1.
United States naval reactors
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Such Naval nuclear reactors have a complete power plant associated with them. All U. S. Navy submarines and supercarriers built since 1975 are nuclear-powered by such reactors, there are no commissioned conventional submarines or aircraft carriers left in the U. S. Navy, since the last conventional carrier, USS Kitty Hawk, was decommissioned in May 2009. The U. S. Navy had nine nuclear-powered cruisers with such reactors also, Reactors are designed by a variety of contractors, then developed and tested at one of several government -owned and prime contractor-operated facilities. Conceptual analysis of marine propulsion started in the 1940s. Research on developing nuclear reactors for the Navy was done at Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory in West Mifflin, Pennsylvania starting in 1948. Under the long-term leadership of Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, the first test reactor plant, Bettis Laboratory and Naval Reactors Facility were operated initially and for many decades afterwards by Westinghouse. The first nuclear-powered vessel, the submarine USS Nautilus, put to sea in 1955, USS Nautilus marked the beginning of the transition of submarines from relatively slow and short-ranged conventional submarines to ones capable of sustaining 20–25 knots submerged for weeks on end. Much of the development work on naval reactors was done at the Naval Reactor Facility on the campus of the Idaho National Laboratory. USS Nautilus was powered by the S2W reactor, and crew were trained on the land-based S1W reactor at INL, a spare S2G was also built but never used. USS Seawolf was plagued by problems, with the result that USS Nautilus delivered far superior performance. This and the risks posed by liquid sodium in the event of an accident at sea led Admiral Rickover to select the PWR as the standard U. S. naval reactor type. The S2G was removed from USS Seawolf and replaced by the S2Wa reactor, a cruiser, USS Long Beach, followed in 1961 and was powered by two C1W reactor units. The USS Enterprise remained in service for over 50 years, and was inactivated on 12/1/2012, full-scale land-based prototype plants in Idaho, New York, and Connecticut preceded development of several types of U. S. naval nuclear reactors, although not all of them. After initial construction, some engineering testing was done and the prototypes were used to train nuclear-qualified sailors for many years afterwards, for example, the A1W prototype at Naval Reactors Facility led to development of A2W reactors used in USS Enterprise. By 1962, the US Navy had 26 nuclear submarines operational and 30 under construction, nuclear power had revolutionized the U. S. Navy. The technology was shared with the United Kingdom, while technological development in France, China, rolls Royce built similar units for Royal Navy submarines and then developed the design further to the PWR-2. Numerous submarines with an S5W reactor plant were built, at the end of the Cold War in 1989, there were over 400 nuclear-powered submarines operational or being built. Some 250 of these submarines have now been scrapped and some on order canceled, the Russian Navy and United States Navy had over one hundred each, with the United Kingdom and France less than twenty each and China six
2.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
3.
Department of the Navy
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The Secretary of the Navy is appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. They supervise their military services of the Department of the Navy. They are assisted by a Vice Chief of Naval Operations and an Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps. Unlike its U. S. Army and U. S. Air Force counterparts, the Department of the Navy consists of all elements of the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps. According to Navy Regulations Section 0204-2, the term Navy Department refers only to the offices at the seat of government. The bill passed in the House on 17 May 2007, but encountered opposition among members of the DoD civilian leadership and among senior Navy admirals, in the Senate, the provision was replaced in S. Amdt. 2011, an amendment in the nature of a substitute proposed by Senator Carl Levin of Michigan on 9 July 2007, the amendment removed the renaming provision and also made other changes. The House version including the provision was withdrawn in conference committee, Naval Vessel Register Title 32 of the Code of Federal Regulations United States Navy Regulations, Accessed on 2011-03-23. Department of the Navy website US Marine Corps official website US Navy official website Department of Defense website Department of the Navy in the Federal Register
4.
Naval Sea Systems Command
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The Naval Sea Systems Command is the largest of the United States Navys five systems commands, or materiel organizations. NAVSEA consists of four shipyards, nine warfare centers, four major shipbuilding locations, nAVSEAs primary objective is to engineer, build, and support the U. S. Navys fleet of ships and its combat systems. NAVSEA accounts for one quarter of the Navys entire budget, with more than 150 acquisition programs under its oversight, since then various organizations were established and succeeded them to oversee design, construction and repair of ships and ordnance. These bureaus traced their origins back to earlier organizations, the Naval Ship Systems Command was established in 1966 replacing BuShips. The Naval Sea Systems Command was established on July 1,1974 with the merger of the Naval Ship Systems Command with the Naval Ordnance Systems Command, NAVORD was the successor to the Bureau of Naval Weapons and the earlier Bureau of Ordnance. C. PEOs report to the NAVSEA commander for planning and execution of in-service support, and to the Assistant Secretary of the Navy for acquisition-related matters. Tom Moore, June 2016- Vice Adm. William H. Hilarides, June 2013 - June 2016 Vice Adm. Kevin M. McCoy, June 2008 - June 2013 Vice Adm. Paul E. Sullivan, July 2005 - August 2008 Vice Adm. Earl B. Fowler, Jr. March 1980-June 1985 On Monday, September 16,2013, alexis was killed after engaging in a shootout with responding police. Official website National Archives – Records of the Bureau of Ships
5.
Chief of Naval Operations
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The Chief of Naval Operations is a statutory office held by a four-star admiral in the United States Navy, and is the most senior naval officer assigned to serve in the Department of the Navy. The office is an adviser and deputy to the Secretary of the Navy. The current Chief of Naval Operations is Admiral John M. Richardson, under the authority of the Secretary of the Navy, the CNO also designates naval personnel and naval resources to the commanders of Unified Combatant Commands. The CNO also performs all other functions prescribed under 10 U. S. C. §5033, the CNO is typically the highest-ranking officer on active duty in the Navy unless the Chairman and/or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff are naval officers. Like the other joint chiefs, the CNO is a position and has no operational command authority over United States naval forces. The Chief of Naval Operations is nominated by the President for appointment, however, the president may waive those requirements if he determines that appointing the officer is necessary for the national interest. By statute, the CNO is appointed as a four-star admiral, number One Observatory Circle, located on the northeast grounds of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, DC, was built in 1893 for its superintendent. The Chief of Naval Operations liked the house so much that in 1923 he took over the house as his own official residence and it remained the residence of the CNO until 1974, when Congress authorized its transformation to an official residence for the Vice President. The Chief of Naval Operations currently resides in Quarters A in the Washington Naval Yard, the position of CNO replaced the position of Aide for Naval Operations, which was a position established by regulation rather than statutory law. Lists of Commanding Officers and Senior Officials of the US Navy, archived from the original on 18 December 2007
6.
United States Department of Energy
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The United States Department of Energy is a Cabinet-level department of the United States Government concerned with the United States policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material. It also directs research in genomics, the Human Genome Project originated in a DOE initiative, DOE sponsors more research in the physical sciences than any other U. S. federal agency, the majority of which is conducted through its system of National Laboratories. Former Governor of Texas Rick Perry is the current Secretary of Energy and he was confirmed by a 62 to 37 vote in the United States Senate on March 2,2017. In 1942, during World War II, the United States started the Manhattan Project, after the war in 1946, the Atomic Energy Commission was created to control the future of the project. The 1973 oil crisis called attention to the need to consolidate energy policy, on August 4,1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law The Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, which created the Department of Energy. Former Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger, who served under Presidents Nixon, a DOE spokesperson denied that phrases had been banned. In December 1999, the FBI was investigating how China obtained plans for a nuclear device. Wen Ho Lee was accused of stealing nuclear secrets from Los Alamos National Laboratory for the Peoples Republic of China, Federal officials, including then-Energy Secretary Bill Richardson, publicly named Lee as a suspect before he was charged with a crime. The U. S. Congress held hearings to investigate the Department of Energys mishandling of his case, republican senators thought that an independent agency should be in charge of nuclear weapons and security issues, not the Department of Energy. All but one of the 59 charges against Lee were eventually dropped because the investigation proved that the plans the Chinese obtained could not have come from Lee. Lee filed suit and won a $1.6 million settlement against the federal government, the department is under the control and supervision of a United States Secretary of Energy, a political appointee of the President of the United States. The Energy Secretary is assisted in managing the department by a United States Deputy Secretary of Energy, also appointed by the president, the department also has three under secretaries, each appointed by the president, who oversee the major areas of the departments work. The president also appoints seven officials with the rank of Assistant Secretary of Energy who have line management responsibility for major elements of the Department. The Energy Secretary assigns their functions and duties. S.4 billion budget request for DOE for fiscal year 2010, including $2.3 billion for the DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. The budget aims to expand the use of renewable energy sources while improving energy transmission infrastructure. It also makes significant investments in hybrids and plug-in hybrids, in smart grid technologies, most of the stimulus spending was in the form of grants and contracts. The contractor guarantees the energy improvements will generate savings, and after the contract ends, in loan guarantees, a conditional commitment requires to meet an equity commitment, as well as other conditions, before the loan guarantee is completed. The DOE budget includes $280 million to fund eight Energy Innovation Hubs, yet another hub will develop smart materials that will allow the electrical grid to adapt and respond to changing conditions
7.
National Nuclear Security Administration
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The National Nuclear Security Administration is the U. S. agency responsible for enhancing national security through the military application of nuclear science. Established by the United States Congress in 2000, NNSA is an agency within the United States Department of Energy. S. The first NNSA administrator appointed was Air Force General John A. Gordon, NNSA has four missions with regard to national security, To manage the U. S. nuclear weapon stockpile. To reduce global danger from weapons of destruction and to promote international nuclear safety. To provide the United States Navy with safe, militarily effective nuclear propulsion plants and to ensure the safe, to support United States leadership in science and technology. One of NNSAs primary missions is to maintain the safety, security, after the Cold War, the U. S. stopped production of new nuclear warheads and voluntarily ended underground nuclear testing. NNSA also uses multiple supercomputers to run simulations and validate experimental data, the organization provides safe and secure transportation of nuclear weapons and components and special nuclear materials, and conducts other missions supporting national security. It has responsibility to develop, operate, and manage a system for the safe, shipments are transported in specially designed equipment and are escorted by armed federal agents. Among its goals are to prevent proliferation, ensure peaceful nuclear uses, NNSAs Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program is responsible for providing militarily effective nuclear propulsion plants. It provides the design, development and operational support required to power the U. S. Navys aircraft carriers, NNSA is responsible for responding to radiological and nuclear emergencies and working with law enforcement agencies to prevent nuclear or radiological terrorism. Experts at its national laboratories maintain a level of readiness to deploy resources capable of responding to nuclear or radiological incidents worldwide. Key capabilities looking for and identifying radiological material, rendering safe nuclear devices, NNSA provides expertise, practical tools and technically informed policy recommendations to advance U. S. nuclear counterterrorism and counterproliferation objectives. It is responsible for understanding nuclear threat devices and foreign nuclear weapons that cause proliferation concerns. S, in June 2006, The New York Times reported that sensitive information on nuclear weapons workers had been stolen from the NNSA. In 2008, the NNSA, in cooperation with Russia and other agencies and this operation was conducted by American and Russian officials to ensure the safe disposal of the radioactive uranium that is highly enriched and weapons-grade. The Hungarian reactor is now being converted to use low-enriched uranium that cannot be used in a weapon and will not be a potential terrorist target. S. S
8.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
9.
Hyman G. Rickover
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Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, U. S. Navy, directed the original development of naval nuclear propulsion and controlled its operations for three decades as director of Naval Reactors. In addition, he oversaw the development of the Shippingport Atomic Power Station, a naval officer who served in a flag rank for nearly 30 years – from 1953 to 1982 – Rickover was promoted to four-star admiral after 51 years of commissioned service. Vessels are now decommissioned and others are under construction, Rickover is the only person who has ever been awarded two Congressional Gold Medals. Rickover was born Chaim Godalia Rickover, to Abraham Rickover and Rachel Rickover and his parents later changed his name to Hyman, which, like Chaim, is derived from Chayyim, meaning life. He did not use his name, Godalia, but when required to list one for the Naval Academy oath. The family name Rickover is derived from the village and the estate of Ryki, located within 100 kilometres of Warsaw, decades later, the entire remaining Jewish communities of Ryki and Maków Mazowiecki were killed or otherwise perished during the Holocaust. Rickover took his first paid job at nine years of age and he graduated from grammar school at 14. While attending John Marshall High School in Chicago, Rickover held a job as a telegraph boy delivering Western Union telegrams. Congressman Adolph J. Sabath, himself a Czech Jewish immigrant, through the intervention of a family friend, Sabath nominated Rickover for appointment to the United States Naval Academy. Rickover was only an alternate for appointment, but through disciplined self-directed study and good fortune. Rickovers active duty career began in 1918, during a time when attending military academies was considered active duty service. On 2 June 1922, Rickover graduated 107th out of 540 midshipmen and was commissioned as an ensign and he joined the destroyer La Vallette on 5 September 1922. Rickover impressed his commanding officer with his work and efficiency. At Columbia, he met Ruth D. Masters, a Christian and graduate student in international law, shortly after marrying, Rickover wrote to his parents of his decision to become an Episcopalian, remaining so for the remainder of his life. Columbia was the first institution that encouraged me to think rather than memorize and my teachers were notable in that many had gained practical engineering experience outside the university and were able to share their experience with their students. I am grateful, among others, to Professors Morecroft, Hehre, much of what I have subsequently learned and accomplished in engineering is based on the solid foundation of principles I learned from them. I am therefore especially gratified by your invitation to return and speak this evening, Rickover preferred life on smaller ships, and he also knew that young officers in the submarine service were advancing quickly, so he went to Washington and volunteered for submarine duty. His application was turned down due to his age, at that time 29 years, fortunately for Rickover, he ran into his former commanding officer from Nevada while leaving the building, who interceded successfully on his behalf
10.
Nuclear marine propulsion
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Nuclear marine propulsion is propulsion of a ship or submarine with heat provided by a nuclear power plant. The power plant heats water to steam and it is this steam that powers the steam turbines. The power is transferred to a gearbox that reduces the ratio by around 50 to 1. Naval nuclear propulsion is used specifically within naval warships, very few experimental civil nuclear ships have been built. The ship or submarine will be fitted with one power plant. The plant is divided two sides, port and starboard. This division of the plant provides a safety net should one side fail to function, water is used to transfer heat generated by the power plant to steam generators. Since water vaporizes at 100 °C at normal pressure the system is pressurized, to transfer the heated water there are two sets of pumps on each side. The steam is provided by water commonly referred to as feed water and this feed water is sea water pumped into the boat and desalinated. The desalinated water is fed to the steam generators. The primary circuit then heats the water turning it to steam. The steam passes through several driers and onto the steam stop valve as super heated dry steam. The Russian, US and British navies rely on steam propulsion, while the French. Most nuclear submarines have a reactor, but Russian submarines. Most American aircraft carriers are powered by two reactors, but USS Enterprise had eight, the majority of marine reactors are of the pressurized water type, although the US and Soviet navies have designed warships powered with liquid metal cooled reactors. Marine-type reactors differ from land-based commercial electric power reactors in several respects, while land-based reactors in nuclear power plants produce up to around 1600 megawatts of power, a typical marine propulsion reactor produces no more than a few hundred megawatts. Space considerations dictate that a marine reactor must be physically small and this means its components are subject to greater stresses than those of a land-based reactor. Its mechanical systems must operate flawlessly under the conditions encountered at sea, including vibration
11.
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
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Oak Ridge is a city in Anderson and Roane counties in the eastern part of the U. S. state of Tennessee, about 25 miles west of Knoxville. Oak Ridges population was 29,330 at the 2010 census and it is part of the Knoxville Metropolitan Area. Oak Ridges nicknames include the Atomic City, the Secret City, the Ridge, Oak Ridge was established in 1942 as a production site for the Manhattan Project—the massive American, British, and Canadian operation that developed the atomic bomb. As it is still the site of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, scientific development still plays a role in the citys economy. The earliest substantial occupation of the Oak Ridge area occurred during the Woodland period, two Woodland mound sites—the Crawford Farm Mounds and the Freels Farm Mounds—were uncovered in the 1930s as part of the Norris Basin salvage excavations. Both sites were located just southeast of the former Scarboro community, the Bull Bluff site, which was occupied during both the Woodland and Mississippian periods, was uncovered in the 1960s in anticipation of the construction of Melton Hill Dam. Bull Bluff is a cliff located immediately southeast of Haw Ridge, the Oak Ridge area was largely uninhabited by the time Euro-American explorers and settlers arrived in the late 18th century, although the Cherokee claimed the land as part of their hunting grounds. According to local tradition, John Hendrix, a local resident regarded as a mystic. Upset by the death of his daughter and the subsequent departure of his wife and remaining family, he became religious. When he described his visions, people thought he was insane, for this reason, maj. Gen. Leslie Groves, military head of the Manhattan Project, liked the area for several reasons. Finally, the location was established within a 17-mile-long valley. The new District Engineer Kenneth Nichols had to placate him, cooper came to see the project on November 3,1943, and he appreciated the bourbon-laced punch served. CEW and HEW accommodation in houses and dormitories was basic, with rather than oil or electric furnaces. But it was of a higher standard than Groves would have liked, medical care was provided by Army doctors and hospitals, with civilians paying $2.50 per month to the medical insurance fund. The location and low population also helped keep the town a secret, the K-25 uranium-separating facility by itself covered 44 acres and was the largest building in the world at that time. The name Oak Ridge was chosen for the settlement in 1943 from among suggestions submitted by project employees, the name related to the settlements location along Black Oak Ridge, and officials thought the rural-sounding name held outside curiosity to a minimum. The name wasnt formally adopted until 1949, and the site was referred to as the Clinton Engineer Works until then, the town was surrounded by guard towers and a fence with seven gates. Starting in October 1942, the United States Army Corps of Engineers began acquiring more than 60,000 acres in the Oak Ridge area for the United States Manhattan Project, many residents came home to find eviction notices tacked to their doors
12.
United States Atomic Energy Commission
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President Harry S. Truman signed the McMahon/Atomic Energy Act on August 1,1946, transferring the control of atomic energy from military to civilian hands, effective from January 1,1947. This shift gave the first members of the AEC complete control of the plants, laboratories, equipment, during its initial establishment and subsequent operationalization, the AEC played a key role in the institutional development of Ecosystem ecology. Specifically, it provided financial resources, allowing for ecological research to take place. Perhaps even more importantly, it enabled ecologists with a range of groundbreaking techniques for the completion of their research. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the AEC also approved funding for numerous projects in the Arctic and near-Arctic. These projects were designed to examine the effects of energy upon the environment and were a part of the Commission’s attempt at creating peaceful applications of atomic energy. By 1974, the AECs regulatory programs had come under strong attack that Congress decided to abolish the agency. On August 4,1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law The Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, at the same time, the McMahon Act which created the AEC also gave it unprecedented powers of regulation over the entire field of nuclear science and technology. President Truman appointed David Lilienthal as the first Chairman of the AEC, Congress gave the new civilian Commission extraordinary power and considerable independence to carry out its mission. To provide the Commission exceptional freedom in hiring scientists and professionals, the National Laboratory system was established from the facilities created under the Manhattan Project. Argonne National Laboratory was one of the first laboratories authorized under this legislation as a facility dedicated to fulfilling the new Commissions mission. The Commissions first order of business was to inspect the scattered empire of plants, the AEC was furthermore in charge of developing the United States nuclear arsenal, taking over these responsibilities from the wartime Manhattan Project. It also implemented the program to develop the hydrogen bomb. It began a program of nuclear testing both in the Pacific Proving Grounds and at the continental Nevada Test Site. While it also supported much basic research, the vast majority of its budget was devoted to atomic weapons development. Within the AEC, high-level scientific and technical advice was provided by the General Advisory Committee, in its early years, the GAC provided a number of controversial decisions, notably its decision against building the hydrogen bomb in 1949. As a result, Senator Brien McMahon influenced the decision not to reappoint J. Robert Oppenheimer to the GAC in 1952 after his six-year statutory term expired. David Lilienthal, then AEC Chair, agreed with Oppenheimer and opposed a program to build the hydrogen bomb ahead of any other nation
13.
Energy Research and Development Administration
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The United States Energy Research and Development Administration was a United States government organization formed from the split of the Atomic Energy Commission in 1975. It assumed the functions of the AEC not assumed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the agency was created as part of the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974, which was passed on October 11,1974 in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis. The Energy Research and Development Administration was activated on January 19,1975, the first Administrator was Robert Seamans, followed by Robert W. Fri. In 1977, ERDA was combined with the Federal Energy Administration to form the United States Department of Energy, DOE. gov, History of ERDA—Energy Research and Development Administration
14.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
15.
Admiral
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Admiral is the rank, or part of the name of the ranks, of the highest naval officers. It is usually abbreviated to Adm or ADM, in the Commonwealth and the U. S. a full admiral is equivalent to a full general in the army, and is above vice admiral and below admiral of the fleet. In NATO, admirals have a code of OF-9 as a four-star rank. The word admiral in Middle English comes from Anglo-French amiral, commander, from Medieval Latin admiralis and these themselves come from Arabic amīr, or amīr al-, commander of, as in amīr al-baḥr, commander of the sea. The term was in use for the Greco-Arab naval leaders of Norman Sicily, the Norman Roger II of Sicily, employed a Greek Christian known as George of Antioch, who previously had served as a naval commander for several North African Muslim rulers. Roger styled George in Abbasid fashion as Amir of Amirs, i. e. Commander of Commanders, the Sicilians and later Genoese took the first two parts of the term and used them as one word, amiral, from their Aragon opponents. The French and Spanish gave their sea commanders similar titles while in Portuguese the word changed to almirante, the word admiral has today come to be almost exclusively associated with the highest naval rank in most of the worlds navies, equivalent to the army rank of general. However, this wasnt always the case, for example, in some European countries prior to the end of World War II, admiral was the third highest naval rank after general admiral and grand admiral. The rank of admiral has also been subdivided into various grades, the Royal Navy used colours to indicate seniority of its admirals until 1864, for example, Horatio Nelsons highest rank was vice admiral of the white. The generic term for these naval equivalents of army generals is flag officer, some navies have also used army-type titles for them, such as the Cromwellian general at sea. Admiral is a German Navy OF-9 four-star flag officer rank, equivalent to the German Army, see also Post-WWII rank is Bakurocho or Chief of Staff, Joint Staff 幕僚長 with limited function as an advisory staff to Minister of Defense, compared to Gensui during 1872–1873 and 1898–1945. Admiral of Castile was a post with a long and important history in Spain
16.
Kinnaird R. McKee
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Kinnaird Rowe McKee was an American United States Navy four star admiral who served as Director, Naval Nuclear Propulsion from 1982 to 1988. He also served as Superintendent, United States Naval Academy from 1975 to 1978, McKee was born in Louisville, Kentucky on August 14,1929 and graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1951. He served in the Pacific fleet destroyer USS Marshall during the Korean War, after completion of submarine training in 1953, he served in three diesel-powered submarines, USS Picuda, USS Sea Cat, and USS Marlin. In 1956, Admiral McKee was ordered to command of USS X-1 and he graduated from nuclear power training in 1958 and joined the commissioning crew of USS Skipjack, the Navys first high performance nuclear-powered attack submarine. Assignment as Executive Officer of USS Nautilus followed in 1961, then of the USS Sam Houston in late 1962, after three deterrent patrols on the SAM HOUSTON, he served in the Naval Reactors Division of the Atomic Energy Commission from 1964 to 1966. Admiral McKee served as Commanding Officer of the attack submarine USS Dace from 1966 through 1969. The ship was awarded the Navy Unit Commendation and three times the Battle Efficiency Pennant for operations during that period. In 1970, he was assigned to the staff of the Chief of Naval Operations. As Commander, Submarine Group Eight, Admiral McKee served as the NATO, on August 1,1975, he became the forty-eighth Superintendent of the U. S. Naval Academy. Promoted to three-star rank in March 1978, Admiral McKee served as Commander and he developed and implemented the new organization. On February 1,1982, he relieved Admiral Hyman G. Rickover as the Director, on March 2,1982, he was confirmed by the U. S. Senate for promotion to four-star rank. Admiral McKee retired on October 31,1988, after 41 years of service to his country, Admiral McKees decorations include the Distinguished Service Medal, five awards of the Legion of Merit, and three awards of the Navy Unit Commendation. He died after an illness on December 30,2013
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Bruce DeMars
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Bruce DeMars is a retired United States Navy four star admiral who served as Director, Naval Nuclear Propulsion from 1988 to 1996. DeMars was born in Chicago, Illinois, on June 3,1935, after graduation, he initially served aboard the surface ships USS Telfair and USS Okanogan before attending Submarine School. His first submarine assignment was the diesel USS Capitaine and he underwent nuclear power training, followed by assignment to the nuclear-powered submarines USS George Washington, USS Snook, and USS Sturgeon before taking command of USS Cavalla. His shore duty stations include being an instructor at the Nuclear Power School and Submarine School, after staff duty with Squadron Ten, DeMars served as Senior Member of the Nuclear Propulsion Examining Board, United States Atlantic Fleet. His flag assignments include Commander, U. S. Naval Forces Marianas/Commander, U. S. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on September 30,1988 for promotion to admiral and on October 22,1988, he relieved Admiral Kinnaird R. McKee as Director. DeMars retired on October 1,1996, in 2011, ADM DeMars received the Ellis Island Medal of Honor for his distinguished service to his country. Media related to Bruce DeMars at Wikimedia Commons
18.
Frank Bowman
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Frank Lee Skip Bowman a retired four-star Admiral, is the former Chief of Naval Personnel and former Director of Naval Nuclear Propulsion. In 2006, Bowman was made an Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire, Bowman graduated from Duke University in 1966. He received a Masters Degree in nuclear engineering and naval engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1977. He was also awarded a doctorate of Humane Letters from Duke University in 2003. Before his tours in command, Bowman served aboard USS Simon Bolivar, USS Pogy, USS Daniel Boone, Bowman served as commanding officer for both the USS City of Corpus Christi and the USS Holland. Bowman received his first star in 1991, the third successor to Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, Bowman assumed duties as Director, Naval Nuclear Propulsion, on September 27,1996. He received his star on October 1,1996. As Director of Naval Nuclear Propulsion, he was also Deputy Administrator for Naval Reactors in the National Nuclear Security Administration, Bowman retired from the United States Navy in December 2004. He was appointed president and chief officer of the Nuclear Energy Institute in February 2005. Bowman resigned as president and CEO of the Nuclear Energy Instititue announced 14 November 2008 in NEI Smart Brief, since November 8,2010, he has been a non-executive director of BP. In 2005, The C. J. Mack Family Foundation provided an endowment arranged by John J. Mack to the United States Naval Academy Foundation to support the Admiral Frank Bowman Scholar Program. In 2006, Bowman was made an Honorary Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, media related to Frank Bowman at Wikimedia Commons Admiral Bowman Biography at USNA Duke Names Honorary Degree Recipients
19.
Kirkland H. Donald
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Kirkland Hogue Donald was a United States Navy Admiral who served as the Director, Naval Nuclear Propulsion and Deputy Administrator, National Nuclear Security Administrations Naval Reactors. He previously served as Commander, Submarine Force, U. S, Atlantic Fleet, and Commander, Submarine Allied Command, Atlantic. He retired from his assignment as Director, Naval Nuclear Propulsion, on November 2,2012, originally from Norlina, North Carolina, Donald graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1975 with a Bachelor of Science in ocean engineering. He also holds an MBA from the University of Phoenix and is a graduate of Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy School of Government Senior Executive Fellows Program. After completing his initial nuclear power and submarine training, he served on the USS Batfish, USS Mariano G. Vallejo, Donald was Commanding Officer of the USS Key West, from October 1990 to February 1993. He served as Commander, Submarine Development Squadron Twelve from August 1995 to July 1997, most recently, he served as Commander, Naval Submarine Forces, Commander, Submarine Force, U. S. Atlantic Fleet, Commander, Allied Submarine Command, Atlantic, and Commander, Task Forces 84 and 144 in Norfolk and his shore assignments include the Pacific Fleet Nuclear Propulsion Examining Board and the staff of the Director, Naval Nuclear Propulsion. He also served at the Bureau of Naval Personnel, on the Joint Staff, the appointment as Director is both a military and civilian position as it is the head of both Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program and Naval Reactors. See Naval Reactors for more information, Admiral Donald was relieved as Director, Naval Nuclear Propulsion by Admiral John M. Richardson, on 3 November,2012. As reported on March 25,2008, Donald was assigned by Secretary of Defense Robert Gates to investigate nuclear missile fuses that were sent to the island of Taiwan. However, details of Admiral Donalds specific report remain classified
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John M. Richardson (admiral)
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John Michael Richardson is an admiral in the United States Navy who currently serves as the 31st Chief of Naval Operations. He previously served as the Director of the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program from November 2,2012 to August 14,2015, on May 13,2015, United States Secretary of Defense, Ashton Carter, announced Richardsons nomination to succeed Admiral Jonathan Greenert as Chief of Naval Operations. Richardson began serving as the 31st Chief of Naval Operations on September 18,2015, Richardson was commissioned into the United States Navy upon his graduation from the United States Naval Academy in 1982. During his tenure, Richardson has served primarily with submarine operations, serving on the USS Parche, the USS Salt Lake City, and the USS George C. Marshall. Prior to being Director of Nuclear Propulsion, Richardson headed the U. S. Navys Atlantic submarine force, COMSUBLANT, Richardson has also commanded the USS Honolulu, Submarine Development Squadron 12, Submarine Group 8, and Submarine Allied Naval Forces South. Richardson served as the Chief of Staff for U. S. Naval Forces Europe as well as U. S. Naval Forces Africa, Naval Aide to the President of the United States and Director of Strategy and Policy at U. S. Richardson also attended and received degrees from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. On Wednesday, May 13,2015, Richardson was nominated by President Barack Obama to be the Chief of Naval Operations, was confirmed August 5, in 2001, Richardson received the James Bond Stockdale Leadership Award. Media related to John M. Richardson at Wikimedia Commons
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James F. Caldwell Jr.
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He previously served as Naval Inspector General. Caldwell received his commission graduating with distinction from the United States Naval Academy in 1981 with a Bachelor of Science in Marine Engineering and he holds a Master of Science in operations research from the Naval Postgraduate School. Caldwell’s early sea tours include serving in both the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets and his operational assignments include duty as a division officer on USS Boston, engineering officer on USS Alabama, and executive officer on USS Buffalo. Caldwell commanded USS Jacksonville home ported in Norfolk, Virginia, Submarine Development Squadron 12 in New London, Connecticut, in his most recent afloat command, he commanded COMSUBPAC. Ashore, Caldwell served on the Pacific Fleet Nuclear Propulsion Examining Board, strategic Commands Joint Functional Component Command for Global Strike in Omaha, Nebraska. On Aug 52015 VADM Caldwell was confirmed by the US Senate to become admiral, Caldwell assumed his duties as the seventh director of Naval Reactors on August 14,2015. Caldwell received the Naval Submarine Leagues Charles A. Lockwood Award and his father, James Franklin Caldwell, Sr. was a captain in the U. S. Navy. This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Navy document United States Navy Biography, Vice Admiral James F. Caldwell, U. S Naval Inspector General official webpage
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Space Shuttle
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The Space Shuttle was a partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system operated by the U. S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, as part of the Space Shuttle program. Its official program name was Space Transportation System, taken from a 1969 plan for a system of reusable spacecraft of which it was the only item funded for development, the first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982. Five complete Shuttle systems were built and used on a total of 135 missions from 1981 to 2011, the Shuttle fleets total mission time was 1322 days,19 hours,21 minutes and 23 seconds. Shuttle components included the Orbiter Vehicle, a pair of solid rocket boosters. The Shuttle was launched vertically, like a rocket, with the two SRBs operating in parallel with the OVs three main engines, which were fueled from the ET. The SRBs were jettisoned before the vehicle reached orbit, and the ET was jettisoned just before orbit insertion, at the conclusion of the mission, the orbiter fired its OMS to de-orbit and re-enter the atmosphere. The orbiter then glided as a spaceplane to a landing, usually at the Shuttle Landing Facility of KSC or Rogers Dry Lake in Edwards Air Force Base. After landing at Edwards, the orbiter was back to the KSC on the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft. The first orbiter, Enterprise, was built in 1976 for use in Approach, four fully operational orbiters were initially built, Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, and Atlantis. Of these, two were lost in accidents, Challenger in 1986 and Columbia in 2003, with a total of fourteen astronauts killed. A fifth operational orbiter, Endeavour, was built in 1991 to replace Challenger, the Space Shuttle was retired from service upon the conclusion of Atlantiss final flight on July 21,2011. Nixons post-Apollo NASA budgeting withdrew support of all components except the Shuttle. The vehicle consisted of a spaceplane for orbit and re-entry, fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen tanks. The first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982, all launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The system was retired from service in 2011 after 135 missions, the program ended after Atlantis landed at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21,2011. Major missions included launching numerous satellites and interplanetary probes, conducting space science experiments, the first orbiter vehicle, named Enterprise, was built for the initial Approach and Landing Tests phase and lacked engines, heat shielding, and other equipment necessary for orbital flight. A total of five operational orbiters were built, and of these and it was used for orbital space missions by NASA, the US Department of Defense, the European Space Agency, Japan, and Germany. The United States funded Shuttle development and operations except for the Spacelab modules used on D1, sL-J was partially funded by Japan
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
