1.
Exposition Park (Los Angeles)
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Exposition Park is situated in the south region of Los Angeles, California. In a rectangle bounded by Exposition Boulevard to the north, South Figueroa Street to the east, Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard to the south and it is directly south of the main campus of the University of Southern California. The park is open space, managed by the California Natural Resources Agency. Exposition Park houses, LA84 Foundation/John C. of St. Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena The 160-acre site served as an agricultural fairground from 1872 to 1910. In 1880, John Edward, Ozro W. Childs, farmers sold their harvest on the grounds, while horses, dogs, and even camels competed on a racetrack where a rose garden now blooms. Along the northern edge of the park, the Metro Expo Line light rail serves the park with its Expo Park/USC Station. On the northeast, the Metro Silver Line bus rapid transit serves Exposition Park & USC at its 37th Street/USC Station on the Harbor Transitway, the Silver Line station is located on the freeway level of the 1-110 freeway. Leimert Park Beat — a collaborative online community focused nearby Leimert Park, The Soul of Los Angeles, official Expo Center website — recreation center
2.
Los Angeles
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Los Angeles, officially the City of Los Angeles and often known by its initials L. A. is the cultural, financial, and commercial center of Southern California. With a census-estimated 2015 population of 3,971,883, it is the second-most populous city in the United States, Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated county in the United States. The citys inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos, historically home to the Chumash and Tongva, Los Angeles was claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542 along with the rest of what would become Alta California. The city was founded on September 4,1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence, in 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4,1850, the discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city. The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, delivering water from Eastern California, nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is known for its Mediterranean climate, ethnic diversity, and sprawling metropolis. Los Angeles also has an economy in culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine. A global city, it has been ranked 6th in the Global Cities Index, the city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area has a gross metropolitan product of $831 billion, making it the third-largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. The city has hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984 and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and thus become the second city after London to have hosted the Games three times. The Los Angeles area also hosted the 1994 FIFA mens World Cup final match as well as the 1999 FIFA womens World Cup final match, the mens event was watched on television by over 700 million people worldwide. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva, a Gabrielino settlement in the area was called iyáangẚ, meaning poison oak place. Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2,1769, in 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area. The Queen of the Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary, two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry. The settlement remained a small town for decades, but by 1820. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, during Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta Californias regional capital
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California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
4.
Natural history museum
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Some museums have public exhibits to share the beauty and wonder of the natural world with the public, these are referred to as public museums. Some museums feature non-natural history collections in addition to their collections, such as ones related to history, art. Renaissance cabinets of curiosities were private collections that typically included exotic specimens of natural history, sometimes faked, the first natural history museum was possibly that of Swiss scholar Conrad Gessner, established in Zürich in the mid-16th century. The Muséum National dHistoire Naturelle, established in Paris in 1635, was the first natural history museum to take the form that would be recognized as a history museum today. Early natural history museums offered limited accessibility, as they were private collections or holdings of scientific societies. The Ashmolean Museum, opened in 1683, was the first natural history museum to grant admission to the general public, see List of natural history museums for examples grouped by country
5.
Expo Line (Los Angeles Metro)
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The Expo Line is a light-rail line that runs between Downtown Los Angeles and Santa Monica. The line is named Expo after Exposition Boulevard, which it runs alongside for most of its route and it is one of the six lines in the Metro Rail system, and is operated by the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority. The Expo Line largely follows the right-of-way of the Santa Monica Air Line, several Expo Line stations are built in the same location as Air Line stations, although no original station structures have been reused. An independent agency, the Exposition Metro Line Construction Authority, was given the authority to plan, design, after construction was completed, the line was handed over on January 15,2016, to the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority for testing and operation. The line was built in two phases, the first phase comprised the 8. 6-mile section between Downtown Los Angeles and Culver City, Construction began in early 2006 and most stations opened to the public on April 28,2012. The Culver City and Farmdale stations opened on June 20,2012, design and construction on the 6. 6-mile portion between Culver City and Santa Monica started in September 2011. Testing along the phase 2 segment began on April 6,2015, the Expo Line operates from approximately 4,30 a. m. to 2,00 a. m. on weekdays and until 2,30 a. m. on Fridays and Saturdays. As of December 2016, trains run approximately every 6 minutes during peak hours, every 12 minutes during middays, every 10 minutes during the evening, maximum speed on the route is 55 mph, though it generally runs much slower than this. When the Santa Monica harbor closed to shipping traffic in 1909 the line was leased to Pacific Electric who converted it to electric traction, by 1920 the line was called the Santa Monica Air Line providing electric-powered freight and passenger service between Los Angeles and Santa Monica. Electrically-powered passenger service stopped in 1953 but diesel-powered freight deliveries to warehouses along the route continued until March 11,1988, while Southern Pacific maintained ownership of the right-of-way after 1988, it no longer used or maintained the rails. Portions of the right-of-way were leased for use as storage facilities, parking lots, impound lots, and various businesses, but no permanent structures were built. Advocacy groups including Friends 4 Expo Transit supported the passage of Proposition C in 1990. Metro successfully lobbied the government to use the remainder of Red Line funding for a different project to the Mid-City district of Los Angeles in 1998. That same year Los Angeles County voters approved Proposition A, another sales tax increase for transit, Metro then released a Major Investment Study in 2000 which compared bus rapid transit and light rail transit options along what was now known as the Mid-City/Exposition Corridor. Initially, the Expo Line was planned to be called the Aqua Line, plans were shelved in favor of the Expo Line designation, though the line retains the aqua color. Metro conducted study on the Expo Phase 2 from 2007 to 2009 and approved the project in 2010, with planned opening to Santa Monica in early 2016. The Expo Construction Authority officially handed control of the Expo Phase II track to L. A. Metro for the county transit agency to begin pre-revenue train testing on January 15,2016. This phase was opened on May 20,2016, once the Regional Connector Transit Corridor is completed, the Eastside leg of the Gold Line will be connected to the Expo Line
6.
Expo Park/USC (Los Angeles Metro station)
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Expo Park/USC is an at-grade light rail station in the Los Angeles County Metro Rail system. It is located at Exposition Boulevard and Trousdale Parkway, directly between the USC campus and Exposition Park, in the University Park neighborhood of Los Angeles and it also serves the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and the under construction Banc of California Stadium. This station is served by the Expo Line, Expo Line service hours are approximately from 4 AM to 12,30 AM daily. Service resumed Saturday, April 28,2012, regular scheduled service resumed Monday, April 30,2012. Expo Park/USC Station is located in the median of Exposition Boulevard, on the east side of Trousdale/Exposition, the stations entrance is on the east side of Trousdale/Exposition. The stations platforms slope down slightly toward the east, in order to accommodate the lines descent into a tunnel passes under Figueroa Street. The stations art was created by artist Robbert Flick, the untitled installation includes sequences of photographs taken on the boulevards near the station, creating a document of the local people and places as they were when the station was built. The USC main campus occupies the area to the north of the station, to the south is Exposition Park, which includes several popular L. A. Many stakeholders cited the importance of the station, citing the convenient access it would provide the USC students/employees, the administration of USC opposed at-grade light-rail along Exposition Boulevard, claiming that light-rail would separate the campus from Exposition Park. USC President Steven Sample, in particular, was opposed to the project, dr. Sample said he feared the line would create physical and psychological barriers between USC, Exposition Park, and the local community, and would be dangerous for pedestrians. However, general sentiment of students and neighbors was in support of the line, the Coliseum Commission took a strong position in support of this station, and the USC Student Senate also passed a resolution. The report also recommended a tunnel segment under the impacted intersections of Exposition/Figueroa. Once the FEIR had been approved, Expo worked to secure the funds for this station, one other issue remaining to be resolved was USC’s request for special architecture for the three stations serving the campus. Ultimately, USC did not contribute toward the cost of the station, Expo also abandoned any considerations for special architecture requested by USC. On September 19,2007, the board of Metro approved funding for the cost of the station and this allowed the station to be built along with the rest of Phase 1. It was completely rebuilt for the opening of the Expo Line from little more than a stop marker. Regular scheduled service resumed Monday, April 30,2012 and it is the last former station stop of the Santa Monica Air Line to be re-opened. The Expo line travels north on a new right-of-way along Flower street from this stop, the original Air line right-of-way remains owned by Metro and continues east to the Blue line tracks, however no plans are in place for its use
7.
Expo/Vermont (Los Angeles Metro station)
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Expo/Vermont is an at-grade light rail station in the Los Angeles County Metro Rail system, located on Exposition Boulevard at Vermont Avenue, in the Exposition Park District of Los Angeles. This station is served by the Expo Line, Expo Line service hours are approximately from 4 AM to 12,30 AM daily. Service resumed Saturday, April 28,2012, regular scheduled service resumed Monday, April 30,2012. Expo/Vermont station is located in the median of Exposition Boulevard, on sides of Vermont Avenue. The location is at an intersection in the West Adams District. The station has platforms, this means that the platforms are positioned on opposite sides of the intersection. The stations art, commissioned by the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority, was created by artist Jessica Polzin McCoy, entitled Neighborhood Portrait, Reconstructed, the 24-panel installation includes photographs that take the viewer inside of the homes of West Adams residents. After constructing collages from her photos, McCoy then created intricate watercolor paintings of each collage, artisans at Montreal-based Mosaika Art & Design worked closely with the artist to translate her watercolors into hand-glazed ceramic mosaic panels. It was completely rebuilt for the opening of the Expo Line from little more than a stop marker. Regular scheduled service resumed Monday, April 30,2012, media related to Expo / Vermont at Wikimedia Commons Metro Expo Line Construction Authority Project Website, Metro Rail Expo Corridor, Phase 1 to Culver City
8.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
9.
Artifact (archaeology)
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An artifact or artefact is something made or given shape by man, such as a tool or a work of art, especially an object of archaeological interest. In archaeology, however, the word has become a term of particular nuance and is defined as, an object recovered by archaeological endeavor, which may have a cultural interest. However, modern archaeologists take care to distinguish material culture from ethnicity, examples include stone tools, pottery vessels, metal objects such as weapons, and items of personal adornment such as buttons, jewelry and clothing. Bones that show signs of modification are also examples. Natural objects, such as fire cracked rocks from a hearth or plant material used for food, are classified by archeologists as ecofacts rather than as artifacts, natural objects that humans have moved but not changed are called manuports. Examples include seashells moved inland, or rounded pebbles placed away from the action that made them. For instance, a bone removed from a carcass is a biofact. Similarly there can be debate over early stone objects that could be either crude artifacts or naturally occurring and it can be difficult to distinguish the differences between actual man-made lithic artifacts and geofacts – naturally occurring lithics that resemble man-made tools. It is possible to authenticate artifacts by examining the general attributed to man-made tools. Artifact Collection at the Royal Military College of Canada Museum in Kingston, Ontario
10.
La Brea Tar Pits
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The La Brea Tar Pits are a group of tar pits around which Hancock Park was formed in urban Los Angeles. Natural asphalt has seeped up from the ground in this area for tens of thousands of years, the tar is often covered with dust, leaves, or water. Over many centuries, the bones of animals that were trapped in the tar were preserved, Page Museum is dedicated to researching the tar pits and displaying specimens from the animals that died there. The La Brea Tar Pits is a registered National Natural Landmark, the modern name is an example of a tautological place name, the La Brea Tar Pits literally means the the tar tar pits. The tar pits visible today are actually from human excavation, the lake pit was originally an asphalt mine. The other pits visible today were produced between 1913 and 1915, when over 100 pits were excavated in search of large mammal bones, various combinations of asphaltum and waggler have since filled in these holes. Normally, the asphalt appears in vents, hardening as it oozes out and these can be seen in several areas of the park. Tar pits are composed of heavy oil fractions called gilsonite, which seeped from the Earth as oil, in Hancock Park, crude oil seeps up along the 6th Street Fault from the Salt Lake Oil Field, which underlies much of the Fairfax District north of the park. The oil reaches the surface and forms pools at several locations in the park and this seepage has been happening for tens of thousands of years. From time to time, the asphalt would form a thick enough to trap animals. Animals would wander in, become trapped, and eventually die, predators would enter to eat the trapped animals and also become stuck. As the bones of dead animals sink into the asphalt, it soaks into them, lighter fractions of petroleum evaporate from the asphalt, leaving a more solid substance, which encases the bones. Examples of some of these are on display in the George C, radiometric dating of preserved wood and bones has given an age of 38,000 years for the oldest known material from the La Brea seeps. The pits still ensnare organisms today, so most of the pits are fenced to protect humans, the Native American Chumash and Tongva people living in the area built boats unlike any others in North America prior to contact by settlers. This innovative form of transportation allowed access up and down the coastline, the Portolá expedition, a group of Spanish explorers led by Gaspar de Portolá, made the first written record of the tar pits in 1769. The scouts reported that they had come across many of these springs and had seen large swamps of them, enough, they said, to caulk many vessels. We were not so lucky ourselves as to see these tar geysers, much though we wished it, as it was some distance out of the way we were to take and we christened them Los Volcanes de Brea. The original Rancho La Brea land grant stipulated that the tar pits be open to the public for the use of the local Pueblo, initially, they mistook the bones in the pits for the remains of pronghorn antelope or cattle that had become mired
11.
Newhall, Santa Clarita, California
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Newhall is the southernmost and oldest community of Santa Clarita, California. Prior to the 1987 consolidation of Canyon Country, Saugus, Newhall and it was the first permanent town in the Santa Clarita Valley. Named after businessman Henry Newhall, Newhall is home to the William S. Hart County Park, Newhall is also home to the Pioneer Oil Refinery, the oldest surviving oil refinery in the world and the first commercially successful refinery in California. Over the years, Newhall has been the location for movies, including Suddenly. The Lyons Station Stagecoach Stop was a few miles away from where the now stands. Newhall was the site of the Newhall massacre, in which four California Highway Patrol officers were shot to death on April 6,1970 and this led to increased emphasis on officer safety both within the CHP and nationwide. This region experiences hot and dry summers, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Newhall has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated Csb on climate maps. Newhall Information on SantaClarita. com Hub for Newhall history and redevelopment info
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Santa Clarita, California
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Santa Clarita, officially the City of Santa Clarita, is the third largest city in Los Angeles County, California, and the seventeenth largest in the state of California. The city has annexed a number of unincorporated areas, contributing to the population increase. It is located about 35 miles northwest of downtown Los Angeles and it is a notable example of a U. S. edge city or boomburb. Santa Clarita was ranked by Money magazine in 2006 as 18th of the top 100 places to live, the four communities retain separate identities, and it is common for residents to refer to a specific neighborhood when asked where they are from. Santa Clarita is bounded on the west by the Golden State Freeway, the Antelope Valley Freeway runs northeast-southwest through an irregular east border, and the Newhall Pass is the citys southernmost point. Santa Clarita was incorporated in December 1987, but its history stretches back several centuries, about AD450, the Tataviam arrived, numbering around 2,000 at their zenith. The Santa Clara River was named by Spanish explorers for Clare of Assisi, the valley and the settlement later became known as little Santa Clara in deference to the Northern California mission and city of Santa Clara, California. In time, little Santa Clara became Santa Clarita, in 1842, Francisco Lopez made the first documented discovery of gold in California. The event is memorialized in an 1842 mining claim issued by Gov. Juan B, the discovery was made in Placerita Canyon, an area later used as Hollywoods original back lot. Newhalls next business interest was railroads and he invested in rail companies that would connect San Francisco to other cities and became president of the San Francisco and San Jose Railroad. In 1870, he and his partners sold the company to Southern Pacific Railroad, after railroads, Newhall turned to real estate and ranching. He purchased a number of the old Spanish and Mexican land grants in the state for a total of 143,000 acres between Monterey and Los Angeles counties. The most significant portion was the 46,460 acres Rancho San Francisco in northern Los Angeles County, which he purchased for $2/acre, the first station built on the line he named for his hometown, Saugus, Massachusetts. After his death, Newhalls heirs incorporated the Newhall Land and Farming Company, on September 26,1876, Charles Alexander Mentry brought in the states first productive oil well at Mentryville, giving rise to the California oil industry. The oil was brought to a refinery at Newhall, now the oldest existing petroleum refinery in the world, it was operational from 1874 to 1888. A few days earlier, on September 5,1876, Charles Crocker and Leland Stanford joined their railroads in Canyon Country, linking Los Angeles with the rest of the nation for the first time. The Saugus Cafe, on Railroad Avenue in Saugus, was established in 1887 and appears to be, by far, the oldest still-operating restaurant in Los Angeles County. Filming in Santa Clarita began shortly after the turn of the 20th century with a veritable Whos Who of actors, including William S. Hart, Tom Mix, Harry Carey and a young John Wayne
13.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
14.
Los Angeles County Museum of Art
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The Los Angeles County Museum of Art is an art museum located on Wilshire Boulevard in the Miracle Mile vicinity of Los Angeles. LACMA is on Museum Row, adjacent to the La Brea Tar Pits, LACMA is the largest art museum in the western United States. It attracts nearly a million visitors annually and it holds more than 150,000 works spanning the history of art from ancient times to the present. In addition to art exhibits, the museum features film and concert series, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art was established as a museum in 1961. Prior to this, LACMA was part of the Los Angeles Museum of History, Science and Art, howard F. Ahmanson, Sr. Anna Bing Arnold and Bart Lytton were the first principal patrons of the museum. Ahmanson made the donation of $2 million, convincing the museum board that sufficient funds could be raised to establish the new museum. In 1965 the museum moved to a new Wilshire Boulevard complex as an independent, art-focused institution, the largest new museum to be built in the United States after the National Gallery of Art. The museum, built in a similar to Lincoln Center. The board selected LA architect William Pereira over the recommendation of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe for the buildings. According to a 1965 Los Angeles Times story, the total cost of the three buildings was $11.5 million, at the time, the Los Angeles Music Center and LACMA were concurrent large civic projects which vied for attention and donors in Los Angeles. When the museum opened, the buildings were surrounded by reflecting pools, in the far-reaching expansion, museum-goers henceforth entered through the new partially roofed central court, nearly an acre of space bounded by the museums four buildings. The museums Pavilion for Japanese Art, designed by maverick architect Bruce Goff, opened in 1988, gerald Cantor Sculpture Garden of Rodin bronzes. In 1999, the Hancock Park Improvement Project was complete, kohlhaas edged out French architect Jean Nouvel, who would have added a major building while renovating the older facilities. The list of candidates had narrowed to five in May 2001, Koolhaas, Nouvel, Steven Holl, Daniel Libeskind. However, the project stalled after the museum failed to secure funding. In 2004 LACMAs Board of Trustees unanimously approved plans to transform the museum, the planned transformation consisted of three phases. Phase I started in 2004 and was completed in February 2008, the renovations required demolishing the parking structure on Ogden Avenue and with it LACMA-commissioned graffiti art by street artists Margaret Kilgallen and Barry McGee. The entry pavilion is a key point in architect Renzo Pianos plan to unify LACMAs sprawling, the BP Grand Entrance and the adjacent Broad Contemporary Art Museum comprise the $191 million first phase of the three-part expansion and renovation campaign
15.
Wilshire Boulevard
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Wilshire Boulevard is one of the principal east-west arterial roads in Los Angeles, California. This road was used by Spanish explorers and settlers, calling it El Camino Viejo. The route that ultimately became Wilshire crossed the original pueblo of Los Angeles and five of the original Spanish land grants, Wilshire was pieced together from various streets over several decades. It began in the 1870s as Nevada Avenue in Santa Monica, Nevada and Orange were later renamed as parts of Wilshire. The boulevard was named for Henry Gaylord Wilshire, an Ohio native who made and lost fortunes in real estate, farming, the road first appeared on a map under its present name in 1895. A historic apartment building on the corner of Wilshire Blvd. and S. Kenmore Ave. the Gaylord, aon Center, at one point Los Angeles largest tower, is at 707 Wilshire Boulevard in downtown Los Angeles. The Wilshire Boulevard home of J. Paul Getty was used as the filmset for the 1950 film Sunset Boulevard, one particularly famous stretch of the boulevard between Fairfax and Highland Avenues is known as the Miracle Mile. Many of Los Angeles largest museums are located there, the area just to the east of that, between Highland Avenue and Wilton Place, is referred to as the Park Mile. Between Westwood and Holmby Hills, several tall glitzy condominium buildings overlook this part of Wilshire and this section is also known as the Wilshire Corridor and Condo Canyon. The Wilshire Corridor, located next to Century City, is one of Los Angeles busiest districts, the Fox and MGM studios are located in a series of skyscrapers, along with many historic Los Angeles hotels. Wilshire Blvd is also the street of Los Angeles Koreatown. Koreatown and Mid Wilshire are among Los Angeless densest districts, the construction of the future Purple Line Extension Section 1 commenced in November 2014. The phase two and three of the Purple Line, when completed, will extend to Westwood/VA Hospital. Phase four to Santa Monica Beach are still in the planning stages, Metro Local Line 20, Metro Rapid Line 720, and Santa Monica Transit Line 2 operate along Wilshire Boulevard. Due to the ridership of line 720, 60-foot NABI articulated buses are used on this route. All of the boulevard is at least four lanes in width, the widest portion is in the business district of central Westwood, where mobs of pedestrians crossing Wilshire at Westwood Boulevard must traverse ten lanes. According to a 1991 study by the Los Angeles Department of Transportation, this, the boulevards widest portion is in Westwood and Holmby Hills, where it expands to six, and briefly, eight lanes. The sections of Wilshire Boulevard in the city of Los Angeles are notorious for their giant potholes, Wilshire Boulevard formerly ended at the MacArthur Park lake, but in 1934 a berm was built for it to cross and link up with the existing Orange Street into downtown Los Angeles
16.
Triceratops
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It is one of the last known non-avian dinosaur genera, and became extinct in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago. The term Triceratops, which literally means three-horned face, is derived from the Greek τρί- meaning three, κέρας meaning horn, and ὤψ meaning face, the exact placement of the Triceratops genus within the ceratopsid group has been debated by paleontologists. Two species, T. horridus and T. prorsus, are considered valid, research published in 2010 suggested that the contemporaneous Torosaurus, a ceratopsid long regarded as a separate genus, represents Triceratops in its mature form. The view was disputed and examination of more fossil evidence is expected to settle the debate. Triceratops has been documented by numerous remains collected since the genus was first described in 1889, Paleontologist John Scannella observed, It is hard to walk out into the Hell Creek Formation and not stumble upon a Triceratops weathering out of a hillside. Forty-seven complete or partial skulls were discovered in just that area from 2000 to 2010, specimens representing life stages from hatchling to adult have been found. The functions of the frills and three distinctive facial horns on its head have long inspired debate, traditionally, these have been viewed as defensive weapons against predators. Individual Triceratops are estimated to have reached about 7.9 to 9.0 m in length,2.9 to 3.0 m in height, the most distinctive feature is their large skull, among the largest of all land animals. The largest known skull is estimated to have been 2.5 metres in length when complete, and could reach almost a third of the length of the entire animal. A specimen of T. horridus named Kelsey measured 7.3 metres long with a 1.98 metres skull, stood about 2.3 metres tall, a Triceratops 8 metres long has been estimated by Gregory S. Paul to have massed 9.3 tonnes. It bore a single horn on the snout, above the nostrils, in 2010, paleontologists revealed a fossil with 115-centimetre-long horn cores, housed and displayed at the Museum of the Rockies in Montana. To the rear of the skull was a short, bony frill. Most other ceratopsids had large fenestrae in their frills, while those of Triceratops were noticeably solid, T. horridus can be distinguished from T. prorsus by having a shallower snout. Triceratops species possessed a sturdy build, with limbs, short hands with three hooves each, and short feet with four hooves each. Although certainly quadrupedal, the posture of these dinosaurs has long been the subject of some debate, originally, it was believed that the front legs of the animal had to be sprawling at angles from the thorax in order to better bear the weight of the head. This stance can be seen in paintings by Charles Knight and Rudolph Zallinger, the hands and forearms of Triceratops retained a fairly primitive structure compared to other quadrupedal dinosaurs such as thyreophorans and many sauropods. In those two groups, the forelimbs of quadrupedal species were usually rotated so that the hands faced forward with palms backward as the animals walked. In Triceratops, the weight of the body was carried by only the first three fingers of the hand, while digits 4 and 5 were vestigial and lacked claws or hooves
17.
Annelida
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The annelids, also known as the ringed worms or segmented worms, are a large phylum, with over 17,000 extant species including ragworms, earthworms, and leeches. The annelids are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate, invertebrate organisms and they also have parapodia for locomotion. Most textbooks still use the division into polychaetes, oligochaetes. Cladistic research since 1997 has radically changed this scheme, viewing leeches as a sub-group of oligochaetes and oligochaetes as a sub-group of polychaetes, in addition, the Pogonophora, Echiura and Sipuncula, previously regarded as separate phyla, are now regarded as sub-groups of polychaetes. Annelids are considered members of the Lophotrochozoa, a super-phylum of protostomes that also includes molluscs, brachiopods, flatworms, the basic annelid form consists of multiple segments. Each segment has the same sets of organs and, in most polychates, has a pair of parapodia that many use for locomotion. Septa separate the segments of many species, but are defined or absent in others. The septa of such species also enable them to change the shapes of individual segments, although many species can reproduce asexually and use similar mechanisms to regenerate after severe injuries, sexual reproduction is the normal method in species whose reproduction has been studied. The minority of living polychaetes whose reproduction and lifecycles are known produce trochophore larvae, Oligochaetes are full hermaphrodites and produce a ring-like cocoon around their bodies, in which the eggs and hatchlings are nourished until they are ready to emerge. Earthworms are Oligochaetes that support terrestrial food chains both as prey and in some regions are important in aeration and enriching of soil, in addition to improving soil fertility, annelids serve humans as food and as bait. Scientists observe annelids to monitor the quality of marine and fresh water, although blood-letting is no longer in favor with doctors, some leech species are regarded as endangered species because they have been over-harvested for this purpose in the last few centuries. Ragworms jaws are now being studied by engineers as they offer a combination of lightness. Since annelids are soft-bodied, their fossils are rare – mostly jaws, although some late Ediacaran fossils may represent annelids, the oldest known fossil that is identified with confidence comes from about 518 million years ago in the early Cambrian period. Fossils of most modern mobile polychaete groups appeared by the end of the Carboniferous, there are over 22,000 living annelid species, ranging in size from microscopic to the Australian giant Gippsland earthworm and Amynthas mekongianus, which can both grow up to 3 metres long. As their name suggests, they have multiple chetae per segment, polychaetes have parapodia that function as limbs, and nuchal organs that are thought to be chemosensors. Most are marine animals, although a few live in fresh water. These have few or no chetae per segment, and no nuchal organs or parapodia, the clitellates are sub-divided into, Oligochaetes, which includes earthworms. Oligochaetes have a pad in the roof of the mouth
18.
Anthropology
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Anthropology is the study of various aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology and cultural anthropology study the norms and values of societies, linguistic anthropology studies how language affects social life. Biological or physical anthropology studies the development of humans. The abstract noun anthropology is first attested in reference to history and its present use first appeared in Renaissance Germany in the works of Magnus Hundt and Otto Casmann. Their New Latin anthropologia derived from the forms of the Greek words ánthrōpos and lógos. It began to be used in English, possibly via French anthropologie, various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The Société Ethnologique de Paris, the first to use Ethnology, was formed in 1839 and its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848 the Société was abandoned and these anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-human-rights activists. Anthropology and many other current fields are the results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. For them, the publication of Charles Darwins On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect, Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in agronomy and in the wild. Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s, there was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. When he read Darwin he became a convert to Transformisme. His definition now became the study of the group, considered as a whole, in its details. Broca, being what today would be called a neurosurgeon, had taken an interest in the pathology of speech and he wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the brain, today called Brocas area after him. The title was translated as The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples. The last two volumes were published posthumously, Waitz defined anthropology as the science of the nature of man. By nature he meant matter animated by the Divine breath, i. e. he was an animist and he stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation
19.
Archaeology
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Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
20.
Ethnology
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Ethnology is the branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the characteristics of different peoples and the relationship between them. The term ethnologia is credited to Adam Franz Kollár who used and defined it in his Historiae ivrisqve pvblici Regni Vngariae amoenitates published in Vienna in 1783, the distinction between the three terms is increasingly blurry. Ethnology has been considered a field since the late 18th century especially in Europe and is sometimes conceived of as any comparative study of human groups. The 15th-century exploration of America by European explorers had an important role in formulating new notions of the Occidental, such as and this term was used in conjunction with savages, which was either seen as a brutal barbarian, or alternatively, as noble savage. Thus, civilization was opposed in a dualist manner to barbary, lévi-Strauss often referred to Montaignes essay on cannibalism as an early example of ethnology. Lévi-Strauss aimed, through a method, at discovering universal invariants in human society. However, the claims of such cultural universalism have been criticized by various 19th and 20th century social thinkers, including Marx, Nietzsche, Foucault, Derrida, Althusser, list of scholars of ethnology Forster, Johann Georg Adam. Voyage round the World in His Britannic Majesty’s Sloop, Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years 1772,3,4, the Elementary Structures of Kinship, Structural Anthropology Mauss, Marcel. Originally published as Essai sur le don, forme et raison de léchange dans les sociétés archaïques in 1925, this classic text on gift economy appears in the English edition as The Gift, The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies. Akwe-Shavante society, The Politics of Ethnicity, Indigenous Peoples in Latin American States, problemi generali delletnologia europea, La Ricerca Folklorica, No. Webpage History of German Anthropology/Ethnology 1945/49-1990 Languages describes the languages and ethnic groups found worldwide, national Museum of Ethnology - Osaka, Japan Texts on Wikisource, Rhyn, G. A. F. Van
21.
Crustacean
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Crustaceans form a large, diverse arthropod taxon which includes such familiar animals as crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, woodlice and barnacles. In other words, some crustaceans are more related to insects. The 67,000 described species range in size from Stygotantulus stocki at 0.1 mm, to the Japanese spider crab with a leg span of up to 3.8 m, like other arthropods, crustaceans have an exoskeleton, which they moult to grow. Most crustaceans are free-living aquatic animals, but some are terrestrial, some are parasitic, the group has an extensive fossil record, reaching back to the Cambrian, and includes living fossils such as Triops cancriformis, which has existed apparently unchanged since the Triassic period. More than 10 million tons of crustaceans are produced by fishery or farming for human consumption, krill and copepods are not as widely fished, but may be the animals with the greatest biomass on the planet, and form a vital part of the food chain. The scientific study of crustaceans is known as carcinology, and a scientist who works in carcinology is a carcinologist, the body of a crustacean is composed of segments, which are grouped into three regions, the cephalon or head, the thorax, and the pleon or abdomen. The head and thorax may be fused together to form a cephalothorax, the crustacean body is protected by the hard exoskeleton, which must be moulted for the animal to grow. The shell around each somite can be divided into a dorsal tergum, ventral sternum, various parts of the exoskeleton may be fused together. The abdomen bears pleopods, and ends in a telson, which bears the anus, the number and variety of appendages in different crustaceans may be partly responsible for the groups success. It is unclear whether the condition is a derived state which evolved in crustaceans. Trilobites, for instance, also possessed biramous appendages, the main body cavity is an open circulatory system, where blood is pumped into the haemocoel by a heart located near the dorsum. Malacostraca have haemocyanin as the pigment, while copepods, ostracods, barnacles. The alimentary canal consists of a tube that often has a gizzard-like gastric mill for grinding food and a pair of digestive glands that absorb food. Structures that function as kidneys are located near the antennae, a brain exists in the form of ganglia close to the antennae, and a collection of major ganglia is found below the gut. In many decapods, the first pair of pleopods are specialised in the male for sperm transfer, many terrestrial crustaceans mate seasonally and return to the sea to release the eggs. Others, such as woodlice, lay their eggs on land, in most decapods, the females retain the eggs until they hatch into free-swimming larvae. Marine crustaceans are as ubiquitous in the oceans as insects are on land, some branchiurans are able to withstand rapid changes of salinity and will also switch hosts from marine to non-marine species. Krill are the layer and the most important part of the food chain in Antarctic animal communities
22.
Echinoderm
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Echinoderm is the common name given to any member of the phylum Echinodermata of marine animals. The adults are recognizable by their symmetry, and include such well-known animals as sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars. Echinoderms are found at every ocean depth, from the zone to the abyssal zone. The phylum contains about 7000 living species, making it the second-largest grouping of deuterostomes, echinoderms are also the largest phylum that has no freshwater or terrestrial representatives. Aside from the hard-to-classify Arkarua, the first definitive members of the phylum appeared near the start of the Cambrian, the echinoderms are important both ecologically and geologically. Ecologically, there are few other groupings so abundant in the desert of the deep sea. Most echinoderms are able to regenerate tissue, organs, limbs, geologically, the value of echinoderms is in their ossified skeletons, which are major contributors to many limestone formations, and can provide valuable clues as to the geological environment. They were the most used species in regenerative research in the 19th and 20th centuries, further, it is held by some scientists that the radiation of echinoderms was responsible for the Mesozoic Marine Revolution. Along with the chordates and hemichordates, echinoderms are deuterostomes, one of the two divisions of the bilaterians, the other being the protostomes. During the early development of the embryo, in deuterostomes, the blastopore becomes the anus whereas in the protostomes, in deuterostomes, the mouth develops at a later stage, at the opposite end of the blastula from the blastopore, and a gut forms connecting the two. There are a total of about 7,000 extant species of echinoderm as well as about 13,000 extinct species and they are found in habitats ranging from shallow intertidal areas to abyssal depths. These consist of the Crinoidea and the extinct blastoids and Paracrinoids, a fifth class of Eleutherozoa consisting of just three species, the Concentricycloidea, were recently merged into the Asteroidea. The fossil record includes a number of other classes which do not appear to fall into any extant crown group. All echinoderms are marine and nearly all are benthic, the oldest known echinoderm fossil may be Arkarua from the Precambrian of Australia. It is a fossil with radial ridges on the rim. However, no stereom or internal structure showing a water system is present. The first universally accepted echinoderms appear in the Lower Cambrian period, asterozoans appeared in the Ordovician, echinoderms left behind an extensive fossil record. It is hypothesised that the ancestor of all echinoderms was a simple, motile, bilaterally symmetrical animal with a mouth, gut and this ancestral stock adopted an attached mode of life and suspension feeding, and developed radial symmetry as this was more advantageous for such an existence
23.
Entomology
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Entomology is the scientific study of insects, a branch of zoology. This wider meaning may still be encountered in informal use, Entomology is rooted in nearly all human cultures from prehistoric times, primarily in the context of agriculture, but scientific study began only as recently as the 16th century. William Kirby is widely considered as the father of Entomology, in collaboration with William Spence, he published a definitive entomological encyclopedia, Introduction to Entomology, regarded as the subjects foundational text. He also helped to found the Royal Entomological Society in London in 1833, one of the earliest such societies in the world, earlier antecedents, such as the Aurelian society date back to the 1740s. There has also been a history of people becoming entomologists through museum curation and research assistance, insect identification is an increasingly common hobby, with butterflies and dragonflies being the most popular. Most insects can easily be recognized to such as Hymenoptera or Coleoptera. However, insects other than Lepidoptera are typically identifiable to genus or species only through the use of Identification keys and Monographs. Because the class Insecta contains a large number of species and the characteristics separating them are unfamiliar, and often subtle. This has led to the development of automated species identification systems targeted on insects, for example, Daisy, ABIS, SPIDA, in 1994 the Entomological Society of America launched a new professional certification program for the pest control industry called The Associate Certified Entomologist. To qualify as a true entomologist an individual would require an advanced degree. Trichopterology - caddis flies Vespology - Social wasps Like other scientific specialties, entomologists have a number of local, national, there are also many organizations specializing in specific subareas. C. Y. Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas University of Minnesota, big Fleas Have Little Fleas, How Discoveries of Invertebrate Diseases Are Advancing Modern Science University of Arizona Press, Tucson,208 pages, ISBN 0-8165-2544-7. Triplehorn, Charles A. and Norman F. Johnson, borror and DeLongs Introduction to the Study of Insects, 7th edition, Thomas Brooks/Cole. — a classic textbook in North America, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Capinera, JL.2008. Iowa State Entomology Index of Internet Resources, archived from the original on 2006-11-14. Archived from the original on 2006-12-06, archived from the original on 2007-02-07. Compendium of References on Flies and Disease, archived from the original on 2006-10-15. USDA Collecting methods. Detailed instructions Arthropa Extensive photo album sorted by topic, Tereshkin Scientific illustration in entomology Tereshkin, A.2008, Methodology of a scientific drawings preparation in entomology on example of ichneumon flies
24.
Herpetology
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Herpetology is the branch of zoology concerned with the study of amphibians and reptiles. Batrachology is a subdiscipline of herpetology concerned with the study of amphibians alone. Herpetology is concerned with poikilothermic, ectothermic tetrapods, one of the most prestigious organizations, the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists, is an example of this. Many herpetological societies exist today, having been formed to promote interest in reptiles, some toxins and venoms produced by reptiles and amphibians are useful in human medicine. Currently, some snake venom has been used to create anti-coagulants that work to treat stroke victims, the word herpetology is from Greek, ἑρπετόν, herpeton, creeping animal and -λογία, -logia, knowledge. People with an avid interest in herpetology and who keep different reptiles or amphibians often refer to themselves as herpers, herp is a vernacular term for reptiles and amphibians. It is derived from the old term herpetile, with back to Linnaeuss classification of animals, in which he grouped reptiles. There are over 6700 species of amphibians and over 9000 species of reptiles, career options in the field of herpetology include, but are not limited to lab research, field studies and survey, zoological staff, museum staff and college teaching. In modern academic science, it is rare for individuals to consider themselves a herpetologist first and foremost, for example, an evolutionary biologist who is also a herpetologist may choose to work on an issue such as the evolution of warning coloration in coral snakes. Modern herpetological writers of note include Mark OShea and Philip Purser, most colleges or universities do not offer a major in herpetology at the undergraduate or even the graduate level. Instead, persons interested in herpetology select a major in the biological sciences, the knowledge learned about all aspects of the biology of animals is then applied to an individual study of herpetology. Herping List of herpetologists List of herpetology academic journals Adler, Kraig, contributions to the History of Herpetology. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, bushmaster, Raymond Ditmars and the Hunt for the Worlds Largest Viper Goin, Coleman J. Olive B. Xi +378 pp. ISBN 0-7167-0020-4, herpMapper is a database of reptile and amphibian sightings
25.
History
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History is the study of the past as it is described in written documents. Events occurring before written record are considered prehistory and it is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events. Scholars who write about history are called historians and their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In Asia, a chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals was known to be compiled from as early as 722 BC although only 2nd-century BC texts survived. Ancient influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries, the modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation. Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education, the word history comes ultimately from Ancient Greek ἱστορία, meaning inquiry, knowledge from inquiry, or judge. It was in that sense that Aristotle used the word in his Περὶ Τὰ Ζῷα Ἱστορίαι, the ancestor word ἵστωρ is attested early on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes oath, and in Boiotic inscriptions. History was borrowed from Latin into Old English as stær, and it was from Anglo-Norman that history was borrowed into Middle English, and this time the loan stuck. In Middle English, the meaning of history was story in general, the restriction to the meaning the branch of knowledge that deals with past events, the formal record or study of past events, esp. human affairs arose in the mid-fifteenth century. With the Renaissance, older senses of the word were revived, and it was in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the sixteenth century. For him, historia was the knowledge of objects determined by space and time, in an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English like Chinese now designates separate words for human history and storytelling in general. In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are synthetic and highly inflected. The adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669, Historian in the sense of a researcher of history is attested from 1531. Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, in the words of Benedetto Croce, All history is contemporary history. History is facilitated by the formation of a discourse of past through the production of narrative. The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the production of this discourse. All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record, the task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents
26.
Ichthyology
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Ichthyology, also known as fish science, is the branch of zoology devoted to the study of fish. This includes bony fish, cartilaginous fish, and jawless fish, while a large number of species have been discovered, approximately 250 new species are officially described by science each year. According to FishBase,33,400 species of fish had been described by October 2016, the study of fish dates from the Upper Paleolithic Revolution. The science of ichthyology was developed in several interconnecting epochs, each with various significant advancements, the study of fish receives its origins from humans desire to feed, clothe, and equip themselves with useful implements. Early cultures manifested these insights in abstract and identifiable artistic expressions, informal, scientific descriptions of fish are represented within the Judeo-Christian tradition. The Old Testament laws of kashrut forbade the consumption of fish scales or appendages. These fish include cyprinids of the genera Barbus and Mirogrex, cichlids of the genus Sarotherodon, Aristotle incorporated ichthyology into formal scientific study. Between 335 BC–322 BC, he provided the earliest taxonomic classification of fish, furthermore, Aristotle documented anatomical and behavioral differences between fish and marine mammals. After his death, some of his pupils continued his ichthyological research, theophrastus, for example, composed a treatise on amphibious fish. The Romans, although devoted to science, wrote extensively about fish. Pliny the Elder, a notable Roman naturalist, compiled the works of indigenous Greeks, including verifiable and ambiguous peculiarities such as the sawfish. Plinys documentation was the last significant contribution to ichthyology until the European Renaissance, the writings of three sixteenth century scholars, Hippolito Salviani, Pierre Belon, and Guillaume Rondelet, signify the conception of modern ichthyology. The investigations of individuals were based upon actual research in comparison to ancient recitations. This property popularized and emphasized these discoveries, despite their prominence, Rondelets De Piscibus Marinis is regarded as the most influential, identifying 244 species of fish. The incremental alterations in navigation and shipbuilding throughout the Renaissance marked the commencement of a new epoch in ichthyology, the Renaissance culminated with the era of exploration and colonization, and upon the cosmopolitan interest in navigation came the specialization in naturalism. Georg Marcgrave of Saxony composed the Naturalis Brasilae in 1648 and this document contained a description of 100 species of fish indigenous to the Brazilian coastline. In 1686, John Ray and Francis Willughby collaboratively published Historia Piscium, the fish contained within this informative literature were arranged in a provisional system of classification. The classification used within the Historia Piscium was further developed by Carl Linnaeus and his taxonomic approach became the systematic approach to the study of organisms, including fish
27.
Invertebrate paleontology
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Invertebrate paleontology is sometimes described as Invertebrate paleozoology or Invertebrate paleobiology. By invertebrates are meant the non-vertebrate creatures of the kingdom Animalia in the domain of Eukaryota. Relatedly, invertebrates have never had a cartilaginous or boney internal skeleton, with its skeletal supports, gill slits, ribs and jaws. Finally, throughout time, invertebrates have remained non-craniate creatures. Evolutionary biology and developmental biology now consider the term Invertebrata to be polyphyletic and paraphyletic. However, there is one caveat, Paleobiologists and microbiologists in the 21st century no longer classify one-celled animal-like microbes either as invertebrates or as animals. Thus modern invertebrate paleontologists deal largely with fossils of more strictly defined Animal Kingdom. Protist fossils are then the focus of micropaleontology, while plant fossils are the chief focus paleobotany. Together these four represent the traditional divisions of paleontologic study. As a result, paleontologists and other fossil hunters must often rely on trace fossils, microfossils, hard-bodied and large invertebrates are much-more commonly preserved, typically as sizeable macrofossils. The chitinous jaws of annelids are sometimes preserved as fossils, while many arthropods and inarticulate brachiopods have easily fossilized hard parts of calcite, chitin, the most common and often-found macrofossils are the very hard calcareous shells of articulate brachiopods and of mollusks. On the other hand, non-shelly slugs and non-tubiferous worms have only occasionally been preserved due to their lack of hard parts, search for the Past, An Introduction to Paleontology,512 pages. Invertebrate Palaeontology and Evolution,468 pages, peter Doyle, Understanding Fossils, An Introduction to Invertebrate Paleontology,426 pages. Carroll Lane Fenton and Mildred Adams Fenton, updated by Patricia Vickers Rich, the Fossil Book, A Record of Prehistoric Life, from 482 to 760 pages. A Guide to Minerals, Rocks and Fossils,320 pages, harold L. Levin, Ancient Invertebrates and Their Living Relatives,358 pages. Fossils, An Introduction to Prehistoric Life,337 pages, atlas of Invertebrate Macrofossils,256 pages. Frank H. T. Rhodes and others, Fossils, A Guide to Prehistoric Life,242 pages. Henry Woodburn Shimer and Robert Rakes Shrock, index Fossils of North America,837 pages
28.
Malacology
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Malacology is the branch of invertebrate zoology that deals with the study of the Mollusca, the second-largest phylum of animals in terms of described species after the arthropods. Mollusks include snails and slugs, clams, octopus and squid, one division of malacology, conchology, is devoted to the study of mollusk shells. Malacology derives from Greek μαλακός, malakos, soft, and -λογία, fields within malacological research include taxonomy, ecology and evolution. Applied malacology studies medical, veterinary, and agricultural applications, for example mollusks as vectors of disease, archaeology employs malacology to understand the evolution of the climate, the biota of the area, and the usage of the site. In 1681, Filippo Bonanni wrote the first book published that was solely about seashells. The book was entitled, Ricreatione dell occhio e dela mente nell oservation delle Chiociolle, proposta a curiosi delle opere della natura, in 1868, the German Malacological Society was founded. Zoological methods are used in malacological research, Malacological field methods and laboratory methods were summarized by Sturm et al. Those who study malacology are known as malacologists and those who study primarily or exclusively the shells of mollusks are known as conchologists. The Conchologist -> The Journal of Malacology The Festivus - a peer-reviewed journal which started as a newsletter in 1970. The Nautilus - since 1886 published by Bailey-Matthews Shell Museum, First two volumes were published under name The Conchologists’ Exchange. Impact factor,0.500 The Veliger - impact factor,0, proceedings of the First European Malacological Congress. Text in English with black-and-white photographic reproductions, also maps and diagrams, published by the Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland and the Malacological Society of London in 1965 with no ISBN. The long dawn of Malacology, a history of malacology from prehistory to the year 1800. Archives of Natural History 22, 301-319, media related to Malacology at Wikimedia Commons Periodicals about molluscs at WorldCat
29.
Mammalogy
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In zoology, mammalogy is the study of mammals – a class of vertebrates with characteristics such as homeothermic metabolism, fur, four-chambered hearts, and complex nervous systems. Mammalogy has also known as mastology, theriology, and therology. There are about 4,200 different species of animals which are considered mammals, the major branches to study in the mammalogy career include natural history, taxonomy and systematics, anatomy and physiology, ethology, ecology, and management and control. The approximate salary of a mammalogist varies from $20,000 to $60,000 a year, Mammalogists are typically involved in activities such as conducting research, managing personnel, and writing proposals. Mammalogy branches off into other taxonomically-oriented disciplines such as primatology, and this is a list of scientific journals broadly serving mammalogists. In addition, many more general zoology, ecology and evolution, or conservation journals also deal with mammals. List of mammalogists Mammal March Madness Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, South Africa The American Society of Mammalogists
30.
Mineralogy
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Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, the German Renaissance specialist Georgius Agricola wrote works such as De re metallica and De Natura Fossilium which began the scientific approach to the subject. Systematic scientific studies of minerals and rocks developed in post-Renaissance Europe, the modern study of mineralogy was founded on the principles of crystallography and to the microscopic study of rock sections with the invention of the microscope in the 17th century. Nicholas Steno first observed the law of constancy of interfacial angles in quartz crystals in 1669 and this was later generalized and established experimentally by Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de lIslee in 1783. In 1814, Jöns Jacob Berzelius introduced a classification of minerals based on their chemistry rather than their crystal structure, james D. Dana published his first edition of A System of Mineralogy in 1837, and in a later edition introduced a chemical classification that is still the standard. It, however, retains a focus on the structures commonly encountered in rock-forming minerals. An initial step in identifying a mineral is to examine its physical properties and these can be classified into density, measures of mechanical cohesion, macroscopic visual properties, magnetic and electric properties, radioactivity and solubility in hydrogen chloride. If the mineral is crystallized, it will also have a distinctive crystal habit that reflects the crystal structure or internal arrangement of atoms. It is also affected by crystal defects and twinning. Many crystals are polymorphic, having more than one crystal structure depending on factors such as pressure and temperature. ”Examples of polymorphs are calcite and aragonite - two minerals with identical chemical composition, distinguished by their crystallography, calcite is rhombohedral and aragonite is orthorhombic. The crystal structure is the arrangement of atoms in a crystal and it is represented by a lattice of points which repeats a basic pattern, called a unit cell, in three dimensions. The lattice can be characterized by its symmetries and by the dimensions of the unit cell and these dimensions are represented by three Miller indices. The lattice remains unchanged by certain symmetry operations about any point in the lattice, reflection, rotation, inversion, and rotary inversion. Together, they make up an object called a crystallographic point group or crystal class. There are 32 possible crystal classes, in addition, there are operations that displace all the points, translation, screw axis, and glide plane. In combination with the point symmetries, they form 230 possible space groups, most geology departments have X-ray powder diffraction equipment to analyze the crystal structures of minerals. X-rays have wavelengths that are the order of magnitude as the distances between atoms. In a sample that is ground to a powder, the X-rays sample a random distribution of all crystal orientations, powder diffraction can distinguish between minerals that may appear the same in a hand sample, for example quartz and its polymorphs tridymite and cristobalite
31.
Ornithology
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Ornithology is a branch of zoology that concerns the study of birds. The word ornithology derives from the ancient Greek ὄρνις ornis and λόγος logos, several aspects of ornithology differ from related disciplines, due partly to the high visibility and the aesthetic appeal of birds. Most marked among these is the extent of studies undertaken by amateurs working within the parameters of strict scientific methodology, most modern biological theories apply across taxonomic groups and the number of professional scientists who identify themselves as ornithologists has therefore declined. A wide range of tools and techniques are used in ornithology, the origins of the word ornithology come from the Greek ornithologos and late 17th-century Latin ornithologia meaning bird science. Trends include the move from mere descriptions to the identification of patterns, Humans have had an observational relationship with birds since prehistory, with some stone age drawings being amongst the oldest indications of an interest in birds. Birds were perhaps important as a source, and bones of as many as 80 species have been found in excavations of early Stone Age settlements. Waterbird and seabird remains have also found in shell mounds on the island of Oronsay off the coast of Scotland. Cultures around the world have rich vocabularies related to birds, traditional bird names are often based on detailed knowledge of the behaviour, with many names being onomatopoeic, many still in use. Traditional knowledge may also involve the use of birds in folk medicine, hunting of wild birds as well as their domestication would have required considerable knowledge of their habits. Poultry farming and falconry were practised from early times in many parts of the world, artificial incubation of poultry was practised in China around 246 BC and around at least 400 BC in Egypt. The Egyptians also made use of birds in their scripts, many of which. Early written records provide information on the past distributions of species. For instance Xenophon records the abundance of the ostrich in Assyria, other old writings such as the Vedas demonstrate the careful observation of avian life histories and includes the earliest reference to the habit of brood parasitism by the Asian koel. Like writing, the art of China, Japan, Persia and India also demonstrate knowledge. Aristotle in 350 BC in his Historia Animalium noted the habit of migration, moulting, egg laying and life spans. Similar misconceptions existed regarding the breeding of barnacle geese, around 77 AD, Pliny the Elder described birds, among other creatures, in his Historia Naturalis. The origins of falconry have been traced to Mesopotamia and the earliest record comes from the reign of Sargon II, falconry made its entry to Europe only after AD400, brought in from the East after invasions by the Huns and Allans. Frederick II of Hohenstaufen learned about Arabian falconry during wars in the region and he had this work translated into Latin and also conducted experiments on birds in his menagerie
32.
Vertebrate paleontology
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It also tries to connect, by using the evolutionary timeline, the animals of the past and their modern-day relatives. The fossil record shows aspects of the evolutionary path from early aquatic vertebrates to mammals, with a host of transitional fossils. The earliest known fossil vertebrates were heavily armored fish discovered in rocks from the Ordovician Period about 500 to 430 Ma. The Devonian Period brought in the changes that allowed primitive air-breathing fish to remain on land as long as they wished, thus becoming the first terrestrial vertebrates, amphibians developed forms of reproduction and locomotion and a metabolism better suited for life exclusively on land, becoming more reptilian. Full-fledged reptiles appeared in the Carboniferous Period, the reptilian changes and adaptations to diet and geography are chronicled in the fossil record of the varying forms of therapsida. True mammals showed up in the Triassic Period around the time as the dinosaurs. Birds first diverged from dinosaurs between 100 Ma and 60 Ma and he published his findings in 1812 and, although he steadfastly refuted evolution, his work proved the contested theory of extinction of species. Thomas Jefferson is credited with initiating the science of paleontology in the United States with the reading of a paper to the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia in 1797. Jefferson presented fossil bones of a ground sloth found in a cave in western Virginia, the species was ultimately named Megalonyx jeffersonii in his honor. Jefferson corresponded with Cuvier, including sending him a shipment of highly desirable bones of the American mastodon, Paleontology really got started though, with the publication of Recherches sur les poissons fossils by Swiss naturalist Louis Agassiz. He studied, described and listed hundreds of species of fossil fish, with the publication of the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin in 1849, the field got a theoretical framework. Much of the subsequent work has been to map the relationship between fossil and extant organisms, as well as their history through time, in modern times, Alfred Romer wrote what has been termed the definitive textbook on the subject, called Vertebrate Paleontology. It shows the progression of evolution in fossil fish, and amphibians and reptiles through comparative anatomy, Romer became the first president of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology in 1940, alongside co-founder Howard Chiu. Carroll was president of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology in 1983, the Society keeps its members informed on the latest discoveries through newsletters and the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. For instance, birds are considered to be the descendants of reptiles. Under phylogenetic nomenclature, such an arrangement is unacceptable, though it offers excellent overview and this classical scheme is still used in works where systematic overview is essential, e. g. Benton, Hildebrand and Goslow and Knobill and Neill. While mostly seen in works, it is also still used in some specialist works like Fortuny & al. and Sues. CS1 maint, Uses authors parameter Carroll, Robert L. Patterns and Processes of Vertebrate Evolution
33.
Habitat (ecology)
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A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal, plant, or other type of organism. The term typically refers to the zone in which the organism lives and it is the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the physical environment that surrounds a species population. Every organism has certain habitat needs for the conditions in which it will thrive, habitat types include polar, temperate, subtropical and tropical. The terrestrial vegetation type may be forest, steppe, grassland, the word habitat has been in use since about 1755 and derives from the Latin third-person singular present indicative of habitāre, to inhabit, from habēre, to have or to hold. Habitat can be defined as the environment of an organism. It is similar in meaning to a biotope, an area of environmental conditions associated with a particular community of plants. Generally speaking, animal communities are reliant on specific types of plant communities, some plants and animals are generalists, and their habitat requirements are met in a wide range of locations. The small white butterfly for example is found on all the continents of the world apart from Antarctica and its larvae feed on a wide range of Brassicas and various other plant species, and it thrives in any open location with diverse plant associations. Disturbance is important in the creation of biodiverse habitats, in the absence of disturbance, a climax vegetation cover develops that prevents the establishment of other species. Lightning strikes and toppled trees in tropical forests allow species richness to be maintained as pioneering species move in to fill the gaps created. Similarly coastal habitats can become dominated by kelp until the seabed is disturbed by a storm, another cause of disturbance is when an area may be overwhelmed by an invasive introduced species which is not kept under control by natural enemies in its new habitat. Terrestrial habitat types include forests, grasslands, wetlands and deserts, within these broad biomes are more specific habitats with varying climate types, temperature regimes, soils, altitudes and vegetation types. Many of these habitats grade into each other and each one has its own communities of plants. A habitat may suit a particular species well, but its presence or absence at any particular location depends to some extent on chance, on its dispersal abilities, freshwater habitats include rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, marshes and bogs. Although some organisms are found across most of these habitats, the majority have more specific requirements, similarly, aquatic plants can be floating, semi-submerged, submerged or grow in permanently or temporarily saturated soils besides bodies of water. Marine habitats include brackish water, estuaries, bays, the sea, the intertidal zone. Further variations include rock pools, sand banks, mudflats, brackish lagoons, sandy and pebbly beaches, the benthic zone or seabed provides a home for both static organisms, anchored to the substrate, and for a large range of organisms crawling on or burrowing into the surface. A desert is not the kind of habitat that favours the presence of amphibians, with their requirement for water to keep their skins moist, nevertheless, some frogs live in deserts, creating moist habitats underground and hibernating while conditions are adverse
34.
Dinosaur
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Dinosaurs are a diverse group of reptiles of the clade Dinosauria that first appeared during the Triassic. Although the exact origin and timing of the evolution of dinosaurs is the subject of active research and they became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates after the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event 201 million years ago. Their dominance continued through the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods and ended when the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event led to the extinction of most dinosaur groups 66 million years ago, until the late 20th century, all groups of dinosaurs were believed to be extinct. As such, birds were the dinosaur lineage to survive the mass extinction event. This article deals primarily with non-avian dinosaurs, Dinosaurs are a varied group of animals from taxonomic, morphological and ecological standpoints. Birds, at over 10,000 living species, are the most diverse group of vertebrates besides perciform fish, using fossil evidence, paleontologists have identified over 500 distinct genera and more than 1,000 different species of non-avian dinosaurs. Dinosaurs are represented on every continent by both extant species and fossil remains, while dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal, many extinct groups included quadrupedal species, and some were able to shift between these stances. Elaborate display structures such as horns or crests are common to all dinosaur groups, evidence suggests that egg laying and nest building are additional traits shared by all dinosaurs.7 meters and heights of 18 meters and were the largest land animals of all time. Still, the idea that dinosaurs were uniformly gigantic is a misconception based in part on preservation bias, as large. Many dinosaurs were small, Xixianykus, for example, was only about 50 cm long. Through the first half of the 20th century, before birds were recognized to be dinosaurs, most of the community believed dinosaurs to have been sluggish. Most research conducted since the 1970s, however, has indicated that all dinosaurs were active animals with elevated metabolisms and numerous adaptations for social interaction. The large sizes of some groups, as well as their seemingly monstrous and fantastic nature, have ensured dinosaurs regular appearance in best-selling books and films. Persistent public enthusiasm for the animals has resulted in significant funding for dinosaur science, the term is derived from the Greek words δεινός and σαῦρος. Though the taxonomic name has often interpreted as a reference to dinosaurs teeth, claws. Instead, dinosaurs, like many forms of reptile sub-groups, did not exhibit characteristics which were traditionally regarded as reptilian. Under phylogenetic nomenclature, dinosaurs are usually defined as the group consisting of Triceratops, Neornithes, their most recent common ancestor, Birds are now recognized as being the sole surviving lineage of theropod dinosaurs. In traditional taxonomy, birds were considered a class that had evolved from dinosaurs
35.
Pre-Columbian
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For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas, Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Latin America the term used is Pre-Hispanic. Other civilizations were contemporary with the period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their own written records, because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture. Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era, many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices, while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives. Now, the study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific. Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering Strait, genetic evidence found in Amerindians maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. Over the course of millennia, Paleo-Indians spread throughout North and South America, exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago, however, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago, the chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14, 000–17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at an earlier date, possibly 50. In that case, the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago. The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded and it finally stabilized by about 10,000 years ago, climatic conditions were then very similar to todays. Within this timeframe, roughly pertaining to the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified, the unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The paleo-indians were hunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family and these groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct giant land animals such as mastodon, Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools
36.
Pterosaur
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Pterosaurs were flying reptiles of the extinct clade or order Pterosauria. They existed from the late Triassic to the end of the Cretaceous, Pterosaurs are the earliest vertebrates known to have evolved powered flight. Their wings were formed by a membrane of skin, muscle, Early species had long, fully toothed jaws and long tails, while later forms had a highly reduced tail, and some lacked teeth. Many sported furry coats made up of hair-like filaments known as pycnofibers, Pterosaurs spanned a wide range of adult sizes, from the very small anurognathids to the largest known flying creatures of all time, including Quetzalcoatlus and Hatzegopteryx. Pterosaurs are often referred to in the media and by the general public as flying dinosaurs. Like the dinosaurs, and unlike these other reptiles, pterosaurs are more related to birds than to crocodiles or any other living reptile. Pterosaurs are also referred to as pterodactyls, particularly in fiction. Technically, Pterodactyl refers only to members of the genus Pterodactylus, the anatomy of pterosaurs was highly modified from their reptilian ancestors by the adaption to flight. Pterosaur bones were hollow and air-filled, like the bones of birds and they had a keeled breastbone that was developed for the attachment of flight muscles and an enlarged brain that shows specialised features associated with flight. In some later pterosaurs, the backbone over the shoulders fused into a known as a notarium, which served to stiffen the torso during flight. Pterosaur wings were formed by membranes of skin and other tissues, the primary membranes attached to the extremely long fourth finger of each arm and extended along the sides of the body to the ankles. The outer wings were strengthened by closely spaced fibers called actinofibrils, the actinofibrils themselves consisted of three distinct layers in the wing, forming a crisscross pattern when superimposed on one another. The function of the actinofibrils is unknown, as is the material from which they were made. Depending on their composition, they may have been stiffening or strengthening agents in the outer part of the wing. The wing membranes also contained a layer of muscle, fibrous tissue. The pterosaur wing membrane is divided into three basic units, the first, called the propatagium, was the forward-most part of the wing and attached between the wrist and shoulder, creating the leading edge during flight. This membrane may have incorporated the first three fingers of the hand, as evidenced in some specimens, the brachiopatagium was the primary component of the wing, stretching from the highly elongated fourth finger of the hand to the hind limbs. It is generally agreed though that non-pterodactyloid pterosaurs had a broader uro/cruropatagium, a bone unique to pterosaurs, known as the pteroid, connected to the wrist and helped to support a forward membrane between the wrist and shoulder
37.
Julia Bracken Wendt
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Julia Bracken Wendt, a notable American sculptor, was born in Apple River, Illinois, the twelfth of thirteen children in an Irish Catholic family. Unsupported at home following the death of her mother when she was nine years old, by sixteen she was working as a domestic servant for a woman who recognized her talent and drive, and paid to enroll her in the Art Institute of Chicago. There she studied with Lorado Taft and by 1887 she had advanced to become his studio, aside from that she was awarded a commission to produce Illinois Welcoming the Nations for the Fair. The work was later cast in bronze and unveiled at the Illinois State Capitol, after successfully pursuing her career for a number of years, in 1906 she married painter William Wendt and moved to Los Angeles, California where she continued her success. Wendt was a member of the National Sculpture Society and exhibited and was featured in both the 1923 and 1929 Exhibitions and the resulting catalogues
38.
National Park Service
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It was created on August 25,1916, by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. As of 2014, the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee 417 units, the National Park Service celebrated its centennial in 2016. National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior, the movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather, as well as J. Horace McFarland. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior and they wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of a National Park Service, Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3,1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933, the act would allow the President to reorganize the executive branch of the United States government. It wasnt until later that summer when the new President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Roosevelt agreed and issued two Executive orders to make it happen. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the National Park Service, the demand for parks after the end of the World War II had left the parks overburdened with demands that could not be met. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he began Mission 66, New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery, Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas. Since its inception in 1916, the National Park Service has managed each of the United States national parks, Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no government to manage it. Yosemite National Park began as a park, the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the state of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership, at first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the staff was replaced by the U. S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Mather petitioned the government to improve the situation. In response, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane challenged him to lobby for creating a new agency, Mather was successful with the ratification of the National Park Service Organic Act in 1916. Later, the agency was given authority over other protected areas, the National Park System includes all properties managed by the National Park Service
39.
Los Angeles Times
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The Los Angeles Times, commonly referred to as the Times or LA Times, is a paid daily newspaper published in Los Angeles, California, since 1881. It was the largest metropolitan newspaper in circulation in the United States in 2008, the Times is owned by tronc. The Times was first published on December 4,1881, as the Los Angeles Daily Times under the direction of Nathan Cole Jr. and it was first printed at the Mirror printing plant, owned by Jesse Yarnell and T. J. Unable to pay the bill, Cole and Gardiner turned the paper over to the Mirror Company. Mathes had joined the firm, and it was at his insistence that the Times continued publication, in July 1882, Harrison Gray Otis moved from Santa Barbara to become the papers editor. Otis made the Times a financial success, in an era where newspapers were driven by party politics, the Times was directed at Republican readers. As was typical of newspapers of the time, the Times would sit on stories for several days, historian Kevin Starr wrote that Otis was a businessman capable of manipulating the entire apparatus of politics and public opinion for his own enrichment. Otiss editorial policy was based on civic boosterism, extolling the virtues of Los Angeles, the efforts of the Times to fight local unions led to the October 1,1910 bombing of its headquarters, killing twenty-one people. Two union leaders, James and Joseph McNamara, were charged, the American Federation of Labor hired noted trial attorney Clarence Darrow to represent the brothers, who eventually pleaded guilty. Upon Otiss death in 1917, his son-in-law, Harry Chandler, Harry Chandler was succeeded in 1944 by his son, Norman Chandler, who ran the paper during the rapid growth of post-war Los Angeles. Family members are buried at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery near Paramount Studios, the site also includes a memorial to the Times Building bombing victims. The fourth generation of family publishers, Otis Chandler, held that position from 1960 to 1980, Otis Chandler sought legitimacy and recognition for his familys paper, often forgotten in the power centers of the Northeastern United States due to its geographic and cultural distance. He sought to remake the paper in the model of the nations most respected newspapers, notably The New York Times, believing that the newsroom was the heartbeat of the business, Otis Chandler increased the size and pay of the reporting staff and expanded its national and international reporting. In 1962, the paper joined with the Washington Post to form the Los Angeles Times-Washington Post News Service to syndicate articles from both papers for news organizations. During the 1960s, the paper won four Pulitzer Prizes, more than its previous nine decades combined, eventually the coupon-clipping branches realized that they could make more money investing in something other than newspapers. Under their pressure the companies went public, or split apart, thats the pattern followed over more than a century by the Los Angeles Times under the Chandler family. The papers early history and subsequent transformation was chronicled in an unauthorized history Thinking Big and it has also been the whole or partial subject of nearly thirty dissertations in communications or social science in the past four decades. In 2000, the Tribune Company acquired the Times, placing the paper in co-ownership with then-WB -affiliated KTLA, which Tribune acquired in 1985
40.
New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
41.
Los Angeles County, California
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Los Angeles County, officially the County of Los Angeles, is the most populous county in both the United States and the state of California, the countrys most populous state. Its population is larger than that of 42 individual U. S. states and it has 88 incorporated cities and many unincorporated areas and at 4,083 square miles, it is larger than the combined areas of the U. S. states of Delaware and Rhode Island. The county is home to more than one-quarter of California residents and is one of the most ethnically diverse counties in the U. S and its county seat, the City of Los Angeles, is also its most populous city at about four million. Los Angeles County is one of the counties of California. The county originally included parts of what are now Kern, San Bernardino, Riverside, as the population increased, sections were split off to organize San Bernardino County in 1853, Kern County in 1866, and Orange County in 1889. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 4,751 square miles, Los Angeles County borders 70 miles of coast on the Pacific Ocean and encompasses mountain ranges, valleys, forests, islands, lakes, rivers, and desert. The western extent of the Mojave Desert begins in the Antelope Valley, most of the population of Los Angeles County is located in the south and southwest, with major population centers in the Los Angeles Basin, San Fernando Valley and San Gabriel Valley. Other population centers are found in the Santa Clarita Valley, Pomona Valley, Crescenta Valley, the county is divided west-to-east by the San Gabriel Mountains, which are part of the Transverse Ranges of southern California, and are contained mostly within the Angeles National Forest. Los Angeles County includes San Clemente Island and Santa Catalina Island, non-Hispanic whites numbered 2,728,321, or 28% of the population. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race numbered 4,687,889, 36% of Los Angeles Countys population was of Mexican ancestry,3. 7% Salvadoran, and 2. 2% Guatemalan heritage. The largest Asian groups of the 1,346,865 Asians in Los Angeles County are 4. 0% Chinese,3. 3% Filipino,2. 2% Korean,1. 0% Japanese,0. 9% Vietnamese,0. 8% Indian, and 0. 3% Cambodian. The racial makeup of the county is 48. 7% White,11. 0% African American,0. 8% Native American,10. 0% Asian,0. 3% Pacific Islander,23. 5% from other races, and 4. 9% from two or more races. 44. 6% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race, the largest European-American ancestry groups are German, Irish, English and Italian. 45. 9% of the population reported speaking only English at home,37. 9% spoke Spanish,2. 22% Tagalog,2. 0% Chinese,1. 9% Korean,1. 87% Armenian,0. 5% Arabic, and 0. 2% Hindi. At the census of 2000, there were 9,519,338 people,3,133,774 households, the population density was 2,344 people per square mile. There were 3,270,909 housing units at a density of 806 per square mile. 25% of all households were made up of individuals and 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.98 and the average family size was 3.61. In the county, the population was out with 28% under the age of 18, 10% from 18 to 24, 33% from 25 to 44, 19% from 45 to 64
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Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors
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The Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors is the five-member governing body of Los Angeles County, California. Members of the Board are officially nonpartisan, and are elected by constituents of their respective districts, as of 2016, they are, Supervisors are elected to four-year terms by a vote of Los Angeles County citizens who reside in the supervisorial district. Supervisors must reside and be voters in the district they represent, supervisorial terms begin the first Monday in December after the election. To curb the powers of the five supervisors, Los Angeles County voters passed Measure B in March 2002 with a majority of 64%, if a supervisor fills a vacancy, the unexpired term counts towards the term limit if there are more than two years left to serve. The provisions of the measure were not retroactive, meaning that the term limit clock for supervisors who were serving at the time the measure passed would start with the next election. Don Knabe, Mike Antonovich, and Yvonne Brathwaite Burke could continue to serve until 2016, while Gloria Molina, Los Angeles County is divided into 5 supervisorial districts, with each Supervisor representing a district of approximately 2 million people. Los Angeles County follows usual California practice in that it did not subdivide into separate counties or increase the number of supervisors as its population soared after 1920. The only county with more than five supervisors is San Francisco, as a result, the concentration of local administrative power in each county supervisor is high, each one represents more than 2 million people. Despite the Countys diverse population, the Board had lacked any Latino representation until 1991, a local nickname some use for the Board is the five little kings. Unseating an incumbent supervisor is extraordinarily difficult, due largely to the prohibitive cost of mounting a challenge in districts of such enormous geographical. Like other elected officials, supervisors enjoy built-in advantages of incumbency, the chair of the Board of Supervisors has the option of calling himself or herself mayor. The title has drawn criticism as it can lead to confusion with the mayor of the city of Los Angeles. However, those who support the use of the say that all five members of the Board of Supervisors act as mayors or chief executives for the millions of people who live in unincorporated areas. Only Mike Antonovich used the title when chairing the Board, primarily to represent and promote Los Angeles County when dealing with international diplomacy. Otherwise, all other chairs have used the chair, chairman, or chairwoman. Members of the Board of Supervisors also sit on the board of the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority, the change was made in response to several candidates either dropping out or declining to accept the position to replace former Chief Administrative Officer David Janssen. The Board meets every Tuesday at 9,30 a. m. at the Board Hearing Room at the Kenneth Hahn Hall of Administration in downtown Los Angeles, on Tuesdays following a Monday holiday, Board meetings begin after lunch, at 1,00 p. m. Board meetings are conducted in accordance with Roberts Rules of Order, the Brown Act, the Chief Executive Officer, the County Counsel and the Executive Officer, or their deputies, attend each Board meeting
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Mark Ridley-Thomas
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Mark Ridley-Thomas is a member of the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors for the 2nd District. He served as a California State Senator, representing the 26th district from 2006 to 2008 and was a California State Assemblyman representing the 48th district from 2002 until 2006 and he was Chairman of the Assembly Democratic Caucus. Before his six years in the Legislature, he was on the Los Angeles City Council from 1991 to 2002, as of 2016 he is the sole male member of the board of supervisors. Ridley-Thomas is a graduate of Manual Arts High School in Los Angeles and earned a degree in Social Relations. Ridley-Thomas went on to earn a Ph. D. in Social Ethics, after a brief stint as a high-school teacher, Ridley-Thomas served for a decade as executive director of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference of Greater Los Angeles. During that period he also hosted a public affairs program on Pacifica Radio station KPFK-FM in Los Angeles, Ridley-Thomas is married to Avis Ridley-Thomas, who was the administrator of the Dispute Resolution Center in the office of the Los Angeles City Attorney. She recently retired from The City of Los Angeles and they have twin sons, Sebastian and Sinclair, who are both graduates of Morehouse College. Ridley-Thomas was elected to the Los Angeles City Council in 1991, during his tenure on the council, he empaneled the Eighth District Empowerment Congress, a forerunner of the modern Neighborhood Council. He was also the president pro tem of the council, serving as the acting Mayor of Los Angeles on several occasions, in his 2002 election, he defeated his Republican opponent, Gerard T. Robinson, with more than 80% of the vote. He also sponsored a law that aided redevelopment in Exposition Park as part of an effort to attract a team. In 2006, Ridley-Thomas announced that he was running for the California State Senate and he defeated his opponent in the Democratic primary, Marvin C McCoy, with more than 87% of the vote and faced no Republican opposition in the general election. He was also one of the lawmakers who called for tourists to boycott the LAX Hilton because of its efforts to overturn a city ordinance that would grant a living wage to airport-area hotel workers. He also served on the Senate Appropriations, Energy, Utilities and Communications, Health, on October 25,2007, Ridley-Thomas announced that he would be running for the Second District seat on the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors being vacated by Supervisor Yvonne Brathwaite Burke. His most formidable opponent was former LAPD police chief Bernard C, Parks, the member of the Los Angeles City Council who replaced Ridley-Thomas when he was elected to the State Assembly. Ridley-Thomas was endorsed by the Los Angeles County Democratic Party, the labor unions, numerous elected officials. Ridley-Thomas had a larger margin of victory one-on-one against Parks. Ridley-Thomas became the first black man elected to the Los Angeles County Board. In 2012 Ridley-Thomas ran for his term as Supervisor
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Sheila Kuehl
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Sheila James Kuehl is an American politician and former child actor, currently the member of the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors for the 3rd District. In 1994, she became the first openly gay California legislator and in 1997, Kuehl most recently served as a Democratic member of the California State Senate, representing the 23rd district in Los Angeles County and parts of southern Ventura County. A former member of the California State Assembly, she was elected to the Senate in 2000 and she was elected to her supervisorial post in 2014. In her capacity as Supervisor, she sits on the Metro Board, First 5 LA. Kuehl was born Sheila Ann Kuehl in Tulsa, Oklahoma and her father was an airplane construction worker. He was Catholic and her mother was Jewish, as a child actress she performed under the stage name Sheila James. At age seven Kuehls parents noticed that she loved to try to play piano, Kuehls parents agreed to pay for lessons when a door-to-door salesmen came to their home selling Saturday classes for tap-dancing, ballet, and singing lessons at Meglin Studios. Her parents would accompany her by bus for tap-dancing lessons at the studio every Saturday, as the tap instructors wife taught drama classes for an additional 50 cents, Kuehls parents signed her up for those as well. The classes would have recitals on Monday nights to showcase what they had learned, at one recital Kuehl played an assistant in a skit called The Old Sleuth where she sat under a table listening for clues. To indicate she was listening Kuehl made faces which caused the audience to laugh, the skit was ruined but the drama teacher, Mrs. Meglin was impressed. Kuehl later recalled that Meglin told her mother The kid’s pretty funny, and my mother said, Oh, yeah, she can read, she skipped two grades, she’s really very good. Mrs. Meglin said, There’s a radio series holding interviews…at an agent’s office on Sunset Boulevard, would you be interested in taking her to the interview. All she has to do is read… So we went for the interview and there were like 150 or 200 kids there, and I was called back…and eventually I got the part in what probably was the last family radio series before it went all music and news. Airing in the adjacent studios was the popular drama The Cisco Kid, Kuehl would later cite her interaction with the other NBC radio talent as influential in forming her professionalism and comedy skills. The show centred around Singleton playing Penny Williamson a widow selling real estate in a town to support two daughters. Due to her talent exhibited on radio, Kuehls agent convinced her parents to bring her to auditions for a television role. Kuehl later recalled The same 200 kids I think were there for the interview and I was called back and called back and called back, and beginning in 1950, I did that series for six years. Kuehl was signed to play Jackie, Stuart Erwins tomboy daughter, after The Stu Erwin Show ended Kuehl continued to work as an actress while going to school
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Janice Hahn
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Janice Kay Hahn is the incumbent member of the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors for the Fourth District. A member of the Democratic Party, she was the Representative from Californias 44th congressional district from 2011 to 2016 and she was previously a Los Angeles City Councilwoman representing the 15th district from 2001-11. From 1997-99 she served as a representative on the Los Angeles Charter Reform Commission. On July 12,2011, Hahn won an election for Congress to fill the seat vacated by Democrat Jane Harman. She defeated Republican Craig Huey, a Tea Party-backed direct marketer from the Torrance area, in February 2015, Hahn announced she was retiring from Congress to run for the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors. In the November 8 general election, Hahn defeated Steve Napolitano to succeed Don Knabe to become the next Los Angeles Supervisor from District 4 and she was sworn in on December 5,2016. Hahn was born in Los Angeles and raised in a politically involved family and she is the daughter of Ramona Belle and Kenneth Frederick Hahn, a 40-year Los Angeles County Supervisor who started his career in elective politics as a Los Angeles City Councilman. Her uncle, Gordon Hahn, was a member of the California Assembly and her brother, James Hahn, served as Los Angeles City Controller from 1981–85, City Attorney from 1985 until 2001, and Mayor of Los Angeles from 2001 until 2005. Hahns maternal grandparents served as missionaries in Japan in the 1920s and 1930s, Hahn attended Abilene Christian University in Texas, earning a bachelor of science in education in 1974. She taught at the Good News Academy, a school in Westchester from 1974-78. Hahn was elected to represent the Fifteenth District on the Los Angeles Charter Reform Commission, in 1998, U. S. Congresswoman Jane Harman declined to run for re-election, choosing instead to run for Governor of California. Hahn then won the Democratic nomination to succeed Harman, but lost the election to Republican State Assemblyman Steven T. Kuykendall 49%-47%. Hahn served on the Los Angeles City Council, representing the 15th District, the 15th District encompasses the San Pedro Harbor and includes the ethnically diverse communities of Harbor City, Harbor Gateway, San Pedro, Watts and Wilmington. She was reelected to her third and final term in November 2009 and she has been called one of the most pro-labor members of the City Council, and a consistent opponent of layoffs and furloughs for city workers. Hahn walked the lines with unionized dockworkers in 2002. After the Bush administration suggested it would intervene in the dispute by using government troops to operate the ports. Theres no room for the federal government, theres only one reason for them to get involved, and thats to break the union, she said. Hahn cites her efforts to clean up the Port of Los Angeles as one of her main accomplishments while on the City Council
Expo Park/USC
