies are separated from religious observances to a degree than in most countries. In the United States of America, a president being inaugurated is told by the Constitution to choose between saying I do solemnly swear. and saying I do solemnly affirm, practically all the ancient and prehistoric reigns suffused politics with religion. Often the leaders, such as the Pharaoh or the Chinese Emperor were considered manifestations of a Divinity, the religion of the Athenian polis was a secular polytheism focused on the Olympian Gods and was celebrated in the civic festivals. Religion was a matter of state and the Athenian Ecclesia deliberated on matters of religion, atheism and the introduction of foreign gods were forbidden in Athens and punishable by death. For example, the Athenian ecclesia charged that Socrates worshiped gods other than those sanctioned by the polis, Rome also had a civil religion, whose first Emperor Augustus officially attempted to revive the dutiful practice of Classical paganism. In this campaign, Augustus erected monuments such as the Ara Pacis and he also encouraged the publication of works such as Virgils Æneid, which depicted pious Æneas, the legendary ancestor of Rome, as a role model for Roman religiosity. Roman historians such as Livy told tales of early Romans as morally improving stories of military prowess, the Roman civil religion later became centered on the person of the Emperor through the imperial cult, the worship of the genius of the Emperor. The phrase civil religion was first discussed extensively by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his 1762 treatise The Social Contract and he said the dogmas of civil religion should be simple, few in number, and stated in precise words without interpretations or commentaries. Beyond that, Rousseau affirmed that individuals religious opinions should be beyond the reach of governments, for Rousseau civil religion was to be constructed and imposed from the top down as an artificial source of civic virtue. Wallace studies Émile Durkheim, the French sociologist who analyzed civil religion, especially in comparative terms, although he never used the term he laid great stress on the concept. Secular states in Europe by the late 19th century were building civil religion based on their recent histories, baylac argues, the French government, encouraged a veritable state religion, worshiping the flag and multiplying the national holidays and commemorative monuments
Civil religion
–
The
Washington National Cathedral in
Washington, D.C. is often used for state
funerals for political leaders.
Civil religion
–
The
Arc de Triomphe in
Paris commemorates those who died in
France 's wars.
Civil religion
–
The emperor
Marcus Aurelius, his
head ritually covered, conducts a public sacrifice at the Temple of Jupiter
Civil religion
–
Statue of Lenin at
Dubna, Russia, built in 1937; it is 25 metres tall
5.
Colonialism
–
Colonialism is the establishment of a colony in one territory by a political power from another territory, and the subsequent maintenance, expansion, and exploitation of that colony. The term is used to describe a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power and the colony and often between the colonists and the indigenous peoples. The European colonial period was the era from the 16th century to the century when several European powers established colonies in Asia, Africa. At first the countries followed a policy of mercantilism, designed to strengthen the economy at the expense of rivals. By the mid-19th century, however, the powerful British Empire gave up mercantilism and trade restrictions and introduced the principle of free trade, collins English Dictionary defines colonialism as the policy and practice of a power in extending control over weaker peoples or areas. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers four definitions, including something characteristic of a colony, in the book, Osterhammel asks, How can colonialism be defined independently from colony. He settles on a definition, Colonialism is a relationship between an indigenous majority and a minority of foreign invaders. The fundamental decisions affecting the lives of the people are made. Rejecting cultural compromises with the population, the colonizers are convinced of their own superiority. Historians often distinguish between two overlapping forms of colonialism, Settler colonialism involves large-scale immigration, often motivated by religious, political, exploitation colonialism involves fewer colonists and focuses on access to resources for export, typically to the metropole. Surrogate colonialism involves a settlement project supported by a colonial power, internal colonialism is a notion of uneven structural power between areas of a state. The source of exploitation comes from within the state, as colonialism often played out in pre-populated areas, sociocultural evolution included the formation of various ethnically hybrid populations. In fact, everywhere where colonial powers established a consistent and continued presence, notable examples in Asia include the Anglo-Burmese, Anglo-Indian, Burgher, Eurasian Singaporean, Filipino mestizo, Kristang and Macanese peoples. In the Dutch East Indies the vast majority of Dutch settlers were in fact Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans, the Other, or othering is the process of creating a separate entity to persons or groups who are labelled as different or non-normal due to the repetition of characteristics. Othering is the creation from those who discriminate, to distinguish, label, several scholars in recent decades developed the notion of the other as an epistemological concept in social theory. For example, postcolonial scholars, believed that colonizing powers explained an ‘other’ who were there to dominate, civilize, political geographers explain how colonial/ imperial powers othered places they wanted to dominate to legalize their exploitation of the land. During the rise of colonialism and after, post colonialism, the Western powers perspectives of the East as the other, different and this viewpoint and separation of culture had divided the Eastern and Western culture creating a dominant/ subordinate dynamic, both being the other towards themselves. The word metropole comes from the Greek metropolis —mother city, the word colony comes from the Latin colonia—a place for agriculture
Colonialism
–
The
pith helmet, an icon of colonialism in tropical lands. Here, one in use in the
Second French Colonial Empire.
Colonialism
–
1541 founding of
Santiago de Chile
Colonialism
–
Dutch family in
Java, 1927
Colonialism
–
Colonial Governor of the
Seychelles inspecting police guard of honour in 1972
6.
Spirituality
–
Modern spirituality typically includes a belief in a supernatural realm, personal growth, a quest for an ultimate/sacred meaning, religious experience, or an encounter with ones own inner dimension. The meaning of spirituality has developed and expanded over time, the term spirituality originally developed within early Christianity, referring to a life oriented toward the Holy Spirit. The term spirit means animating or vital principle in man and animals and it is derived from the Old French espirit which comes from the Latin word spiritus and is related to spirare. In the Vulgate the Latin word spiritus is used to translate the Greek pneuma, the term spiritual, matters concerning the spirit, is derived from Old French spirituel, which is derived from Latin spiritualis, which comes from spiritus or spirit. The term spirituality is derived from Middle French spiritualité, from Late Latin spiritualitatem, there is no single, widely agreed definition of spirituality. A survey of reviews by McCarroll e. a. dealing with the topic of spirituality gave twenty-seven explicit definitions and this causes some difficulty in trying to study spirituality systematically, i. e. it impedes both understanding and the capacity to communicate findings in a meaningful fashion. To accomplish this, the re-formation is oriented at a mold, which represents the shape, in Judaism the Torah, in Christianity there is Christ, for Buddhism, Buddha. Houtman and Aupers suggest that modern spirituality is a blend of humanistic psychology, mystical and esoteric traditions, Spirituality is sometimes associated with philosophical, social, or political movements such as liberalism, feminist theology, and green politics. Some argue spirituality is intimately linked to resolving mental health issues, managing substance abuse, marital functioning, parenting, words translatable as spirituality first began to arise in the 5th century and only entered common use toward the end of the Middle Ages. In a Biblical context the term means being animated by God, to be driven by the Holy Spirit, in the 11th century this meaning changed. Spirituality began to denote the mental aspect of life, as opposed to the material and sensual aspects of life, in the 13th century spirituality acquired a social and psychological meaning. In the 17th and 18th century a distinction was made higher and lower forms of spirituality, A spiritual man is one who is Christian more abundantly. The word was associated with mysticism and quietism, and acquired a negative meaning. Modern notions of spirituality developed throughout the 19th and 20th century, mixing Christian ideas with westen esoteric traditions and elements of Asian, especially Indian, Spirituality became increasingly disconnected from traditional religious organisations and institutions. Ralph Waldo Emerson was a pioneer of the idea of spirituality as a distinct field, the Transcendentalists emphasised an intuitive, experiential approach of religion. Following Schleiermacher, an individuals intuition of truth was taken as the criterion for truth, in the late 18th and early 19th century, the first translations of Hindu texts appeared, which were also read by the Transcendentalists, and influenced their thinking. A major influence on modern spirituality was the Theosophical Society, which searched for secret teachings in Asian religions and it aims to present Hinduism as a homogenized ideal of Hinduism with Advaita Vedanta as its central doctrine. Due to the colonisation of Asia by the world, since the 19th century an exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia, which also influenced western religiosity
Spirituality
–
Union with Christ is the purpose of Christian mysticism.
Spirituality
–
Jñāna marga
Spirituality
–
Bhakti marga
Spirituality
–
Rāja marga
7.
God
–
In monotheism, God is conceived of as the Supreme Being and principal object of faith. The concept of God as described by most theologians includes the attributes of omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, divine simplicity, many theologians also describe God as being omnibenevolent and all loving. Furthermore, some religions attribute only a purely grammatical gender to God, incorporeity and corporeity of God are related to conceptions of transcendence and immanence of God, with positions of synthesis such as the immanent transcendence of Chinese theology. God has been conceived as personal or impersonal. In theism, God is the creator and sustainer of the universe, while in deism, God is the creator, in pantheism, God is the universe itself. In atheism, God is not believed to exist, while God is deemed unknown or unknowable within the context of agnosticism, God has also been conceived as the source of all moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable existent. Many notable philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence of God, there are many names for God, and different names are attached to different cultural ideas about Gods identity and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era of Atenism, possibly the earliest recorded monotheistic religion, this deity was called Aten, premised on being the one true Supreme Being and creator of the universe. In the Hebrew Bible and Judaism, He Who Is, I Am that I Am, in the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, God, consubstantial in three persons, is called the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In Judaism, it is common to refer to God by the titular names Elohim or Adonai, in Islam, the name Allah is used, while Muslims also have a multitude of titular names for God. In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered a concept of God. In Chinese religion, God is conceived as the progenitor of the universe, intrinsic to it, other religions have names for God, for instance, Baha in the Baháí Faith, Waheguru in Sikhism, and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism. The earliest written form of the Germanic word God comes from the 6th-century Christian Codex Argenteus, the English word itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic * ǥuđan. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * ǵhu-tó-m was likely based on the root * ǵhau-, in the English language, the capitalized form of God continues to represent a distinction between monotheistic God and gods in polytheism. The same holds for Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given a proper name, in many translations of the Bible, when the word LORD is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the tetragrammaton. Allāh is the Arabic term with no plural used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning The God, Ahura Mazda is the name for God used in Zoroastrianism. Mazda, or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå and it is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit, and like its Sanskrit cognate medhā, means intelligence or wisdom. Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdhā-, from Proto-Indo-European mn̩sdʰeh1, literally meaning placing ones mind, Waheguru is a term most often used in Sikhism to refer to God
God
–
"God the Father", a representation of the theistic version of God, by
Ludovico Mazzolino (1480 –
c. 1528)
God
–
Detail of
Sistine Chapel fresco Creation of the Sun and Moon by
Michelangelo (c. 1512), a well-known example of the depiction of
God the Father in Western art
God
–
Depiction of God in the Catholic Church, Latin America
God
–
St. Thomas Aquinas summarized
five arguments which he believed were proof for the existence of God
8.
Gods
–
A deity is a concept conceived in diverse ways in various cultures, typically as a natural or supernatural being considered divine or sacred. A male deity is a god, while a female deity is a goddess, the Oxford reference defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. Various cultures have conceptualized a deity differently than a monotheistic God, a plain deity need not be omnipotent, omnipresent, omniscient, omnibenevolent, or eternal, however an almighty monotheistic God generally does have these attributes. Monotheistic religions typically refer to God in masculine terms, while other religions refer to their deities in a variety of ways – masculine, feminine, androgynous, some Avestan and Vedic deities were viewed as ethical concepts. In Indian religions, deities have been envisioned as manifesting within the temple of every living beings body, as sensory organs, but in Indian religions, all deities are also subject to death when their merit runs out. The English language word deity derives from Old French deité, the Latin deitatem or divine nature, deus is related through a common Proto-Indo-European language origin to *deiwos. Deva is masculine, and the feminine equivalent is devi. Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea, in Old Persian, daiva- means demon, evil god, while in Sanskrit it means the opposite, referring to the heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones. The closely linked term god refers to supreme being, deity, which states Douglas Harper, is derived from Proto-Germanic *guthan, from PIE *ghut-, guth in the Irish language means voice. The term *ghut- is also the source of Old Church Slavonic zovo, Sanskrit huta-, from the root *gheu- An alternate etymology for the term god traces it to the PIE root *ghu-to-, the term *gheu- is also the source of the Greek khein to pour. Originally the German root was a noun, but the gender of the monotheistic God shifted to masculine under the influence of Christianity. In contrast, all ancient Indo-European cultures and mythologies recognized both masculine and feminine deities, the term deity often connotes the concept of sacred or divine, as a god or goddess, in a polytheistic religion. However, there is no accepted consensus concept of deity across religions and cultures. Huw Owen states that the deity or god or its equivalent in other languages has a bewildering range of meanings. Some engravings or sketches show animals, hunters or rituals, the Venus of Willendorf, a female figurine found in Europe and dated to about 25,000 BCE has been interpreted as an exemplar of a prehistoric divine feminine. In Buddhist mythology, devas are beings inhabiting certain happily placed worlds of Buddhist cosmology and these beings are mortal and numerous. It is also common for iṣṭadevatās to be called deities, although the nature of Yidams is distinct from what is meant by the term. Buddhism does not believe in a creator deity, however, deities are an essential part of Buddhist cosmology, rebirth and Saṃsāra doctrines
Gods
–
Zeus, the chief
Greek god
Gods
–
Searching the Seas with the
Tenkei (ca. 1885) by Kobayashi Eitaku, with the god
Izanagi (right) and
Izanami, a goddess of creation and death in
Japanese mythology
Gods
–
Panel from an
ancient Roman sarcophagus depicting the creation of humans by
Prometheus, with deities including
Minerva (Roman
Athena) and
Mercury (
Hermes) looking on
Gods
–
Buddhist temple image of Damun Cheonwang (
Vaiśravaṇa), one of the
Four Heavenly Kings (
Ssangbongsa,
South Korea)
9.
Propaganda
–
Propaganda is information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view. Propaganda is often associated with material prepared by governments, but activist groups, in the 2010s, the term propaganda is associated with a manipulative approach, but propaganda historically was a neutral descriptive term. Propaganda is a modern Latin word, the form of propagare, meaning to spread or to propagate. Originally this word derived from a new body of the Catholic church created in 1622, called the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide. Its activity was aimed at propagating the Catholic faith in non-Catholic countries, from the 1790s, the term began being used also to refer to propaganda in secular activities. The term began taking a pejorative or negative connotation in the mid-19th century, primitive forms of propaganda have been a human activity as far back as reliable recorded evidence exists. The Behistun Inscription detailing the rise of Darius I to the Persian throne is viewed by most historians as an example of propaganda. During the era of the American Revolution, the American colonies had a network of newspapers and printers who specialized in the topic on behalf of the Patriots. During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic era, propaganda was widely used, abolitionists in Britain and the United States in the 19th century developed large, complex propaganda campaigns against slavery. The first large-scale and organised propagation of government propaganda was occasioned by the outbreak of war in 1914, after the defeat of Germany in the First World War, military officials such as Erich Ludendorff suggested that British propaganda had been instrumental in their defeat. Adolf Hitler came to echo this view, believing that it had been a cause of the collapse of morale. Later, the Nazis adapted many British propaganda techniques during their time in power, most propaganda in Germany was produced by the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. Joseph Goebbels was placed in charge of this ministry, the 1930s and 1940s, which saw the rise of totalitarian states and the Second World War, are arguably the Golden Age of Propaganda. Leni Riefenstahl, a filmmaker working in Nazi Germany, created one of the propaganda movies. US war films in the early 1940s in the United States were designed to create a patriotic mindset, the West and the Soviet Union both used propaganda extensively during the Cold War. Both sides used film, television, and radio programming to influence their own citizens, each other, george Orwells novels Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four are virtual textbooks on the use of propaganda. During the Cuban Revolution, Fidel Castro stressed the importance of propaganda, Propaganda was used extensively by Communist forces in the Vietnam War as means of controlling peoples opinions. During the Yugoslav wars, propaganda was used as a strategy by governments of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Croatia
Propaganda
–
French propaganda painting
Napoleon Crossing the Alps (1805), a
romantic depiction by
Jacques-Louis David during the
Napoleonic Wars.
Propaganda
–
American recruiting poster from World War I depicting
Uncle Sam, the personification of the
United States.
Propaganda
–
Nazi poster (from around 1938) reads: "60,000
Reichsmark is what this person suffering from a
hereditary defect costs the People's community during his lifetime. Fellow citizen, that is your money too. Read '
[A] New People ', the monthly magazine of the
Bureau for Race Politics of the
NSDAP."
Propaganda
–
1935 poster of
Manchukuo promoting harmony between
Japanese,
Chinese, and
Manchu. The caption, written from right to left, says: "With the help of Japan, China, and Manchukuo, the world can be in peace." The flags shown are, left to right: the
flag of Manchukuo; the
flag of Japan; the "
Five Races Under One Union " flag.
10.
Totalitarian
–
Totalitarianism is a political system in which the state recognizes no limits to its authority and strives to regulate every aspect of public and private life wherever feasible. A distinctive feature of totalitarian governments is an ideology, a set of ideas that gives meaning. The concept of totalitarianism was first developed in the 1920s by the Weimar German jurist, and later Nazi academic, Carl Schmitt, Schmitt used the term, Totalstaat, in his influential work on the legal basis of an all-powerful state, The Concept of the Political. The concept became prominent in Western political discourse as a concept that highlights similarities between Fascist states and the Soviet Union, the term was later assigned a positive meaning in the writings of Giovanni Gentile, Italy’s most prominent philosopher and leading theorist of fascism. He used the term “totalitario” to refer to the structure and goals of the new state, according to Benito Mussolini, this system politicizes everything spiritual and human, Everything within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state. Churchill was then a backbencher MP representing the Epping constituency, in a radio address two weeks later Churchill again employed the term, this time applying the concept to a Communist or a Nazi tyranny. And went on to say Democracy is not an end but a means to the conquest of the new state, when the time comes, either parliament submits or we will eliminate it. G. Wells, Henry Miller or twopenny color postcards, every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written, directly or indirectly, against totalitarianism and for democratic socialism, as I understand it. During a 1945 lecture series entitled The Soviet Impact on the Western World, only the blind and incurable could ignore the trend towards totalitarianism, said Carr. Isabel Paterson, in The God of the Machine, used the term in connection with the Soviet Union, in The Origins of Totalitarianism, Hannah Arendt argued that Nazi and State communist regimes were new forms of government, and not merely updated versions of the old tyrannies. According to Arendt, the source of the appeal of totalitarian regimes is their ideology, which provides a comforting, single answer to the mysteries of the past, present. For Nazism, all history is the history of race struggle, once that premise is accepted, all actions of the state can be justified by appeal to Nature or the Law of History, justifying their establishment of authoritarian state apparatus. In addition to Arendt, many scholars from a variety of academic backgrounds, each one of these describes totalitarianism in slightly different ways. Is only concerned with power and as long as that is not contested it gives society a certain degree of liberty. Authoritarianism does not attempt to change the world and human nature, in contrast, a totalitarian regime attempts to control virtually all aspects of the social life, including the economy, education, art, science, private life, and morals of citizens. The officially proclaimed ideology penetrates into the deepest reaches of societal structure and it also mobilizes the whole population in pursuit of its goals. Friedrich and Brzezinski argue that a system has the following six, mutually supportive, defining characteristics. Single mass party, typically led by a dictator, system of terror, using such instruments as violence and secret police
Totalitarian
–
Benito Mussolini
Totalitarian
–
Adolf Hitler
Totalitarian
–
Mao Zedong and
Joseph Stalin in Moscow, December 1949
Totalitarian
–
A number of thinkers, including
Zbigniew Brzezinski, have argued that Nazi and Soviet regimes were equally totalitarian.
11.
Dictatorship
–
A dictatorship is a type of authoritarianism, in which politicians regulate nearly every aspect of the public and private behavior of citizens. Dictatorship and totalitarianism societies generally employ political propaganda to decrease the influence of proponents of alternative governing systems, in the past different religious tactics were used by the dictators to maintain their rule. Like the Monarchy system in the west, in the 19th and 20th centuries, traditional monarchies gradually declined and disappeared. Dictatorship and constitutional democracy emerged as the two major forms of government. Since World War II a broader range of dictatorships have been recognized including Third World dictatorships, theocratic or religious dictatorships, in the Roman Empire, a Roman dictator was the incumbent of a political office of legislate of the Roman Republic. Roman dictators were allocated absolute power during times of emergency and their power was originally neither arbitrary nor unaccountable, being subject to law and requiring retrospective justification. There were no such dictatorships after the beginning of the 2nd century BC, and later such as Sulla. After the collapse of Spanish colonial rule, various dictators came to power in many liberated countries, such dictators have been also referred to as personalismo. The wave of military dictatorships in Latin America in the half of the twentieth century left a particular mark on Latin American culture. In Latin American literature, the dictator novel challenging dictatorship and caudillismo is a significant genre, there are also many films depicting Latin American military dictatorships. After World War II, dictators established themselves in the new states of Africa and Asia. These constitutions often failed to work without a middle class or work against the preexisting autocratic rule. Some elected presidents and prime ministers captured power by suppressing the opposition and installing one-party rule, whatever their form, these dictatorships had an adverse impact on economic growth and the quality of political institutions. Dictators who stayed in office for a time period found it increasingly difficult to carry out sound economic policies. The often-cited exploitative dictator is the regime of Mobutu Sese Seko, the global dynamics of democratization has been a central question for political scientists. The Third Wave Democracy was said to turn some dictatorships into democracies, the DD index is seen as an example of the minimalist approach, whereas the Polity data series, relatively more substantive. The most general term is despotism, a form of government in which a single entity rules with absolute power and that entity may be an individual, as in an autocracy, or it may be a group, as in an oligarchy. Despotism can mean tyranny, or absolutism, or dictatorship, dictatorship may take the form of authoritarianism or totalitarianism
Dictatorship
–
Chinese Communist Party Chairman
Mao Zedong meets with U.S. President
Richard Nixon. Mao's dictatorial rule from 1949 to 1976 is believed to have caused the deaths of an estimated 40 to more than 70 million people.
Dictatorship
–
Adolf Hitler (right) and
Benito Mussolini (left). Hitler's policies and orders resulted in the death of about 11 million noncombatants.
Dictatorship
–
People's Republic of China celebrate
Joseph Stalin 's 70th birthday
Dictatorship
–
Mobutu Sese Seko, Zaire's longtime dictator.
12.
Cult of personality
–
Sociologist Max Weber developed a tripartite classification of authority, the cult of personality holds parallels with what Weber defined as charismatic authority. A cult of personality is similar to divinization, except that it is established by media and propaganda usually by the state. The term cult of personality probably appeared in English around 1800–1850, along with the French, at first it had no political connotations but was instead closely related to the Romantic cult of genius. The political use of the phrase came first in a letter from Karl Marx to German political worker, Wilhelm Blos,10 November 1877, robert Service notes that a more accurate translation of the Russian культ личности is the cult of the individual. Throughout history, monarchs and other heads of state were almost always held in enormous reverence, through the principle of the divine right of kings, in medieval Europe for example, rulers were said to hold office by the will of God. Ancient Egypt, Japan, the Inca, the Aztecs, Tibet, Siam, the spread of democratic and secular ideas in Europe and North America in the 18th and 19th centuries made it increasingly difficult for monarchs to preserve this aura. It was from these circumstances in the 20th century that the personality cults arose. Often these cults are a form of political religion, personality cults were first described in relation to Totalitarianism regimes that sought to alter or transform society according to radical ideas. Not all dictatorships foster personality cults, while not all personality cults are practiced in dictatorships, for example, during the Cambodian Khmer Rouge regime, images of dictator Pol Pot were rarely seen in public, and his identity was under dispute abroad until after his fall from power. The same applied to numerous Eastern European communist regimes following World War II
Cult of personality
–
People paying homage to statues of
Kim Il-sung in
Pyongyang,
North Korea.
Cult of personality
Cult of personality
–
Augustus of Prima Porta
Cult of personality
–
A monument to the ancient Chinese emperor
Qin Shi Huang
13.
Liberalism
–
Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. Liberalism first became a political movement during the Age of Enlightenment. Liberalism rejected the social and political norms of hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute monarchy. The 17th-century philosopher John Locke is often credited with founding liberalism as a philosophical tradition. Locke argued that man has a natural right to life, liberty and property. Liberals opposed traditional conservatism and sought to replace absolutism in government with representative democracy, prominent revolutionaries in the Glorious Revolution, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution used liberal philosophy to justify the armed overthrow of what they saw as tyrannical rule. Liberalism started to spread rapidly especially after the French Revolution, the 19th century saw liberal governments established in nations across Europe, South America, and North America. During the 20th century, liberal ideas spread even further as liberal democracies found themselves on the side in both world wars. In Europe and North America, the establishment of social liberalism became a key component in the expansion of the welfare state, today, liberal parties continue to wield power and influence throughout the world. Words such as liberal, liberty, libertarian, and libertine all trace their history to the Latin liber, which means free. One of the first recorded instances of the word occurs in 1375. The words early connection with the education of a medieval university soon gave way to a proliferation of different denotations and connotations. In 16th century England, liberal could have positive or negative attributes in referring to someones generosity or indiscretion, in Much Ado About Nothing, Shakespeare wrote of a liberal villaine who hath. confest his vile encounters. With the rise of the Enlightenment, the word acquired decisively more positive undertones, being defined as free from narrow prejudice in 1781, in 1815, the first use of the word liberalism appeared in English. In Spain, the Liberales, the first group to use the label in a political context. From 1820 to 1823, during the Trienio Liberal, King Ferdinand VII was compelled by the liberales to swear to uphold the Constitution, by the middle of the 19th century, liberal was used as a politicised term for parties and movements worldwide. Over time, the meaning of the word began to diverge in different parts of the world. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, In the United States, liberalism is associated with the policies of the New Deal programme of the Democratic administration of Pres
Liberalism
–
The
Agreement of the People (1647) was a manifesto for political change, proposed by the
Levellers during the
English Civil War. It called for
freedom of religion, frequent convening of
Parliament and equality under the law.
Liberalism
–
John Locke was the first to develop a liberal philosophy, including the right to
private property and the
consent of the governed.
Liberalism
–
The
Bill of Rights was a landmark piece of liberal legislation.
Liberalism
–
The
Philadelphia Convention in 1787 adopted the
United States Constitution, which is still in effect.
14.
Intellectuals
–
Socially, intellectuals constitute the intelligentsia, a status class organised either by ideology, or by nationality. Man of Letters The English term Man of Letters derives from the French term belletrist, the term Man of Letters distinguished the literate man from the illiterate man, in a time when literacy was a rare form of cultural capital. In late 19th century, the term became common usage to denote the defenders of the falsely accused artillery officer Alfred Dreyfus. Likewise, in Tsarist Russia, there arose the intelligentsia, who were the class of white-collar workers. As such, politically radical thinkers already had participated in the French Revolution, Robert Darnton said that they were not societal outsiders, but respectable, domesticated, moreover, some intellectuals were anti-academic, despite universities being synonymous with intellectualism. Habermas Structural Transformation of Public Sphere made significant contribution to the notion of public intellectual by historically and conceptually delineating the idea of private, such civil servants earned academic degrees by means of imperial examination, and also were skilled calligraphers, and knew Confucian philosophy. Historian Wing-Tsit Chan concludes that, Generally speaking, the record of these scholar-gentlemen has been a worthy one and it was good enough to be praised and imitated in 18th century Europe. Nevertheless, it has given China a tremendous handicap in their transition from government by men to government by law, and personal considerations in Chinese government have been a curse. In Joseon Korea, the intellectuals were the literati, who knew how to read and write, socially, they constituted the petite bourgeoisie, composed of scholar-bureaucrats who administered the dynastic rule of the Joseon dynasty. The Italian Communist theoretician Antonio Gramsci developed Karl Marx’s conception of the intelligentsia to include political leadership in the public sphere and that, because all knowledge is existentially-based, the intellectuals, who create and preserve knowledge, are spokesmen for different social groups, and articulate particular social interests. That intellectuals occur in social class and throughout the right wing, the centre. That, as a class, the intellectuals view themselves as autonomous from the ruling class of their society. Therefore, the leadership of intellectuals is required for effecting and realizing social change, because, in the formal codification of Leninism, the Hungarian Marxist philosopher, György Lukács identified the intelligentsia as the privileged social class who provide revolutionary leadership. By means of intelligible and accessible interpretation, the intellectuals explain to the workers, the How. and the Why. of the social, economic, and political status quo—the ideological totality of society—and its practical, revolutionary application to the transformation of their society. The term public intellectual describes the intellectual participating in the discourse of society. In Representations of the Intellectual, Edward Saïd said that the … true intellectual is, therefore, always an outsider, living in self-imposed exile, and on the margins of society. An intellectual usually is associated with an ideology or with a philosophy and that intellectuals be mindful of the social and cultural ties created with their words, insights, and ideas, and should be heard as social critics of politics and power. In journalism, the term usually connotes a university academic of the humanities—especially a philosopher—who addresses important social and political matters of the day
Intellectuals
–
The American intellectual
Jacques Barzun was a teacher, a man of letters, and a scholar.
Intellectuals
–
The front page of
L'Aurore (13 January 1898) featured
Émile Zola 's open letter,
J'accuse, asking the French President,
Félix Faure, to resolve the
Dreyfus Affair.
Intellectuals
–
The economist Milton Friedman identified the intelligentsia and the business class, as interfering with the economic functions of a society.
Intellectuals
–
Socrates proposed for philosopher's a private monopoly of knowledge separate from the public sphere. (The Louvre)
15.
Ethnicity
–
An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities, such as common ancestral, language, social, cultural or national experiences. Unlike other social groups, ethnicity is often an inherited status based on the society in which one lives, in some cases, it can be adopted if a person moves into another society. Ethnic groups, derived from the historical founder population, often continue to speak related languages. By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is possible for individuals or groups to leave one ethnic group. Ethnicity is often used synonymously with terms such as nation or people. In English, it can also have the connotation of something exotic, generally related to cultures of more recent immigrants, the largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of individuals, while the smallest are limited to a few dozen individuals. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a pan-ethnicity, whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis. The term ethnic is derived from the Greek word ἔθνος ethnos, the inherited English language term for this concept is folk, used alongside the latinate people since the late Middle English period. In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan, as the Septuagint used ta ethne to translate the Hebrew goyim the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews. The Greek term in antiquity could refer to any large group, a host of men. In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of peculiar to a race, people or nation, the abstract ethnicity had been used for paganism in the 18th century, but now came to express the meaning of an ethnic character. The term ethnic group was first recorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972, depending on the context that is used, the term nationality may either be used synonymously with ethnicity, or synonymously with citizenship. The process that results in the emergence of an ethnicity is called ethnogenesis, the Greeks at this time did not describe foreign nations but had also developed a concept of their own ethnicity, which they grouped under the name of Hellenes. Herodotus gave an account of what defined Greek ethnic identity in his day, enumerating shared descent. Whether ethnicity qualifies as a universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used. Many social scientists, such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf and they regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups. According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently, one is between primordialism and instrumentalism. In the primordialist view, the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as a given, even coercive
Ethnicity
–
Before the 1970s, the
Korowai people of
Papua were an
uncontacted people. Their population numbers no more than 3,000.
Ethnicity
–
The
Assyrians are the indigenous peoples of
Northern Iraq.
Ethnicity
–
Some European ethnic groups, such as
Basque people, do not constitute a majority in any one country.
16.
National identity
–
National identity is ones identity or sense of belonging to one state or to one nation. It is the sense of a nation as a whole, as represented by distinctive traditions, culture, language. National identity may refer to the feeling one shares with a group of people about a nation. National identity is viewed in terms as an awareness of difference. The expression of national identity seen in a positive light is patriotism which is characterized by national pride. The extreme expression of identity is chauvinism, which refers to the firm belief in the countrys superiority. National identity is not a trait and it is essentially socially constructed. People with identification of their nation view national beliefs and values as personally meaningful, political scientist Rupert Emerson defined national identity as a body of people who feel that they are a nation. This definition of identity was endorsed by social psychologist, Henri Tajfel. Social identity theory adopts this definition of identity, and suggests that the conceptualization of national identity includes both self-categorization and affect. Self-categorization refers to identifying with a nation and viewing oneself as a member of a nation, the affect part refers to the emotion a person has with this identification, such as a sense of belonging, or emotional attachment toward ones nation. National identity requires the process of self-categorization and it both the identification of in-group, and differentiation of out-groups. Social identity theory suggests a relationship between identification of a nation and derogation of other nations. By identifying with ones nation, people involve in intergroup comparisons, national identity, like other social identities, engenders positive emotions such as pride and love to ones nation, and feeling of obligations toward other citizens. The socialization of national identity, such as socializing national pride, national identity can be most noticeable when the nation confronts external or internal enemy and natural disasters. An example of this phenomenon is the rise in patriotism and national identity in the U. S after the terrorist attacks on September 11,2001, the identity of being an American are salient after the terrorist attacks and American national identity are evoked. Having a common threat or having a common goal unite people in a nation, sociologist Anthony Smith argues that national identity has the feature of continuity that can transmit and persist through generations. By expressing the myths of having common descent and common destiny, national identity can be thought as a collective product
National identity
17.
Romantic nationalism
–
Romantic nationalism is the form of nationalism in which the state derives its political legitimacy as an organic consequence of the unity of those it governs. This includes, depending on the manner of practice, the language, race, culture, religion. Such downward-radiating power might ultimately derive from a god or gods, among the key themes of Romanticism, and its most enduring legacy, the cultural assertions of romantic nationalism have also been central in post-Enlightenment art and political philosophy. The ideas of Rousseau and of Johann Gottfried von Herder inspired much early Romantic nationalism in Europe, in 1784 Herder argued that geography formed the natural economy of a people, and that their customs and society would develop along the lines that their basic environment favored. The Brothers Grimm, inspired by Herders writings, put together a collection of tales. Because of the Germans role in the Protestant Reformation, Hegel argued that his historical moment had seen the Zeitgeist settle on the German-speaking peoples. In continental Europe, Romantics had embraced the French Revolution in its beginnings, in Prussia, the development of spiritual renewal as a means to engage in the struggle against Napoleon was argued by, among others, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, a disciple of Kant. The word Volkstum, or folkhood, was coined in Germany as part of resistance to French hegemony. In the Balkans, Romantic views of a connection with classical Greece, verdis opera choruses of an oppressed people inspired two generations of patriots in Italy, especially with Va pensiero. In Norway, romanticism was embodied, not in literature, but in the movement toward a national style, following the Congress of Vienna, and subsequent Concert of Europe system, several major empires took control of European politics. Among these were the Russian Empire, the restored French monarchy, the German Confederation, under the dominance of Prussia, the Austrian Empire, the conservative forces held sway until the Revolutions of 1848 swept across Europe and threatened the old order. Numerous movements developed around various cultural groups, who began to develop a sense of national identity, Romantic nationalists expected patriots to then learn that language and raise their children speaking that language – as part of a general program to establish a unique identity. Katharevousa Greek was constructed as a form of Modern Greek drawing on classical Greek morphology, the linguistic processes of romantic nationalism demanded linguistic culture models. Romantic historiography was centered on biographies and produced culture heroes, the modern Italian of Risorgimento patriots like Alessandro Manzoni was based on the Tuscan dialects sanctified by Dante and Petrarch. In English, Shakespeare became an iconic figure, Romantic nationalism inspired the collection of folklore by such people as the Brothers Grimm. The Brothers Grimm were criticized because their first edition was insufficiently German and they also altered the language used, changing each Fee to an enchantress or wise woman, every prince to a kings son, every princess to a kings daughter. Discussing these views in their editions, they particularly singled out Giambattista Basiles Pentamerone as the first national collection of fairy tales. Among those influenced were the Russian Alexander Afanasyev, the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe, many artists and writers also drew on their native countries folklore and folktunes for their own work to express their nationalism
Romantic nationalism
–
Liberty Leading the People, embodying the Romantic view of the French
Revolution of 1830, also known as the
July Revolution; its painter
Eugène Delacroix also served as an elected deputy
Romantic nationalism
–
Brudeferden i
Hardanger (Bridal procession in Hardanger), a monumental piece within
Norwegian romantic nationalism. Painted by
Hans Gude and
Adolph Tidemand.
Romantic nationalism
–
Romanticized painting of the
Battle of Rancagua during the
Chilean War of Independence by
Pedro Subercaseaux
Romantic nationalism
–
John Gast, American Progress, (circa 1872) celebrates
U.S. romantic nationalism in the form of westward expansion – an idea known as "
Manifest Destiny ".
18.
Nationalism
–
Nationalism is a complex, multidimensional concept involving a shared communal identification with ones nation. It is contrasted by Anti-nationalism as a political ideology oriented towards gaining and maintaining self-governance, or full sovereignty, Nationalism therefore holds that a nation should govern itself, free from unwanted outside interference, and is linked to the concept of self-determination. Nationalism therefore seeks to preserve the nations culture and it often also involves a sense of pride in the nations achievements, and is closely linked to the concept of patriotism. In these terms, nationalism can be considered positive or negative, from a political or sociological outlook, there are three main paradigms for understanding the origins and basis of nationalism. The first, known as Primordialism or Perennialism, sees nationalism as a natural phenomenon and it holds that although the concept nationhood may be recent, nations have always existed. The third, and most dominant paradigm is Modernism, which sees nationalism as a recent phenomenon that needs the structural conditions of society in order to exist. There are various definitions for what constitutes a nation, however and this anomie results in a society or societies reinterpreting identity, retaining elements that are deemed acceptable and removing elements deemed unacceptable, in order to create a unified community. Nationalism means devotion for the nation and it is a sentiment that binds the people together. National symbols and flags, national anthems, national languages, national myths, Nationalism is a newer word, in English the term dates from 1844, although the concept is older. It became important in the 19th century, the term increasingly became negative in its connotations after 1914. Glenda Sluga notes that The twentieth century, a time of disillusionment with nationalism, was also the great age of globalism. Nationalism is the term used to characterize the modern sense of national political autonomy. For example, German nationalism emerged as a reaction against Napoleonic control of Germany as the Confederation of the Rhine around 1805–14, linda Colley in Britons, Forging the Nation 1707–1837 explores how the role of nationalism emerged about 1700 and developed in Britain reaching full form in the 1830s. The early emergence of a popular patriotic nationalism took place in the mid-18th century, National symbols, anthems, myths, flags and narratives were assiduously constructed by nationalists and widely adopted. The Union Jack was adopted in 1801 as the national one, Thomas Arne composed the patriotic song Rule, Britannia. in 1740, and the cartoonist John Arbuthnot invented the character of John Bull as the personification of the English national spirit in 1712. The political convulsions of the late 18th century associated with the American, the Prussian scholar Johann Gottfried Herder originated the term in 1772 in his Essay on the Origins of Language. Stressing the role of a common language, the political development of nationalism and the push for popular sovereignty culminated with the ethnic/national revolutions of Europe. During the 19th century nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in history, napoleons conquests of the German and Italian states around 1800–06 played a major role in stimulating nationalism and the demands for national unity
Nationalism
–
Beginning in 1821, the
Greek War of Independence began as a rebellion by Greek nationalists against the ruling Ottoman Empire.
Nationalism
–
The growth of a national identity was expressed in a variety of symbolic ways, including the adoption of a
national flag. Pictured, a Scottish Union Flag in the 1704 edition of The Present State of the Universe.
Nationalism
–
Nationalist and liberal pressure led to the
European revolutions of 1848
Nationalism
–
Euromaidan activists carry flags of the
Ukrainian Insurgent Army, Ukraine, 2014
19.
Middle Ages
–
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
Middle Ages
–
The
Cross of Mathilde, a
crux gemmata made for
Mathilde, Abbess of Essen (973–1011), who is shown kneeling before the Virgin and Child in the
enamel plaque. The body of Christ is slightly later. Probably made in
Cologne or
Essen, the cross demonstrates several medieval techniques:
cast figurative sculpture,
filigree, enamelling, gem polishing and setting, and the reuse of Classical
cameos and
engraved gems.
Middle Ages
–
A late Roman statue
depicting the four Tetrarchs, now in
Venice
Middle Ages
–
Coin of
Theodoric
Middle Ages
–
Mosaic showing
Justinian with
the bishop of
Ravenna, bodyguards, and courtiers
20.
Nation-state
–
A state is specifically a political and geopolitical entity, whilst a nation is a cultural and ethnic one. The term nation state implies that the two coincide, in that a state has chosen to adopt and endorse a specific cultural group as associated with it. The concept of a state can be compared and contrasted with that of the multinational state, city state, empire, confederation. The key distinction is the identification of a people with a polity in the nation state, the origins and early history of nation states are disputed. A major theoretical question is, Which came first, the nation or the nation state and it was with these intellectual discoveries and technological advances that the nation state arose. For others, the nation existed first, then nationalist movements arose for sovereignty, some modernization theories of nationalism see it as a product of government policies to unify and modernize an already existing state. Most theories see the state as a 19th-century European phenomenon, facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education, mass literacy. However, historians note the early emergence of a relatively unified state and identity in Portugal. In France, Eric Hobsbawm argues, the French state preceded the formation of the French people, Hobsbawm considers that the state made the French nation, not French nationalism, which emerged at the end of the 19th century, the time of the Dreyfus Affair. At the time of the 1789 French Revolution, only half of the French people spoke some French, during the Italian unification, the number of people speaking the Italian language was even lower. The French state promoted the unification of various dialects and languages into the French language, the introduction of conscription and the Third Republics 1880s laws on public instruction, facilitated the creation of a national identity, under this theory. Some nation states, such as Germany and Italy, came into existence at least partly as a result of campaigns by nationalists. In both cases, the territory was divided among other states, some of them very small. The sense of identity was at first a cultural movement, such as in the Völkisch movement in German-speaking states. In these cases, the nationalist sentiment and the nationalist movement clearly precede the unification of the German and Italian nation states, some authors deconstruct the distinction between ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism because of the ambiguity of the concepts. They argue that the case of Ernest Renan is an idealisation and it should be interpreted within the German tradition. For example, they argue that the used by Renan at the conference What is a nation. Are not consistent with his thinking and this alleged civic conception of the nation would be determined only by the case of the loss gives Alsace and Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War
Nation-state
–
Portrait of "The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster", one of the treaties leading to the
Peace of Westphalia, where the concept of the "nation state" was born.
Nation-state
–
Dark yellow: 85% or more are from majority ethnicity
Nation-state
–
Ainu, an
ethnic minority people from
Japan (between 1863 and early 1870s).
21.
Psychology
–
Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
Psychology
–
Wilhelm Wundt (seated) with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind.
Psychology
–
MRI depicting the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the
hypothalamus.
Psychology
–
Skinner's
teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of
programmed instruction
Psychology
–
Social psychology studies the nature and causes of social behavior.
22.
Homeland
–
A homeland is the concept of the place with which an ethnic group holds a long history and a deep cultural association – the country in which a particular national identity began. As a common noun, homeland, it connotes the country of ones origin. When used as a noun, the Homeland, as well as its equivalents in other languages. A homeland may also be referred to as a fatherland, a motherland, or a country, depending on the culture. Motherland refers to a country, i. e. the place of ones birth, the place of ones ancestors. People often refer to Mother Russia as a personification of the Russian nation, within the British Empire, many natives in the colonies came to think of Britain as the mother country of one, large nation. India is often personified as Bharat Mata, Fatherland is the nation of ones fathers or forefathers. It can be viewed as a nationalist concept, insofar as it relates to nations, the term fatherland is used throughout German-speaking Europe, as well as in Dutch. For example, Wien Neêrlands Bloed, national anthem of the Netherlands between 1815 and 1932, makes extensive and conspicuous use of the parallel Dutch word. Because of the use of Vaterland in Nazi-German war propaganda, the term Fatherland in English has become associated with domestic British and this is not the case in Germany itself, where the word remains used in the usual patriotic contexts. In Romance languages, a way to refer to ones home country is Patria/Pátria/Patrie which has the same connotation as Fatherland, that is. As patria has feminine gender, it is used in expressions related to ones mother. The Soviet Union created homelands for some minorities in the 1920s, including the Volga German ASSR, in the case of the Volga German ASSR, these homelands were later abolished and their inhabitants deported to either Siberia or the Kazakh SSR. In the case of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast this was not necessary, since it had created from the start at the far-Eastern end of Siberia. In the United States, the Department of Homeland Security was created soon after the 11 September 2001, terrorist attacks, Homeland isnt really an American word, its not something we used to say or say now. In the apartheid era in South Africa, the concept was given a different meaning, the white government had designated approximately 25% of its non-desert territory for black tribal settlement. Whites and other non-blacks were restricted from owning land or settling in those areas, after 1948 they were gradually granted an increasing level of home-rule. From 1976 several of these regions were granted independence, four of them were declared independent nations by South Africa, but were unrecognized as independent countries by any other nation besides each other and South Africa
Homeland
–
La liberté guidant le peuple by
Eugène Delacroix personifies the French motherland
Homeland
–
Bharat Mata statue accompanied by a lion at
Yanam, India
23.
Myths
–
A myth is any traditional story consisting of events that are ostensibly historical, though often supernatural, explaining the origins of a cultural practice or natural phenomenon. The word myth is derived from the Greek word mythos, which means story. Mythology can refer either to the study of myths, or to a body or collection of myths, myth can mean sacred story, traditional narrative or tale of the gods. A myth can also be a story to explain why something exists, human cultures usually include a cosmogonical or creation myth, concerning the origins of the world, or how the world came to exist. The active beings in myths are generally gods and goddesses, heroes and heroines, or animals, most myths are set in a timeless past before recorded time or beginning of the critical history. A myth can be a story involving symbols that are capable of multiple meanings, a myth is a sacred narrative because it holds religious or spiritual significance for those who tell it. Myths also contribute to and express a cultures systems of thought and values, myths are often therefore stories that are currently understood as being exaggerated or fictitious. According to Albert A. Anderson, a professor of philosophy, in these works, the term had several meanings, conversation, narrative, speech, story, tale, and word. Like the related term logos, mythos expresses whatever can be delivered in the form of words, Anderson contrasts the two terms with ergon, a Greek term for action, deed, and work. The term mythos lacks an explicit distinction between true or false narratives, in the context of the Theatre of ancient Greece, the term mythos referred to the myth, the narrative, the plot, and the story of a theatrical play. According to David Wiles, the Greek term mythos in this era covered an entire spectrum of different meanings, from undeniable falsehoods to stories with religious, according to philosopher Aristotle, the spirit of a theatrical play was its mythos. The term mythos was also used for the material of Greek tragedy. The tragedians of the era could draw inspiration from Greek mythology, David Wiles observes that modern conceptions about Greek tragedy can be misleading. It is commonly thought that the ancient audience members were familiar with the mythos behind a play. However, the Greek dramatists were not expected to faithfully reproduce traditional myths when adapting them for the stage and they were instead recreating the myths and producing new versions. Storytellers like Euripides relied on suspense to excite their audiences, in one of his works, Merope attempts to kill her sons murderer with an axe, unaware that the man in question is actually her son. According to an ancient description of reactions to this work. They rose to their feet in terror and caused an uproar, David Wiles points that the traditional mythos of Ancient Greece, was primarily a part of its oral tradition
Myths
–
Prometheus (1868) by
Gustave Moreau. In the mythos of
Hesiodus and possibly
Aeschylus (the
Greek trilogy
Prometheus Bound,
Prometheus Unbound and
Prometheus Pyrphoros), Prometheus is bound and tortured for giving fire to humanity at its creation.
Myths
–
1929
Belgian banknote, depicting
Ceres,
Neptune and
caduceus.
Myths
–
Fu Xi and
Nüwa represented as half-snake, half-human creatures
24.
Euromyth
–
The term euromyth was coined in c.2007 in journalistic repots on urban legends involving exaggerated or invented story about allegedly nonsensical EU legislation or EU bodies. Conversely, the same term applied by Eurosceptics to purportedly misleading or exaggerated claims by the European Commission. Sometimes debate as to whether a claim is true or not continues long after the original story appeared. On occasions, Euromyths may arise when the actions of a different European organisation, the European Union has introduced a policy of publicly rebutting negative coverage that it regards as unfair or distorted. Accusations of distorted or untruthful reporting are most commonly directed at conservative, stories often present the European civil service as drafting rules that defy common sense. Examples cited as Euromyths include stories about rules banning mince-pies, curved bananas, in some cases Euromyth stories have been traced to deliberate attempts by lobbyists to influence actions by the European bureaucracy, for instance the level of customs duties for particular products. The alleged ban on curved bananas is a long-standing, famous, amongst other issues of acceptable quality and standards, the regulation does actually specify minimum dimensions. It also states that bananas shall be free from deformation or abnormal curvature, however, the provisions relating to shape apply fully only to bananas sold as Extra class, some defects of shape are permitted in Class I and Class II bananas. On 29 July 2008, the European Commission held a preliminary vote towards repealing certain regulations relating to other fruit and it is far better to leave it to market operators. Some Eurosceptic sources have claimed this to be an admission that the regulations did indeed ban undersized or misshapen fruit. Euromyths from the European Commission Euromyths from the BBC Standards myths from CEN
Euromyth
–
ESCB
25.
Nation branding
–
Nation branding aims to measure, build and manage the reputation of countries. ”Many nations try to make brands in order to build relationships between different actors that are not restricted to nations. It extends to public and private sectors in a nation and helps with nationalism, states also want to participate in multilateral projects. Some approaches applied, such as an importance on the symbolic value of products, have led countries to emphasise their distinctive characteristics. Nation branding is a field in which scholars continue their search for a unified theoretical framework. Many governments have dedicated to nation branding. Different ways that nation project their nation brand include export, foreign direct investment, one example of exporting products is that the country Germany is known for their motor industry because famous car companies like Mercedes, Audi, and BMW are German companies. An example of direct investments that help the nation brand are US companies building maquiladoras. An early example of this was the Cool Britannia approach of the days of the New Labour government. Developing nations such as Tanzania and Colombia are creating smaller nation branding programs aimed at increased overall image and with the case of Colombia, Nation branding is seen as a part of Swedens public diplomacy, especially with Brand Sweden. Sweden uses two main institutions, called the Utrikesdepartementet and the Swedish Institute, to study their nation branding and they wanted to present a good image through the press and also collect different reports on Sweden’s representations abroad. Different events and campaigns were made to promote Brand Sweden. Another campaign was the Second House of Sweden which used the internet to introduce Sweden’s embassy virtually, researchers in Sweden also studied the Nation Brand Index results to collect data. Nation branding can be approached in academics as a field in social sciences, political sciences, humanities, communication, marketing, scholars such as Evan H. Potter at the University of Ottawa have conceptualized nation brands as a form of national soft power. All efforts by government to support the nation brand - either directly or indirectly - becomes public diplomacy, the concept of measuring global perceptions of countries across several dimensions was developed by Simon Anholt. His original survey, the Anholt Nation Brands Index, was launched in 2005, today it is fielded and published once a year in partnership with GfK, named the Anholt-GfK Nation Brands Index. Brand Finance produces an annual Brand Finance Nation Brands table, in which 100 brands are ranked according to national brand value and this is based on the royalty relief methodology and takes into account the brand strength of individual countries. In their 2014-15 ranking, the top 5 nations brands were Japan, Switzerland, Germany, Sweden, monocle magazine released its third annual Soft Power Survey in 2012. The latest edition of the survey was launched in 2013 Country of origin Branding Place Branding Andrew Stevens The Singapore brand offers a modern city City Mayors Foundation
Nation branding
26.
Ernst Renan
–
Joseph Ernest Renan was a French expert of Semitic languages and civilizations, philosopher, historian, and writer, devoted to his native province of Brittany. He is best known for his historical works on Early Christianity. He was born at Tréguier in Brittany to a family of fishermen, all his life, Renan was aware of the conflict between his fathers and his mothers political beliefs. He was five years old when his father died, and his sister, Henriette, twelve years his senior, having in vain attempted to keep a school for girls at Tréguier, she departed and went to Paris as a teacher in a young ladies boarding-school. Ernest, meanwhile, was educated in the seminary of his native town. His school reports describe him as docile, patient, diligent, painstaking, while the priests taught him mathematics and Latin, his mother completed his education. Her paternal ancestors came from Bordeaux, and Renan used to say that in his own nature the Gascon, during the summer of 1838, Renan won all the prizes at the college of Tréguier. His sister told the doctor of the school in Paris where she taught about her brother, dupanloup sent for Renan, who was only fifteen years old and had never been outside Brittany. I learned with stupor that knowledge was not a privilege of the church, I awoke to the meaning of the words talent, fame, celebrity. Religion seemed to him wholly different in Tréguier and in Paris, the superficial, brilliant, pseudo-scientific Catholicism of the capital did not satisfy Renan, who had accepted the austere faith of his Breton masters. In 1840, Renan left St Nicholas to study philosophy at the seminary of Issy-les-Moulineaux and he entered with a passion for Catholic scholasticism. The rhetoric of St Nicholas had wearied him, and his serious intelligence hoped to satisfy itself with the vast, thomas Reid and Nicolas Malebranche first attracted him among the philosophers, and, after these, he turned to G. W. F. Renan began to see a contradiction between the metaphysics which he studied and the faith he professed, but an appetite for truths that can be verified restrained his scepticism. Philosophy excites and only half satisfies the appetite for truth, I am eager for mathematics, Henriette had accepted in the family of Count Zamoyski an engagement more lucrative than her former job. She exercised the strongest influence over her brother and it was not mathematics but philology which was to settle Renans gathering doubts. His course completed at Issy, he entered the college of St Sulpice in order to take his degree in philology prior to entering the church, secretly, Renan felt himself denied the communion of saints, yet desired to live the life of a Catholic priest. The struggle between vocation and conviction was won by conviction, in October 1845, Renan left St Sulpice for Stanislas, a lay college of the Oratorians. Still feeling too much under the domination of the church, he ended the last of his associations with religious life
Ernst Renan
–
Ernest Renan by
Antoine Samuel Adam-Salomon, circa 1870s.
Ernst Renan
–
Ernest Renan birthplace museum in
Tréguier.
Ernst Renan
–
Portrait of Joseph Ernest Renan, by F. Mulnier.
Ernst Renan
–
Renan in his study in the College of France.
27.
Ernest Renan
–
Joseph Ernest Renan was a French expert of Semitic languages and civilizations, philosopher, historian, and writer, devoted to his native province of Brittany. He is best known for his historical works on Early Christianity. He was born at Tréguier in Brittany to a family of fishermen, all his life, Renan was aware of the conflict between his fathers and his mothers political beliefs. He was five years old when his father died, and his sister, Henriette, twelve years his senior, having in vain attempted to keep a school for girls at Tréguier, she departed and went to Paris as a teacher in a young ladies boarding-school. Ernest, meanwhile, was educated in the seminary of his native town. His school reports describe him as docile, patient, diligent, painstaking, while the priests taught him mathematics and Latin, his mother completed his education. Her paternal ancestors came from Bordeaux, and Renan used to say that in his own nature the Gascon, during the summer of 1838, Renan won all the prizes at the college of Tréguier. His sister told the doctor of the school in Paris where she taught about her brother, dupanloup sent for Renan, who was only fifteen years old and had never been outside Brittany. I learned with stupor that knowledge was not a privilege of the church, I awoke to the meaning of the words talent, fame, celebrity. Religion seemed to him wholly different in Tréguier and in Paris, the superficial, brilliant, pseudo-scientific Catholicism of the capital did not satisfy Renan, who had accepted the austere faith of his Breton masters. In 1840, Renan left St Nicholas to study philosophy at the seminary of Issy-les-Moulineaux and he entered with a passion for Catholic scholasticism. The rhetoric of St Nicholas had wearied him, and his serious intelligence hoped to satisfy itself with the vast, thomas Reid and Nicolas Malebranche first attracted him among the philosophers, and, after these, he turned to G. W. F. Renan began to see a contradiction between the metaphysics which he studied and the faith he professed, but an appetite for truths that can be verified restrained his scepticism. Philosophy excites and only half satisfies the appetite for truth, I am eager for mathematics, Henriette had accepted in the family of Count Zamoyski an engagement more lucrative than her former job. She exercised the strongest influence over her brother and it was not mathematics but philology which was to settle Renans gathering doubts. His course completed at Issy, he entered the college of St Sulpice in order to take his degree in philology prior to entering the church, secretly, Renan felt himself denied the communion of saints, yet desired to live the life of a Catholic priest. The struggle between vocation and conviction was won by conviction, in October 1845, Renan left St Sulpice for Stanislas, a lay college of the Oratorians. Still feeling too much under the domination of the church, he ended the last of his associations with religious life
Ernest Renan
–
Ernest Renan by
Antoine Samuel Adam-Salomon, circa 1870s.
Ernest Renan
–
Ernest Renan birthplace museum in
Tréguier.
Ernest Renan
–
Portrait of Joseph Ernest Renan, by F. Mulnier.
Ernest Renan
–
Renan in his study in the College of France.
28.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
29.
OCLC
–
The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
OCLC
–
Fred Kilgour (1st director of OCLC)
OCLC
–
Online Computer Library Center (OCLC)
OCLC
–
OCLC headquarters (Ohio)
OCLC
–
OCLC offices in Leiden (the Netherlands)
30.
Eric Hobsbawm
–
Eric John Ernest Hobsbawm CH FRSL FBA was a British Marxist historian of the rise of industrial capitalism, socialism and nationalism. Hobsbawm was born in Egypt but spent his childhood mostly in Vienna, in 1998 he was appointed to the Order of the Companions of Honour. He was President of Birkbeck, University of London from 2002 until his death and his early childhood was spent in Vienna, Austria and Berlin, Germany. A clerical error at birth altered his surname from Hobsbaum to Hobsbawm, although the family lived in German-speaking countries, his parents spoke to him and his younger sister Nancy in English. In 1929, when Hobsbawm was 12, his father died, upon the death of their mother two years later, he and Nancy were adopted by their maternal aunt, Gretl, and paternal uncle, Sidney, who married and had a son named Peter. Hobsbawm was a student at the Prinz Heinrich-Gymnasium Berlin when Hitler came to power in 1933, that year the family moved to London, Hobsbawm attended Kings College, Cambridge, from 1936, where he took a double-starred first in History and was elected to the Cambridge Apostles. He received a doctorate in History from Cambridge University for his dissertation on the Fabian Society, during the Second World War, he served in the Royal Engineers and the Royal Army Educational Corps. Hobsbawms first marriage was to Muriel Seaman in 1943 and his second marriage was to Marlene Schwarz, with whom he had two children, Julia Hobsbawm and Andy Hobsbawm. Julia is chief executive of Hobsbawm Media and Marketing and a professor of public relations at the College of Communication. He also had a son, Joshua Bennathan, who died in November 2014. In 1947, he became a lecturer in history at Birkbeck and he became reader in 1959, professor between 1970 and 1982 and an emeritus professor of history in 1982. He was a Fellow of Kings College, Cambridge, from 1949 to 1955, Hobsbawm said there was a weaker version of McCarthyism that took hold in Britain and affected Marxist academics, you didnt get promotion for 10 years, but nobody threw you out. Conservative commentator David Pryce-Jones has questioned the existence of such career obstacles, Hobsbawm helped found the academic journal Past & Present in 1952. He was a professor at Stanford in the 1960s. In 1970, he was appointed professor and in 1978 he became a Fellow of the British Academy and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1971 and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 2006. He retired in 1982 but stayed as visiting professor at The New School for Social Research in Manhattan between 1984–97 and he was, until his death, president of Birkbeck and professor emeritus in the New School for Social Research in the Political Science Department. A polyglot, he spoke German, English, French, Spanish and Italian fluently, Hobsbawm wrote extensively on many subjects as one of Britains most prominent historians. As a Marxist historiographer he has focused on analysis of the dual revolution and he saw their effect as a driving force behind the predominant trend towards liberal capitalism today
Eric Hobsbawm
–
Hobsbawm in 2011
Eric Hobsbawm
–
Hobsbawm's grave in
Highgate Cemetery
Eric Hobsbawm
–
Insignia of C.H.
Eric Hobsbawm
–
Subdivisions and publications
31.
National coat of arms
–
National coat of arms is a symbol which denotes an independent state in the form of a heraldic achievement. The royal arms of a monarchy, which sometimes is identical to the arms, is sometimes described as arms of dominion or arms of sovereignty. An important use for national coats of arms is as the symbol on the cover of passports. For a symbol to be called national coat of arms, it should follow the rules of heraldry, if it does not, it is not formally a coat of arms but still a national emblem. However, many unheraldic national emblems are colloquially called national coats of arms anyway because they are used for the same purposes as national coats of arms. The original national coats of arms are heraldic arms, which has a shield with symbols upon it and often symbols like a crown on top of the shield, supporters etc. In the real sense of the word, these coats of arms are the only ones which should be called coats of arms. Heraldry originated in Western Europe and has now spread to all parts of the world, the heraldic coat of arms also have differences in between themselves. Up until the 20th century most independent nations in the world were monarchies. This style is illustrated below by the Swedish greater coat of arms, characteristic for this style of coat of arms is the crown on top of the ermine mantling with the coat of arms of both the kingdom and the Monarch within. In Swedens case the inner coat of arms is upheld by two lions and encircled by the chain of the Order of the Seraphim and this is an often used style by the European kingdoms. Lions is used in all coat of arms of the European kingdoms, the lion is a symbol of power and sovereignty but also a symbol of Jesus as the Lion of Judah. The style of the coat of arms of the European republics are diverse, many republics have chosen to use the same, or a modified version, of coat of arms as they used as monarchies or as part of monarchies. Finland uses the coat of arms that before the independence where used as coat of arms of the Grand-duke of Finland, russia uses the same coat of arms as the former Russian Empire, but without the ermine mantling and crown. Many of the former European colonies have chosen to use a coat of arms. Australia and Jamaica are examples of countries that have created a coat of arms. These two nations also have not to use a crown in their coat of arms although they formally are monarchies. The coat of arms of Uganda below is an example of an African coat of arms
National coat of arms
–
The Finnish coat of arms on the front cover of a
Finnish passport with both
Swedish and
Finnish text.
National coat of arms
–
The US coat of arms on the front cover of a
United States passport.
National coat of arms
–
The Soviet Union "socialist coat of arms" on the front cover of a
Soviet Union passport.
32.
National dish
–
A national dish is a culinary dish that is strongly associated with a particular country. It contains an exotic ingredient that is produced locally, such as the South American paprika grown in the European Pyrenees. National dishes are part of an identity and self-image. During the age of European empire-building, nations would develop a national cuisine to distinguish themselves from their rivals, the cuisine of such countries simply cannot be represented by any single national dish. Furthermore, because national dishes are so interwoven into a sense of identity, strong emotions. In Latin America, dishes may be claimed or designated as a plato nacional, both Peru and Ecuador claim ceviche as their national dish. The identification of Latin American national dishes is stronger among expatriate communities in North America, in Latin American countries, the plato nacional is usually part of the cuisine of rural and peasant communities, and not necessarily part of the everyday cuisine of city dwellers. In expatriate communities, the dish is strongly reclaimed in order to retain the sense of identity and ties to ones homeland. This is not a definitive list of dishes, but rather a list of some foods that have been suggested to be national dishes. See here for a survey of important dishes from various states, while the status of such drinks may be informal, there is usually a general consensus in a given country that a specific drink is the national beverage or most popular liquor. Index of sociology of food articles Traditional food
National dish
–
A
Sunday roast —in this example, consisting of
roast beef,
mashed potatoes,
vegetables and mini
Yorkshire puddings —is a national dish of
England.
National dish
–
Pilaf (O'sh), a national dish in the
cuisines of Central Asia
National dish
–
Hainanese chicken rice, a national dish of
Singapore.
National dish
–
Tumpeng, a national dish of
Indonesia
33.
Floral emblem
–
In a number of countries, plants have been chosen as symbols to represent specific geographic areas. Some countries have a floral emblem, others in addition have symbols representing subdivisions. Different processes have been used to adopt these symbols – some are conferred by government bodies, the term floral emblem, which refers to flowers specifically, is primarily used in Australia and Canada. In the United States, the state flower is more often used. The national flower and floral emblem of Bangladesh is the shapla, or Nymphaea nouchali) See also, bhutan – Blue poppy Brunei – Simpoh Ayer Cambodia formally adopted the romduol as its national flower in the year 2005 by a royal decree. The royal decree designates the taxon as Mitrella mesnyi, however this is an illegitimate synonym for Sphaerocoryne affinis Ridley. The flower of India is also the lotus, a symbol of purity that remains immaculate despite growing from mud, keralas state floral emblem is the tree Cassia fistula. Tamil Nadus floral emblem is Glory lily, water-lily is the state flower of Andhra Pradesh. Kapau is the flower of Assam. Bihars floral emblem is kachnaar and that of Uttarakhand is the rhododendron, there are three types of floral emblems that symbolize Indonesia, the puspa bangsa of Indonesia is melati the puspa pesona is anggrek bulan the puspa langka is padma raksasa rafflesia. Melati, a white flower with sweet fragrance, has long been considered as a sacred flower in Indonesian tradition, as it symbolizes purity, sacredness. For example, on her day, a traditional Indonesian brides hair is often adorned with arrangements of jasmine. However, jasmine is also used as floral offering for spirits and deities. Moon Orchid was chosen for its beauty, while the two rare flowers, Rafflesia arnoldii and Titan arum were chosen to demonstrate uniqueness and Indonesian rich biodiversity. Each of the 33 provinces of Indonesia also has a plant as its provincial flower. Iran – red rose, tulip, Nymphaea, Cupressus sempervirens Iraq – Rose The Israeli national flower is the poppy anemone, jordan – Black iris Kuwait – Rhanterium epapposum The national flower is the plumeria, despite it being no longer endemic. The national flower of Malaysia is the bunga raya, the flower of the eastern Malaysian state of Sarawak is the orchid Phalaenopsis bellina, while that of the state of Kedah is the pokok padi. Malaccas state flower is the bread-flower, Vallaris glabra, from there, it spread into France, Italy and the Mediterranean, and eventually it was introduced to the rest of Western Europe and Britain
Floral emblem
–
Egypt
Floral emblem
Floral emblem
–
Ethiopia
Floral emblem
–
Lesotho
34.
National patron saint
–
The idea of assigning a patron saint to a certain locality harks back to the ancient tutelary deities. This is a list of saints of places by nation, region. If a place is not listed here, it may be listed in Patronage of the Blessed Virgin Mary, kingdom of Bosnia – Gregory the Miracle-Worker and Saint Gregory after 1461. Albans – Alban St. Andrews – Andrew St. Brides Wentloog – Brigit of Kildare St. Davids – David St. Helier, Jersey – Helier St. Louis St. With regard to the omnipresence of this belief, the late Martin Lings wrote. Traditionally, it has been understood that the saint of a particular place prays for that places wellbeing and for the health. Here is a partial list of Muslim patron saints, Patron saints of ailments, illness, a Biographical Dictionary of the Saints. Our Sunday Visitors 2012 Catholic Almanac, walsh, Michael, ed. Butlers Lives of Patron Saints
National patron saint
–
Europe Patron saints
National patron saint
–
Catherine of Siena writing
35.
National personification
–
A national personification is an anthropomorphism of a nation or its people. It may appear in editorial cartoons and propaganda, examples of this type include Britannia, Germania, Hibernia, Helvetia and Polonia. Examples of personifications of the Goddess of Liberty include Marianne, the Statue of Liberty, examples of representations of the everyman or citizenry—rather than of the nation itself—are Deutscher Michel and John Bull. Countryballs, a form of national personification in which countries are drawn by Internet users as stereotypic balls. Hetalia, an anime and a series, that features personifications of countries. Mural crown National animal, often personifies a nation in cartoons, National emblem, for other metaphors for nations. Making of a Romantic Icon, The Religious Context of Friedrich Overbecks Italia und Germania, a scholarly case study of the evolution of Deutscher Michel Kirsten Stirling, The Image of the Nation as a Woman in Twentieth Century Scottish Literature
National personification
–
Britannia arm-in-arm with
Uncle Sam symbolizes the British-American alliance in
World War I.
National personification
–
Albania
National personification
–
Angola
National personification
–
Argentina
36.
National poet
–
A national poet or national bard is a poet held by tradition and popular acclaim to represent the identity, beliefs and principles of a particular national culture. The national poet as culture hero is a symbol, to be distinguished from successive holders of a bureaucratically-appointed poet-laureate office. The idea and honoring of national poets emerged primarily during Romanticism, as a figure that helped consolidation of the nation states, most national poets are historic figures, though a few contemporary writers working in relatively new or revived national literatures are also considered national poets. Some nations may have more than one poet, the idea of a single one is always a simplification. The following is a list of nations, with their associated national poets and it is not a list of sovereign states or countries, though many of the nations listed may also be such. The terms nation, country and state are not synonyms, marcel Cornis-Pope and John Neubauer, eds
National poet
–
Du Fu
National poet
–
Ferdowsi
National poet
–
Rustaveli
National poet
–
Goethe
37.
List of national anthems
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Most nation-states have anthems, defined as a song, as of praise, devotion, or patriotism, most anthems are either marches or hymns in style. A hymn can become an anthem by a provision in the states constitution, by a law enacted by its legislature. A royal anthem is a song similar to a national anthem. Such anthems are performed at public appearances by the monarch or during other events of royal importance. Some states use the royal anthem as the anthem, such as the anthem of Jordan. There are multiple claimants to the position of oldest national anthem, among the national anthems, the first to be composed was the Dutch national anthem the Wilhelmus, which was written between 1568 and 1572. Anthems became increasingly popular among European states in the 18th century, for example, the British national anthem God Save the Queen was first performed under the title God Save the King in 1745. The French anthem La Marseillaise was written half a century later in 1792, national anthems are usually written in the most common language of the state, whether de facto or official. States with multiple languages may offer several versions of their anthem. For instance, Switzerlands national anthem has different lyrics for each of the four official languages, French, German, Italian. The New Zealand national anthem is now sung with the first verse in Māori. The tune is the same but the lyrics have different meanings, south Africas national anthem is unique in that five of the eleven official languages are used in the same anthem, in which each language comprises a stanza. Only United Nations member states and observer states are included in this table, anthems of sovereign states which are not UN members or observers are listed in a separate table below. An English translation of the title is provided in parentheses where appropriate and this table includes anthems of de facto sovereign states which are not members or observers of the United Nations. Many of them have received little or no recognition from the international community, some are widely considered to be part of one of the countries listed above
List of national anthems
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Rouget de Lisle, the composer of the French national anthem "
La Marseillaise ", sings it for the first time. The anthem is one of the earliest to be adopted by a modern nation, in 1795.
38.
List of national founders
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The following list of national founding figures is a record, by country, of people who were credited with establishing their nation. National founders are typically those who played a role in setting up the systems of governance. They can also be military leaders of a war of independence led to the existence of the country. Amílcar Cabral was an engineer, writer, and a nationalist thinker. He was also one of Africas foremost anti-colonial leaders, amílcar Cabral led the nationalist movement of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde Islands and the ensuing war of independence in Guinea-Bissau. He was assassinated on 20 January 1973, several months before Guinea-Bissaus unilateral declaration of independence and he is considered a founder of Cape Verde. Patrice Lumumba, Joseph Kasa-Vubu, Albert Kalonji, Jean Bolikango, Cléophas Kamitatu, Ahmed Sékou Touré was a Guinean political leader and President of Guinea from 1958 to his death in 1984. Touré was one of the primary Guinean nationalists involved in the independence of the country from France and he is with Kwame Kuruma one of the founders of the African Union, and the Guinean Diallo Telly was the first general secretary of the African Union. Whilst Kwame Nkrumah led the nation to its independence from the United Kingdom in 1957, the Big Six were Ebenezer Ako-Adjei, Edward Akufo-Addo, Joseph Boakye Danquah, Emmanuel Obetsebi-Lamptey, William Ofori Atta as well as Nkrumah. They faced the British government on behalf of returning soldiers and then set in motion the establishing of the republic independent from the British government, jomo Kenyatta served as the first Prime Minister and President of the Republic. Joseph Jenkins Roberts was born a man of Black American descent. In 1829 his family moved to Liberia, in 1839, Roberts became Liberias lieutenant governor and afterwards, its governor. He is known as the father of Liberia and officially declared Liberias independence in 1847, King Idris Al-sanusi, also known as Idris I of Libya, was the first and only king of Libya, reigning from 1951 to 1969, and the Chief of the Senussi Muslim order. Idris as-Senussi proclaimed an independent Emirate of Cyrenaica in 1949 and he was also invited to become Emir of Tripolitania, another of the three traditional regions that now constitute modern Libya. By accepting he began the process of uniting Libya under a single monarchy, a constitution was enacted in 1949 and adopted in October 1951. A National Congress elected Idris as King of Libya, and as Idris I he proclaimed the independence of the United Kingdom of Libya as a state on 24 December 1951. Dr. Sam Shafiishuna Nujoma Andimba Toivo ya Toivo Hendrik Witbooi Herbert Macaulay Professor Eyo Ita Alvan Ikoku Dr, the troika of Obafemi Awolowo, Nnamdi Azikiwe, and Ahmadu Bello negotiated Nigerias independence from Britain, aided by such figures as Chieftess Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti. A street was named for Thomas Peters in Freetown by the Krio Mayor Winstanley Bankole Johnson
List of national founders
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Amílcar Cabral was a revolutionary and nationalist leader of
Cape Verde and
Guinea-Bissau.
List of national founders
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Saad Zaghloul was the founder of independent Egypt. "Zaeem al Ummah (Leader of the Nation)"
List of national founders
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Jan van Riebeeck of
South Africa
List of national founders
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Mwalimu Nyerere
39.
List of national instruments (music)
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This list contains musical instruments of symbolic or cultural importance within a nation, state, ethnicity, tribe or other group of people. In some cases, national instruments remain in use within the nation. Governments do not generally officially recognize national instruments, the exceptions are the Paraguayan harp, the Japanese koto. Each instrument on this list has a Hornbostel-Sachs number immediately below it and this number indicates the instruments classification within the Hornbostel-Sachs system, which organizes instruments numerically based on the manner in which they produce sound. Alternative names and spellings are given, the following are specifically referenced above or are book-length or extended scholarly works documenting a specific national instrument, not including collections of songs. African Banjo Echoes in Appalachia, A Study of Folk Traditions, african American, Gura, Philip F. James F. Bollman. Americas Instrument, The Banjo in the Nineteenth Century and that Half-Barbaric Twang, The Banjo in American Popular Culture. Argentina, Penón, Arturo, Javier García Méndez, Manuel Román, the Bandonion, A Tango History, A Memoir of Arturo Penón. Argentina, Pinnell, Richard T. Ricardo Zavadivker, bold Strummer Guitar Study Series, No.3. The Duduk and National Identity in Armenia, didgeridoo, Ritual Origins and Playing Techniques. The Australian Didjeridu, A Late Musical Intrusion, endongo, The Role and Significance of the Baganda Bowl Lyre of Uganda. Niederbayerische Blätter für Volksmusik, Nr.7, hybridity and Segregation in the Guitar Cultures of Brazil. In Andy Bennett and Kevin Dawe, a Comprehensive Guide to Brazilian Pandeiro. The Lute, Gao Mings Pipa Ji, the Way of the Pipa, Structure and Imagery in Chinese Lute Music. Kent, Ohio, Kent State University Press, ancient Greece, Schlesinger, Kathleen, J. F. Mountford. El renacimiento de la danza guatemalteca y el origen de la marimba, Guatemala, Centro Editorial, Ministerio de Educación Pública. Maya Achi Marimba Music in Guatemala, india, Annapoorna, L. Veena Tradition in Indian Music. The Story of the Irish Harp, Its History and Influence, cork, Mercier Press for the Cultural Relations Committee
List of national instruments (music)
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Albania
List of national instruments (music)
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Peru
40.
List of national liquors
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This is a list of national liquors. A national liquor is an alcoholic beverage considered standard and respected in a given country. While the status of such drinks may be informal, there is usually a consensus in a given country that a specific drink has national status or is the most popular liquor in a given nation. This list is distinct from national drinks, which include non-alcoholic beverages, Northern Ireland - Irish whiskeys popularity and national status is uniform across the whole island of Ireland, and is as popular in Northern Ireland as in the Republic of Ireland. Scotland - Scotch whisky, particularly Single malt whisky is considered the drink of Scotland. Miche, a strong brandy consumed in the Andean region, is obtained by the fermentation of panela and is then distilled, vietnam, Rượu nếp, Rượu đế, Rượu cần, Rượu Thuốc, Rượu Nhàu Rừng - Noni Herbal Wine and Spirit snake wine López, Tracy. Mezcal vs. Tequila, National Mexican Liquor Faces Stiff Competition
List of national liquors
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A bottle of
Canadian whisky
List of national liquors
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Tequila, a national liquor of
Mexico, is a
spirit made from the
blue agave plant, primarily in the area surrounding the city of
Tequila, 65 kilometres (40 mi) northwest of
Guadalajara, and in the highlands (Los Altos) of the western
Mexican state of
Jalisco.
List of national liquors
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Georgian
Chacha.
List of national liquors
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Argentine fernet.
41.
List of national mottos
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This page lists state and national mottos for the worlds nations. The mottos for some states lacking general international recognition, extinct states, non sovereign nations, and territories are listed, a state motto is used to describe the intent or motivation of the state in a short phrase. For example, it can be included on a flag, coat of arms. Some countries choose not to have a national motto, afghanistan, لا إله إلا الله، محمد رسول الله There is no god but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God. Formerly Advance Australia Austria, formerly AEIOU, with one possible meaning being Austriae est imperare orbi universo Austria-Hungary, Indivisibiliter ac Inseparabiliter Azerbaijan, Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, Bir kərə yüksələn bayraq bir daha enməz. Azores, Antes morrer livres que em paz sujeitos Bahamas, Forward, Upward, Onward Together Bahrain, nationalism, Secularism, Socialism, and Democracy Barbados, Pride and Industry Bavaria, formerly, In Treue fest Belarus, No official motto. Unofficial motto is, Long Live Belarus, byelorussian SSR, Пралетарыі ўсіх краін, яднайцеся. Belgium, Eendracht maakt macht, Lunion fait la force and Einigkeit gibt Stärke Belize, Sub umbra floreo Benin, Fraternité, Justice, Travail Bermuda, Quo fata ferunt Bhutan, No official motto. Republic of Biafra, Peace, Unity, Freedom Bolivia, La Unión es la Fuerza Bosnia and Herzegovina, botswana, Pula Brazil, Ordem e progresso Empire of Brazil, Independência ou Morte. Costa Rica, Vivan siempre el trabajo y la paz Croatia, equatorial Guinea, Unidad, Paz, Justicia Eritrea, دولة إرترݐا, Hagere Ertra Estonia, No official motto. Ethiopia, formerly ኢትዮጵያ ታበድ አደዊሃ ሃበ አግዚአብሐር, taken from Psalm 68,31, currently none. The Imperial motto, between 1930 and 1975, was ሞዓ አንበሰ ዘአምነባደ ይሁዳ. Falkland Islands, Desire the Right Faroe Islands, No official motto, fiji, Rerevaka na Kalou ka Doka na Tui Finland, No official motto. Åland, Islands of Peace Florentine Republic, Regna cadunt luxu surgunt virtutibus urbes, Germany, No official motto, commonly referred as Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit East Germany, Proletarier aller Länder, vereinigt Euch. Grenada, Ever Conscious of God We Aspire, and Advance as One People Guam, guatemala, Libre Crezca Fecundo Guernsey, No official motto. from the National anthem of Hungary. India, सत्यमेव जयते Indonesia, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika Iran, de facto, استقلال، آزادى، جمهورى اسلامى de jure, الله اکبر Kingdom Of Iran, iraq, الله أكبر Iraqi Kurdistan, An azadî, an azadî Ireland, No official motto. Isle of Man, Quocunque Ieceris Stabit Israel, No official motto, Kingdom of Italy, Foedere et Religione Tenemur Italian Social Republic, Per lonore dItalia Jamaica, Out of many, One People Japan, No official motto. Ancient Japan, 養正之心ヲ弘ム, 積慶重暉, 掩ヒテ㆓八紘 ヲ㆒而為ス㆑宇 ト Empire of Japan, 開国進取 Charter Oath -> 大東亜新秩序建設 ja, 基本国策要綱 Jersey, jordan, الله، الوطن، الملك Kazakhstan, No official motto. Kenya, Harambee Kiribati, Te mauri, te raoi ao te tabomoa North Korea, 강성대국 South Korea, 홍익인간 Korean Empire, 광명천지 Let there be light across the land Kosovo, Atdheu, Nderi, Detyra
List of national mottos
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The national motto of the
United States is In God we trust, as shown on the reverse of the
United States one-dollar bill.
List of national mottos
–
The national motto of
Afghanistan: لا إله إلا الله، محمد رسول الله (Lā ʾilāha ʾillāl–lāh, Muhammadun rasūl allāh) There is no god but God; Muhammad is the messenger of God. (
Shahada), is inscribed on the
Coat of arms of Afghanistan.
42.
List of national parks
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This is a list of national parks as defined by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ordered by nation. Nearly 100 countries around the world have lands classified as a park by this definition. Note that this links to list articles of national parks by country on Wikipedia in the Country column in the tables. *Refers to European portion of Denmark only, for Greenland, see Northeast Greenland National Park, Greenlands only national park, which was established in 1974 and is the worlds largest at 971,000 km². By region the Alps the Baltics England and Wales Northern Ireland Scotland Hawaii, see United States Easter Island, see Chile List of tourist attractions worldwide Nature reserve
List of national parks
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Popradské pleso in
Tatra National Park,
Slovakia.
List of national parks
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Mountain gorillas in
Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda
List of national parks
–
Oryx in the
Awash National Park, Ethiopia
List of national parks
–
Namib-Naukluft National Park in Namibia
43.
Gallery of country coats of arms
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This gallery of country coats of arms shows the coat of arms, an emblem serving a similar purpose or both of each of the countries in the list of countries. Some coat of arms can not be shown in galleries according to Wikipedias policies, Some coat of arms can not be shown in galleries according to Wikipedias policies. Some coat of arms can not be shown in galleries according to Wikipedias policies, for the coat of arms of Grenada, see here. Libya currently does not have any coat of arms, seal or emblem. For Myanmar, see Myanmar Some coat of arms can not be shown in galleries according to Wikipedias policies, for the coat of arms of Malaysia, see here. Some coat of arms can not be shown in galleries according to Wikipedias policies, for the coat of arms of Nauru, see here. For the coat of arms of Nigeria, see here, for Taiwan, see China, Republic of. Gallery of coat of arms of dependent territories Gallery of dependent territory flags Gallery of sovereign-state flags NGW. nl, Heraldry of the world, International Civic Arms
Gallery of country coats of arms
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Coat of arms of Grenada
Gallery of country coats of arms
–
Country:
Afghanistan
44.
Ethnic group
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An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities, such as common ancestral, language, social, cultural or national experiences. Unlike other social groups, ethnicity is often an inherited status based on the society in which one lives, in some cases, it can be adopted if a person moves into another society. Ethnic groups, derived from the historical founder population, often continue to speak related languages. By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is possible for individuals or groups to leave one ethnic group. Ethnicity is often used synonymously with terms such as nation or people. In English, it can also have the connotation of something exotic, generally related to cultures of more recent immigrants, the largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of individuals, while the smallest are limited to a few dozen individuals. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a pan-ethnicity, whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis. The term ethnic is derived from the Greek word ἔθνος ethnos, the inherited English language term for this concept is folk, used alongside the latinate people since the late Middle English period. In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan, as the Septuagint used ta ethne to translate the Hebrew goyim the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews. The Greek term in antiquity could refer to any large group, a host of men. In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of peculiar to a race, people or nation, the abstract ethnicity had been used for paganism in the 18th century, but now came to express the meaning of an ethnic character. The term ethnic group was first recorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972, depending on the context that is used, the term nationality may either be used synonymously with ethnicity, or synonymously with citizenship. The process that results in the emergence of an ethnicity is called ethnogenesis, the Greeks at this time did not describe foreign nations but had also developed a concept of their own ethnicity, which they grouped under the name of Hellenes. Herodotus gave an account of what defined Greek ethnic identity in his day, enumerating shared descent. Whether ethnicity qualifies as a universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used. Many social scientists, such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf and they regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups. According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently, one is between primordialism and instrumentalism. In the primordialist view, the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as a given, even coercive
Ethnic group
–
Before the 1970s, the
Korowai people of
Papua were an
uncontacted people. Their population numbers no more than 3,000.
Ethnic group
–
The
Assyrians are the indigenous peoples of
Northern Iraq.
Ethnic group
–
Some European ethnic groups, such as
Basque people, do not constitute a majority in any one country.
