1.
Norfolk, Virginia
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Norfolk is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia, United States. At the 2010 census, the population was 242,803, in 2015, Norfolk is located at the core of the Hampton Roads metropolitan area, named for the large natural harbor of the same name located at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. It is one of nine cities and seven counties that constitute the Hampton Roads metro area, officially known as the Virginia Beach-Norfolk-Newport News, the city is bordered to the west by the Elizabeth River and to the north by the Chesapeake Bay. It also shares borders with the independent cities of Chesapeake to its south. Norfolk is one of the oldest cities in Hampton Roads, and is considered to be the historic, urban, financial, the city has a long history as a strategic military and transportation point. The largest Navy base in the world, Naval Station Norfolk, is located in Norfolk along with one of NATOs two Strategic Command headquarters. As the city is bordered by multiple bodies of water, Norfolk has many miles of riverfront and bayfront property, including beaches on the Chesapeake Bay. It is linked to its neighbors by a network of Interstate highways, bridges, tunnels. In 1619, the Governor of the Virginia Colony, Sir George Yeardley incorporated four jurisdictions, termed citties and these formed the basis for colonial representative government in the newly minted House of Burgesses. What would become Norfolk was put under the Elizabeth Cittie incorporation, in 1634 King Charles I reorganized the colony into a system of shires. The former Elizabeth Cittie became Elizabeth City Shire, after persuading 105 people to settle in the colony, Adam Thoroughgood was granted a large land holding, through the head rights system, along the Lynnhaven River in 1636. When the South Hampton Roads portion of the shire was separated, one year later, it was split into two counties, Upper Norfolk and Lower Norfolk, chiefly on Thoroughgoods recommendation. This area of Virginia became known as the place of entrepreneurs, the House of Burgesses established the Towne of Lower Norfolk County in 1680. In 1691, a final county subdivision took place when Lower Norfolk County split to form Norfolk County, in 1730, a tobacco inspection site was located here. By 1775, Norfolk developed into what contemporary observers argued was the most prosperous city in Virginia and it was an important port for exporting goods to the British Isles and beyond. In part because of its merchants numerous trading ties with other parts of the British Empire, after fleeing the colonial capital of Williamsburg, Lord Dunmore, the Royal Governor of Virginia, tried to reestablish control of the colony from Norfolk. Dunmore secured small victories at Norfolk but was forced into exile by the American rebels and his departure brought an end to more than 168 years of British colonial rule in Virginia. On New Years Day,1776, Lord Dunmores fleet of three ships shelled the city of Norfolk for more than eight hours, the damage from the shells and fires started by the British and spread by the patriots destroyed over 800 buildings, almost two-thirds of the city
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
5.
Captain (United States O-6)
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The predecessors of the NOAA Corps, the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps and the Environmental Science Services Administration Corps, also used the rank. In the United States Navy, captain is an officer rank. It ranks above commander and below rear admiral and it is equivalent to the rank of colonel in the other uniformed services. Promotion to captain is governed by Department of Defense policies derived from the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act of 1980 or its companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act, Navy captains with sea commands in the surface warfare officer community generally command ships of cruiser size or larger. The more senior the officer, the larger the ship, others may hold command as commodores of destroyer squadrons consisting of multiple destroyers and frigates. Surface Warfare Officers may also command large amphibious warfare ships or combat support ships. Today, like their surface warfare counterparts, captains in the community may serve as commodores of submarine squadrons. A smaller cohort outside of sea and shore commands may also serve as astronauts on loan to the National Aeronautics, in the Naval Special Warfare Sea Air Land community, captains with sea commands are typically commodores in command of Naval Special Warfare Groups. In addition, in the strike group, the Marine Expeditionary Unit commanding officer will always be a Marine Corps colonel. Adding to the confusion, all commanding officers of commissioned U. S. Navy warships and submarines are called captain regardless of actual rank. The United States Coast Guard also uses the same rank system for its commissioned officers as the U. S. Navy, with a Coast Guard captain ranking above a commander. The sleeve and shoulder board insignia are similar to the Navy insignia, the Coast Guard has no staff corps officers. Like the U. S. Navy, all commanding officers of commissioned cutters are addressed as captain regardless of their actual rank, seagoing NOAA captains command certain National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ships, while NOAA aviators command NOAA flight operations activities. USPHS rapid deployment force teams, containing 105 USPHS physicians, nurses, although it exists largely as a maritime training organization, the United States Maritime Service also uses the rank of captain. Captain DA Pamphlet 600–3, Commissioned Officer Professional Development and Career Management
6.
United States Fleet Forces Command
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The United States Fleet Forces Command is a service component command of the United States Navy that provides naval forces to a wide variety of U. S. forces. The naval resources may be allocated to Combatant Commanders such as United States Northern Command under the authority of the Secretary of Defense. Originally formed as United States Atlantic Fleet in 1906, it has been a part of the defense of the United States of America for most of the 20th century. The command is based at Naval Support Activity Hampton Roads in Norfolk, Northern Command and is a supporting command under the U. S. Strategic Command. The Fleet was a combination of the North Atlantic Fleet and the South Atlantic Squadron, the first commander of the fleet was Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans, who hoisted his flag in the battleship USS Maine on 1 January 1906. In January 1913 the fleet consisted of six divisions, a torpedo flotilla, submarines. The fleet was under the command of Rear Admiral Hugo Osterhaus, the First Division, under Rear Admiral Bradley A. Fiske, consisted of USS Florida, USS Delaware, and USS North Dakota. The Second Division, under Rear Admiral Nathaniel R. Usher with his flag aboard the USS Vermont, consisted of USS Louisiana, USS Michigan, USS New Hampshire, the Third Division, under Rear Admiral Cameron McR. Winslow, comprised USS Virginia, USS Georgia, USS New Jersey, USS Rhode Island, the Fourth Division, under Rear Admiral Frank F. Fletcher, consisted of the USS Minnesota, USS Connecticut, USS Ohio, USS Idaho, and USS Kansas. Fifth and Sixth Divisions were made up of protected cruisers, USS St. Louis, USS Tennessee, USS Washington, and USS Cleveland, USS Denver, USS Des Moines, and USS Tacoma. The Cruiser and Transport Force, under Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves served in Atlantic waters during World War I moving the American Expeditionary Forces to Europe, United States Battleship Division Nine joined the Grand Fleet in the UK. The Atlantic Fleet was reorganized into the Scouting Force in 1923, in January 1939 the Atlantic Squadron, United States Fleet, was formed. The aircraft carrier USS Ranger was transferred to the Atlantic Ocean, Vice Admiral Alfred Wilkinson Johnson commanded the squadron. On 1 November 1940 the Atlantic Squadron was renamed the Patrol Force, the Patrol Force was organized into type commands, Battleships, Patrol Force, Cruisers, Patrol Force, Destroyers, Patrol Force, and, Train, Patrol Force. On 1 February 1941, the Atlantic Fleet was resurrected and organized from the Patrol Force. Along with the Pacific Fleet and Asiatic Fleet, the fleet was to be under the command of a full Admiral, which jumped the fleets commander Ernest J. King from a two-star to a four-star. Subsequently, the headquarters was in an odd assortment of ships, the USS Augusta, then the old wooden ship USS Constellation, USS Vixen. In 1948, the HQ moved into the naval hospital at Norfolk, Virginia
7.
Atlantic Ocean
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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
8.
Mediterranean Sea
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The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water. The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning inland or in the middle of land and it covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2, but its connection to the Atlantic is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar. In oceanography, it is called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has a depth of 1,500 m. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia and it is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, the seas average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km. The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, has an area of approximately 2,510,000 square km. The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade, the history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri, the term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning amid the earth or between land, as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios, is similarly from μέσο, between + γη, land, earth) and it can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia, meaning between rivers. The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names, for example, the Carthaginians called it the Syrian Sea and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum, and occasionally Mare Internum. Another name was the Sea of the Philistines, from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites, the sea is also called the Great Sea in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, in Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon, the Middle Sea, reflecting the Seas name in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr al-Mutawassiṭ, in Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, the White Sea since among Turks the white colour represents the west. Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food for numerous communities throughout the ages, due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states, later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum
9.
Indian Ocean
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The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the worlds oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2. It is bounded by Asia on the north, on the west by Africa, on the east by Australia, the Indian Ocean is known as Ratnākara, the mine of gems in ancient Sanskrit literature, and as Hind Mahāsāgar, in Hindi. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf, the oceans continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometres in width. An exception is found off Australias western coast, where the width exceeds 1,000 kilometres. The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m and its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m deep, Sunda Trench has a depth of 7, 258–7,725 m. North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the basin is covered by pelagic sediments. The remaining 14% is layered with terrigenous sediments, glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes. The major choke points include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok Strait, the Strait of Malacca, the Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere is in this ocean, marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include, The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April, from May until October south, in the Arabian Sea the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are milder. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, Indian Ocean warming is the largest among the tropical oceans, and about 3 times faster than the warming observed in the Pacific. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency, among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the Zambezi, Shatt al-Arab, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Jubba and Irrawaddy River. The oceans currents are controlled by the monsoon. Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise, during the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deep water circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, north of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C, exceeding 28 °C to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly, surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and south-western Australia
10.
Hampton Roads
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Hampton Roads is the name of both a body of water in Virginia and the surrounding metropolitan region in Southeastern Virginia and Northeastern North Carolina, United States. The body of known as Hampton Roads is one of the worlds largest natural harbors. It incorporates the mouths of the Elizabeth River, Nansemond River, the land area includes a collection of cities, counties and towns on the Virginia Peninsula and in South Hampton Roads. Some of the areas further from the harbor may or may not be included as part of Hampton Roads. The Combined Statistical Area includes four counties in North Carolina, pushing the regional population to over 1.8 million residents. The area is steeped in 400 years of American history, with hundreds of historical sites, the harbor was the key to Hampton Roads growth, both on land and in water-related activities and events. While the harbor and its tributaries were important transportation conduits, at the time they presented obstacles to land-based commerce. Creating and maintaining adequate infrastructure has long been a major challenge, the term Hampton Roads is a centuries-old designation that originated when the region was a struggling English outpost nearly four hundred years ago. The origin of the two words is noteworthy, the word Hampton honors one of the founders of the Virginia Company of London and a great supporter of the colonization of Virginia, Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton. The early administrative center of the new colony was known as Elizabeth Cittie, named for Princess Elizabeth, the daughter of King James I, the town at the center of Elizabeth Cittie became known as Hampton, and a nearby waterway was designated Hampton Creek. Other references to the Earl include the area to the north across the bay became known as Northampton. As with Hampton, both of these remain in use today. The term Roads indicates the safety of a port, as applied to a body of water, examples of other roadsteads are Castle Roads, in another of the Virginia Companys settlements, Bermuda, and Lahaina Roads, in Hawaii. In 1755, the Virginia General Assembly recorded the name Hampton Roads as the channel linking the James, Elizabeth, and Nansemond rivers with the Chesapeake Bay. Hampton Roads has become known as the worlds largest natural harbor, the U. S. Postal Service changed the areas postmark from Tidewater Virginia to Hampton Roads, Virginia beginning in 1983. While the borders of what locals call Hampton Roads may not perfectly align with the definition of the MSA, Virginia Beach–Norfolk–Newport News, VA–NC MSA is a U. S. According to the 2010 Census, its population is 1,676,822, since a state constitutional change in 1871, all cities in Virginia are independent cities and they are not legally located in a county. The OMB considers these independent cities to be county-equivalents for the purpose of defining MSAs in Virginia, each MSA is listed by its counties, then cities, in alphabetical order and not by size
11.
Sewell's Point
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Sewells Point is a peninsula of land in the independent city of Norfolk, Virginia in the United States, located at the mouth of the salt-water port of Hampton Roads. Sewells Point is bordered by water on three sides, with Willoughby Bay to the north, Hampton Roads to the west, and it is the site of Naval Station Norfolk. The area was named in the 17th century after Henry Sewell. Later, variations in spelling were used, such as Seawells Point, the common spelling today is Sewells Point. About 1637, the Elizabeth River Parish was created, the first Anglican church of Elizabeth River Parish was erected between 1638 and 1640 at Mr. Seawells Pointe, with assistance of Thomas Willoughby. The first recorded minister was the Reverend John Wilson, the second church to be located in the area now known as South Hampton Roads, it stood somewhere within the present western limits of the US Naval Station Norfolk. According to old records, the Episcopal churches in Norfolk are directly descended from it. Sewells Point is an area of land, most notable because of its prominence along the shore of the harbor of Hampton Roads. Never declared a town or city, Sewells Point is more correctly described as a geographical area, the listing of political entities which have constituted the local government at Sewells Point is complex, but typical of many communities in the state of Virginia dating back to the colonial period. During the 17th century, shortly after establishment of Jamestown in 1607, by 1634, the English colony of Virginia consisted of eight shires or counties with a total population of approximately 5,000 inhabitants. Sewells Point was a part of Elizabeth River Shire, in 1636, the southern portion of Elizabeth River Shire became New Norfolk County, and was divided in 1637 into Upper and Lower Norfolk Counties. In 1691 Lower Norfolk County was in turn divided to form Norfolk County, Sewells Point was to remain located in Norfolk County for over 225 years, until the independent City of Norfolk annexed the area in 1923. The City of South Norfolk and Norfolk County merged to form the new independent city of Chesapeake in 1963, although Hampton Roads represents a sheltered area from the tempests of both the Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean, the area’s shorelines change with extreme weather. At one time, apparently since English settlement began at Jamestown in 1607, Willoughby Bay did not border Sewells Point to the north, the area known as Willoughby takes its name from Thomas Willoughby, who came to Virginia in 1610 and received a land grant around 1625. Willoughbys son, Thomas II, was living there in the 1660s, according to local legend, his wife awoke one morning following a terrific storm to see a point of land in front her home, where there had been only water the night before. The Willoughby family, it is said, were quick to apply for an addendum to the land grant. Severe storms and hurricanes would continue to transform the contour of the coast, residents of coastal Virginia in the colonial period were very much aware of the weather. To people who lived near the water and derived much of their livelihood from the sea, during a hurricane in 1749, the Chesapeake Bay rose 15 feet above normal, sand spit was washed up at Sewells Point
12.
Naval Station Norfolk Chambers Field
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Naval Station Norfolk Chambers Field, commonly known as just Chambers Field, is a military airport in Norfolk, Virginia that is a part of Naval Station Norfolk. It supports naval air forces in the United States Fleet Forces Command, those operating in the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, NAS Norfolk started its roots training aviators at Naval Air Detachment, Curtiss Field, Newport News, on May 19,1917. The aircraft, all seaplanes, were flown across the James River and its mission was to conduct anti-submarine patrols, train aviators and mechanics and run an experimental facility. When the United States became involved in World War I, the size of the Navys air component was rapidly expanded, in the 19 months of U. S. participation, a force of 6,716 officers and 30,693 enlisted served in naval aviation. The training of mechanics to support the aircraft began in January 1918 at the Norfolk detachment, by then, the air detachment was recognized as one of the most important sources of trained naval aviators. In recognition of its importance, on August 27,1918, the detachment became NAS Hampton Roads, as World War I came to an end, the former NAS Hampton Roads saw erratic growth, growing to nearly 167 officers,1,227 enlisted men and 65 planes. However, demobilization threatened the future of naval aviation, within seven months of the wars end, Navy manpower fell to less than half its wartime highs. The Republican party rose to power in 1920, promising fiscal austerity, Congress cut naval appropriations by 20% and manpower Navy-wide was reduced. The carriers which Congress had authorized were impossible to man, on July 12,1921, the name was changed again under the command of Capt. S. H. R. Doyle, to NAS Norfolk, with reporting to the Bureau of Aeronautics in Washington. Using the same theories of Eugene Elys flight nearly 13 years earlier, another milestone was achieved, the air station developed an arresting device to train pilots for deck landings aboard the fleets first aircraft carrier, USS Langley. At the same time, the station began work on the development of the catapult. In January 1923, the Secretary of the Navy ordered a study of the capacity of the bases and stations during war. In comparing the development of the fleet and shore establishments, only Hampton Roads met the requirements, airship operations, important for off-shore patrols during the war, ceased in 1924. The training of air groups from newly commissioned aircraft carriers such as USS Langley, USS Saratoga and USS Lexington demanded expansion, during the late 1930s, major construction took place at NS Norfolk. At this time, building K-BB, the galley, and many barracks were built, as the 1930s came to a close, the station also began to prepare for total war. By 1939, when the Atlantic Fleet returned to the East Coast, in April 1939, in something of a test, the Naval Station refueled, restocked, and returned to service 25 ships in one week. This force was but the prelude to about 100 ships converging on Norfolk at the time and it included the battleships California, Idaho and New Mexico and the carriers, Lexington, Ranger, Yorktown and Enterprise
13.
Air Mobility Command
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Air Mobility Command is a Major Command of the U. S. Air Force. AMC is headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois, east of St. Louis, the Commander of AMC is Gen Carlton D. Everhart II, with Lt Gen Wayne Schatz Jr as Vice Commander and CMSgt Shelina Frey as Command Chief Master Sergeant. Air Mobility Command was established on June 1,1992 and it was formed from elements of the inactivated Military Airlift Command and Strategic Air Command. AMC melded a worldwide system with a tanker force that had been freed from its strategic nuclear strike commitments by the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Air Mobility Commands mission is to provide global air mobility, the command also plays a crucial role in providing humanitarian support at home and around the world. Many special duty and operational aircraft and stateside aeromedical evacuation missions are also assigned to AMC. U. S. forces must be able to provide a rapid, tailored response with a capability to intervene against a foe, hit hard. Rapid global mobility lies at the heart of U. S. strategy in this environment, without the capability to project forces, there is no conventional deterrent. As the number of U. S. forces stationed overseas continue to decline, global interests remain, Air Mobility Command also has the mission of establishing bare air bases in contingencies. To accomplish this mission, AMC established two Contingency Response Wings, and operates the Eagle Flag exercise, in addition to its status as a MAJCOM of the Air Force, AMC is also the Air Force component command of the United States Transportation Command. It provides airlift, special missions, aerial refueling, and aeromedical evacuation for the United States armed forces]], AMC also operates VIP flights such as Air Force One, Air Force Two, and other Special Assignment Airlift Missions. Finally, AMC acts as the manager, on behalf of United States Transportation Command. Principal aircraft assets of the include, C-17 Globemaster III, C-5 Galaxy, C-130 Hercules, KC-135 Stratotanker, KC-10 Extender, C-40 Clipper, C-37 Gulfstream V. As of 2015, the command is preparing for the addition of the KC-46 Pegasus. Additional aircraft in support of high-profile VIP airlift include, VC-25, C-32, C-20 and these units train and exercise frequently and routinely provide augmentative operational support to AMCs active duty forces. Instead, they report to AMC via the National Guard Bureau, civil Reserve Air Fleet AMC has undergone considerable change since its establishment. Focusing on the mission of strategic air mobility, the command divested itself of infrastructure. The Air Rescue Service, intratheater aeromedical airlift forces based overseas, as a result of the Global War on Terrorism, on October 1,2003, AMC underwent a major restructuring, bringing a war fighting role to its numbered air force
14.
USS Yorktown (CV-5)
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USS Yorktown was an aircraft carrier commissioned in the United States Navy from 1937 until she was sunk at the Battle of Midway in June 1942. She represented the epitome of U. S. pre-war carrier design, Yorktown sailed for the Caribbean on 8 January 1938 and arrived at Culebra, Puerto Rico, on 13 January. Over the ensuing month, the carrier conducted her shakedown, touching at Charlotte Amalie, St Thomas, U. S. Virgin Islands, Gonaïves, Haiti, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, and Cristóbal, Panama Canal Zone. Departing Colon Bay, Cristobal, on 1 March, Yorktown sailed for Hampton Roads, arrived on 6 March, and put into the Norfolk Navy Yard the next day for post-shakedown availability. After undergoing repairs through the autumn of 1938, Yorktown moved station from the navy yard to NS Norfolk on 17 October 1938. Yorktown operated off the eastern seaboard, ranging from Chesapeake Bay to Guantanamo Bay, as flagship for Carrier Division 2, she participated in her first war game—Fleet Problem XX—along with her sister-ship Enterprise in February 1939. The maneuvers were witnessed, in part, by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, despite the inexperience of Yorktown and Enterprise—comparative newcomers to the Fleet—both carriers made significant contributions to the success of the problem. In short, they worked to develop the tactics that would be used when war actually came, following Fleet Problem XX, Yorktown returned briefly to Hampton Roads before sailing for the Pacific on 20 April 1939. Transiting the Panama Canal a week later, Yorktown soon commenced a routine of operations with the Pacific Fleet. The Second World War started on 1 September 1939, but the USA was not yet involved, operating out of San Diego, California into 1940, the carrier participated in Fleet Problem XXI that April. Yorktown was one of six ships to receive the new RCA CXAM radar in 1940, at the same time her signal bridge atop the tripod foremast was enclosed, and several 50 caliber machine guns were fitted in galleries along the edges of the flight deck. Fleet Problem XXI—a two-part exercise—included some of the operations that would characterize future warfare in the Pacific. The first part of the exercise was devoted to training in making plans and estimates, in screening and scouting, in coordination of combatant units, and in employing fleet and standard dispositions. The second phase included training in protection, the seizure of advanced bases, and, ultimately. The last pre-war exercise of its type, Fleet Problem XXI contained two exercises where air operations played a major role, Atlantic Fleet, the Navy transferred a substantial force from the Pacific including Yorktown, Battleship Division Three, three light cruisers, and 12 accompanying destroyers. Late that afternoon, engine repairs to one of the ships in the convoy, Empire Pintail, during the night, the American ships intercepted strong German radio signals, indicating submarines probably in the vicinity reporting the group. Kent Hewitt, commanding the force, sent a destroyer to sweep astern of the convoy to destroy the U-boat or at least to drive him under. The next day, while cruiser scout planes patrolled overhead, Yorktown, on 30 October, Yorktown was preparing to fuel three destroyers when other escorts made sound contacts
15.
Jamestown Exposition
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The Jamestown Exposition was one of the many worlds fairs and expositions that were popular in the United States in the early part of the 20th century. Commemorating the 300th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown in the Virginia Colony, it was held from April 26 to December 1,1907, at Sewells Point on Hampton Roads, in Norfolk and it celebrated the first permanent English settlement in the present United States. In 1975 the 20 remaining exposition buildings were included on the National Register of Historic Places as a historic district. Early in the 20th century, as the tercentennial of the 1607 Founding of Jamestown in the Virginia Colony neared, leaders in Norfolk, during the planning phase, virtually no one thought that the original site of Jamestown would be suitable, as it was isolated and long-abandoned. There were no facilities to handle large crowds, and it was believed that the fort housing the settlement had long ago been swallowed by the James River. No rail lines ran near Jamestown, many Virginia residents thought that Richmond, the state capital, would be chosen as the site of the celebration. On February 4,1901, James M. Thomson began a campaign for the celebration in his Norfolk Dispatch, proclaiming, by September 1901, the Norfolk City Council had given support to the project. And in December,100 prominent residents of Hampton Roads journeyed to Richmond to urge Norfolk as the site, in 1902, the Jamestown Exposition Co. was incorporated. Former Virginia Governor Fitzhugh Lee, a nephew of General Robert E. Lee, the Company decided to locate the international exposition on a mile-long frontage at Sewells Point. The location was almost an equal distance from the cities of Norfolk, Portsmouth, Newport News, while hard to reach by land, it was much more favorably accessible by water, which ultimately proved a great asset. Because of the isolation of Sewells Point, the choice made the site difficult to reach by land in order to develop it for the Exposition. New roads had to be built to the site, two existing streetcar lines had to be extended a considerable distance to reach the site. On the shore, new piers had to be constructed for moving supplies to exposition buildings, hotels had to be raised to handle the millions of anticipated exposition visitors. Another major setback was the death of Fitzhugh Lee in 1905 while traveling in New England to drum up trade for the celebration, Henry St. George Tucker, a former Virginia Congressman, succeeded him. The Norfolk businessman David Lowenberg ran most of the operation as director general and they recorded giving thanks, planting a cross and naming the location Cape Henry. Within the next few weeks, they found and explored the harbor now known as Hampton Roads, sailing upriver on its biggest tributary, the James River, they eventually settled at what they would call Jamestown to begin their first settlement. The first day of the Exposition had its share of difficulties, only a fifth of the electric lights could be turned on, and the Warpath recreation area was far from ready. Construction of the government pier left much of the ground in the center of the exposition muddy soup, the company failed to complete two planned buildings, the Historic Art and Education buildings, by the Exposition’s end in late November
16.
Commander, Navy Installations Command
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Navy Installations Command is an Echelon II shore command responsible for all shore installations under the control of the United States Navy. As an Echelon II command, it directly to the Chief of Naval Operations. It is responsible for the operation and management of all Naval installations worldwide through eleven Navy Regions, prior to the creation of CNIC, all of the Navys major shore echelon II commanders operated their own installations independent of each other. This led to a hodgepodge of installation operating procedures, that, CNIC has overall responsibility and authority as the for all installation support programs and is the lead within Navy for installation policy and program execution oversight. CNIC works to coordinate services and across the Naval Enterprises, and best provide the installations, services and its mission is summed up as supporting the three Fs, Fleet, Fighter and Family. Fleet means the forces of the Navy. CNIC ensures all requirements necessary to train and operate the Fleets are maintained. Fighter means the men and women in the operating forces, CNIC ensures naval installations are able to facilitate the manning, training and equipping of the Navys fighting force. Family means the men and women of the forces and their families. Historically, each region was a part of a Naval district from their inception in the early 1900s until their disestablishment in the late 1970s and 1980s, at that point, individual installations were typically operated independent of any true centralized command structure. In 1998, the Navy embarked on a new era in shore management, as the Navy reduced its operational forces, it became essential for the shore establishment supporting those forces to be realigned. Each regional commander is a one-star Rear Admiral with the exception of the Commanders of Navy Region Mid-Atlantic, Navy Region Japan and Navy Region EURAFSWA, who is a two-star Rear Admiral. Navy Region Midwest was disestablished on September 30,2014 as part of a reorganization of Navy flag billets assets in the wake of the United States budget sequestration in 2013, formerly headquartered in Great Lakes, Illinois, it included installations in 16 states. These are now split between the Northwest, Mid-Atlantic, and Southeast regions
17.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
18.
USS New Jersey (BB-62)
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USS New Jersey is an Iowa-class battleship, and was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named after the US state of New Jersey. New Jersey earned more battle stars for combat actions than the three completed Iowa-class battleships, and was the only US battleship providing gunfire support during the Vietnam War. During World War II, New Jersey shelled targets on Guam and Okinawa, during the Korean War, she was involved in raids up and down the North Korean coast, after which she was decommissioned into the United States Navy reserve fleets, better known as the mothball fleet. She was briefly reactivated in 1968 and sent to Vietnam to support US troops before returning to the fleet in 1969. Reactivated once more in the 1980s as part of the 600-ship Navy program, New Jersey was modernized to carry missiles, in 1983, she participated in US operations during the Lebanese Civil War. After a brief retention in the fleet, she was donated to the Home Port Alliance in Camden, New Jersey. New Jersey was one of the Iowa-class fast battleship designs planned in 1938 by the Preliminary Design Branch at the Bureau of Construction and she was launched on 12 December 1942 and commissioned on 23 May 1943. The ship was the second of the Iowa class to be commissioned by the U. S. Navy, New Jerseys main battery consisted of nine 16/50 caliber Mark 7 guns in three three-gun turrets, which could fire 2, 700-pound armor-piercing shells some 23 miles. Her secondary battery consisted of twenty 5/38 caliber guns mounted in twin-gun dual purpose turrets, when reactivated in 1968, New Jersey had her 20 mm and 40 mm AA guns removed and was tailored for use as a heavy bombardment ship. When reactivated in 1982, New Jersey had four twin 5/38 caliber DP mounts removed, unlike the other Iowa-class battleships, New Jersey was named by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to repay a political debt, to then-New Jersey Governor Charles Edison. New Jersey completed fitting out and trained her initial crew in the Western Atlantic, on 7 January 1944 she passed through the Panama Canal war-bound for Funafuti, Ellice Islands. She reported there 22 January for duty with the United States Fifth Fleet, New Jersey began her career as a flagship 4 February in Majuro Lagoon when Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, commanding the 5th Fleet, broke his flag from her main. Her first action as a flagship was in Operation Hailstone, a two-day surface and this attack was coordinated with the assault on Kwajalein, and effectively interdicted the Japanese naval retaliation to the conquest of the Marshalls. New Jersey destroyed a trawler and, with ships, sank the destroyer Maikaze. New Jersey also fired on an aircraft that attacked her formation. The task force returned to the Marshalls 19 February, upon his return to Majuro, Admiral Spruance transferred his flag to Indianapolis. New Jerseys next war cruise,13 April –4 May 1944, began, New Jersey and her formation shot down two enemy torpedo bombers at Truk. Her 16 inch salvos pounded Ponape 1 May, destroying tanks, badly damaging the airfield
19.
USS Missouri (BB-63)
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USS Missouri is a United States Navy Iowa-class battleship and was the third ship of the U. S. Navy to be named after of the U. S. state of Missouri. Missouri was the last battleship commissioned by the United States and was best remembered as the site of the surrender of the Empire of Japan which ended World War II, Missouri was ordered in 1940 and commissioned in June 1944. In the Pacific Theater of World War II she fought in the battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa and shelled the Japanese home islands, in 1998, she was donated to the USS Missouri Memorial Association and became a museum ship at Pearl Harbor. Missouri was one of the Iowa-class fast battleship designs planned in 1938 by the Preliminary Design Branch at the Bureau of Construction and Repair. She was laid down at the Brooklyn Navy Yard on 6 January 1941, launched on 29 January 1944, the ship was the third of the Iowa class, but the fourth and final Iowa-class ship commissioned by the U. S. Navy. The ship was christened at her launching by Mary Margaret Truman, daughter of Harry S. Truman, Missouris main battery consisted of nine 16 in /50 cal Mark 7 guns, which could fire 2,700 lb armor-piercing shells some 20 mi. Her secondary battery consisted of twenty 5 in /38 cal guns in twin turrets, Missouri was the last U. S. battleship to be completed. Wisconsin, the highest-numbered U. S. battleship built, was completed before Missouri and she stood out of San Francisco Bay on 14 December and arrived at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on 24 December 1944. She departed Hawaii on 2 January 1945 and arrived in Ulithi, there she was temporary headquarters ship for Vice Admiral Marc A. Mitscher. Missouri then steamed with the carriers to Iwo Jima where her main guns provided direct, after TF58 returned to Ulithi on 5 March, Missouri was assigned to the Yorktown carrier task group. On 14 March, Missouri departed Ulithi in the screen of the fast carriers, during strikes against targets along the coast of the Inland Sea of Japan beginning on 18 March, Missouri shot down four Japanese aircraft. Raids against airfields and naval bases near the Inland Sea and southwestern Honshū continued, Missouri rejoined the screen of the carriers as Marine and Army units stormed the shores of Okinawa on the morning of 1 April. An attack by Japanese forces was repulsed successfully, on 11 April, a low-flying kamikaze Zero, although fired upon, crashed on Missouris starboard side, just below her main deck level. The starboard wing of the plane was thrown far forward, starting a fire at 5 in Gun Mount No.3. The battleship suffered only superficial damage, and the fire was quickly under control. The remains of the pilot were recovered on board the ship just aft of one of the 40 mm gun tubs, the following day he was buried at sea with military honors. About 23,05 on 17 April, Missouri detected an enemy submarine 12 mi from her formation and her report set off a hunter-killer operation by the light carrier Bataan and four destroyers, which sank the Japanese submarine I-56. Missouri was detached from the task force off Okinawa on 5 May
20.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
21.
Runway
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According to the International Civil Aviation Organization, a runway is a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runways may be a surface or a natural surface. Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the heading in decadegrees. This heading differs from true north by the magnetic declination. A runway numbered 09 points east, runway 18 is south, runway 27 points west, when taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane would be heading 90°. A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each separately, e. g. runway 33 in one direction is runway 15 when used in the other. The two numbers usually differ by 18, Runway Zero Three Left becomes Runway Two One Right when used in the opposite direction. In some countries, if parallel runways are too close to each other, at large airports with four or more parallel runways some runway identifiers are shifted by 10 degrees to avoid the ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, for clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced individually, runway three six, runway one four, etc. A leading zero, for example in runway zero six or runway zero one left, is included for all ICAO, however, most U. S. civil aviation airports drop the leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield and this American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in other countries. It is very common in a such as Canada for a controller to clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04. In flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U. S. usage to airports around the world, for example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05. Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on the Earths surface, depending on the airport location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, for example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, if on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226, and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is slow, runway designation changes are uncommon
22.
Aircraft
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An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the lift of an airfoil. The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation, crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as type, aircraft propulsion, usage. Each of the two World Wars led to technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras, Pioneers of flight, first World War,1914 to 1918. Aviation between the World Wars,1918 to 1939, Second World War,1939 to 1945. Postwar era, also called the jet age,1945 to the present day, aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, a balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs – usually fixed-wing. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. – though none had yet been built, the advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by an outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a balloon is an aerostat and an airship is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible, sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship. Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back and these soon became known as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was adopted for tethered balloons, in windy weather
23.
Seaplane
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A seaplane is a powered fixed-wing aircraft capable of taking off and landing on water. Seaplanes that can take off and land on airfields are in a subclass called amphibious aircraft. Their use gradually tailed off after World War II, partially because of the investments in airports during the war, the word seaplane is used to describe two types of air/water vehicles, the floatplane and the flying boat. A floatplane has slender pontoons, or floats, mounted under the fuselage, two floats are common, but other configurations are possible. Only the floats of a floatplane normally come into contact with water, some small land aircraft can be modified to become float planes, and in general, floatplanes are small aircraft. Floatplanes are limited by their inability to handle wave heights typically greater than 12 inches and these floats add to the empty weight of the airplane and to the drag coefficient, resulting in reduced payload capacity, slower rate of climb, and slower cruise speed. Most flying boats have small floats mounted on their wings to keep them stable, not all small seaplanes have been floatplanes, but most large seaplanes have been flying boats, with their great weight supported by their hulls. The term seaplane is used by some instead of floatplane and this is the standard British usage. This article treats both flying boats and floatplanes as types of seaplane, in the US fashion, an amphibious aircraft can take off and land both on conventional runways and water. A true seaplane can only take off and land on water, there are amphibious flying boats and amphibious floatplanes, as well as some hybrid designs, e. g. floatplanes with retractable floats. Modern production seaplanes are typically light aircraft, amphibious, and of a floatplane design, on 6 June 1905, Gabriel Voisin took off and landed on the River Seine with a towed kite glider on floats. The first of his flights was 150 yards. He later built a powered floatplane in partnership with Louis Blériot, other pioneers also attempted to attach floats to aircraft in Britain, Australia, France and the United States. On 28 March 1910, Frenchman Henri Fabre flew the first successful powered seaplane, the Gnome Omega-powered hydravion, fabres first successful take off and landing by a powered seaplane inspired other aviators, and he designed floats for several other flyers. The first hydro-aeroplane competition was held in Monaco in March 1912, featuring aircraft using floats from Fabre, Curtiss, Tellier and this led to the first scheduled seaplane passenger services, at Aix-les-Bains, using a five-seat Sanchez-Besa from 1 August 1912. The French Navy ordered its first floatplane in 1912, in 1911−12, François Denhaut constructed the first seaplane with a fuselage forming a hull, using various designs to give hydrodynamic lift at take-off. Its first successful flight was on 13 April 1912, throughout 1910 and 1911, American pioneering aviator Glenn Curtiss developed his floatplane into the successful Curtiss Model D land-plane, which used a larger central float and sponsons. Combining floats with wheels, he made the first amphibian flights in February 1911 and was awarded the first Collier Trophy for US flight achievement, from 1912, his experiments with a hulled seaplane resulted in the 1913 Model E and Model F, which he called flying-boats
24.
Chief of Naval Operations
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The Chief of Naval Operations is a statutory office held by a four-star admiral in the United States Navy, and is the most senior naval officer assigned to serve in the Department of the Navy. The office is an adviser and deputy to the Secretary of the Navy. The current Chief of Naval Operations is Admiral John M. Richardson, under the authority of the Secretary of the Navy, the CNO also designates naval personnel and naval resources to the commanders of Unified Combatant Commands. The CNO also performs all other functions prescribed under 10 U. S. C. §5033, the CNO is typically the highest-ranking officer on active duty in the Navy unless the Chairman and/or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff are naval officers. Like the other joint chiefs, the CNO is a position and has no operational command authority over United States naval forces. The Chief of Naval Operations is nominated by the President for appointment, however, the president may waive those requirements if he determines that appointing the officer is necessary for the national interest. By statute, the CNO is appointed as a four-star admiral, number One Observatory Circle, located on the northeast grounds of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, DC, was built in 1893 for its superintendent. The Chief of Naval Operations liked the house so much that in 1923 he took over the house as his own official residence and it remained the residence of the CNO until 1974, when Congress authorized its transformation to an official residence for the Vice President. The Chief of Naval Operations currently resides in Quarters A in the Washington Naval Yard, the position of CNO replaced the position of Aide for Naval Operations, which was a position established by regulation rather than statutory law. Lists of Commanding Officers and Senior Officials of the US Navy, archived from the original on 18 December 2007
25.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade
26.
Apollo program
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Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. In these six spaceflights, twelve men walked on the Moon, Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972, with the first manned flight in 1968. It achieved its goal of manned lunar landing, despite the setback of a 1967 Apollo 1 cabin fire that killed the entire crew during a prelaunch test. After the first landing, sufficient flight hardware remained for nine follow-on landings with a plan for extended lunar geological and astrophysical exploration, Budget cuts forced the cancellation of three of these. The crew returned to Earth safely by using the Lunar Module as a lifeboat for these functions, Apollo set several major human spaceflight milestones. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit, Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while the final Apollo 17 mission marked the sixth Moon landing and the ninth manned mission beyond low Earth orbit. The program returned 842 pounds of rocks and soil to Earth, greatly contributing to the understanding of the Moons composition. The program laid the foundation for NASAs subsequent human spaceflight capability, Apollo also spurred advances in many areas of technology incidental to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers. The Apollo program was conceived during the Eisenhower administration in early 1960, while the Mercury capsule could only support one astronaut on a limited Earth orbital mission, Apollo would carry three astronauts. Possible missions included ferrying crews to a station, circumlunar flights. The program was named after the Greek god of light, music, and the sun by NASA manager Abe Silverstein, who later said that I was naming the spacecraft like Id name my baby. Silverstein chose the name at home one evening, early in 1960, in July 1960, NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden announced the Apollo program to industry representatives at a series of Space Task Group conferences. Preliminary specifications were laid out for a spacecraft with a mission module cabin separate from the module. On August 30, a feasibility study competition was announced, and on October 25, meanwhile, NASA performed its own in-house spacecraft design studies led by Maxime Faget, to serve as a gauge to judge and monitor the three industry designs. In November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised American superiority over the Soviet Union in the fields of space exploration and missile defense. Beyond military power, Kennedy used aerospace technology as a symbol of prestige, pledging to make the US not first but, first and, first if. Despite Kennedys rhetoric, he did not immediately come to a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he became president and he knew little about the technical details of the space program, and was put off by the massive financial commitment required by a manned Moon landing. On April 12,1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, Kennedy was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on Americas response to the Soviets
27.
Apollo 7
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Apollo 7 was an October 1968 human spaceflight mission carried out by the United States. It was the first mission in the United States Apollo program to carry a crew into space and it was also the first U. S. spaceflight to carry astronauts since the flight of Gemini XII in November 1966. The AS-204 mission, also known as Apollo 1, was intended to be the first manned flight of the Apollo program and it was scheduled to launch in February 1967, but a fire in the cabin during a January 1967 test killed the crew. Apollo 7 fulfilled Apollo 1s mission of testing the Apollo Command/Service Module in low Earth orbit, the Apollo 7 crew was commanded by Walter M. Schirra, with senior pilot / navigator Donn F. Eisele, and pilot / systems engineer R. Walter Cunningham. Official crew titles were made consistent with those that would be used for the lunar landing missions, Eisele was Command Module Pilot. Their mission was Apollos C mission, an 11-day Earth-orbital test flight to check out the redesigned Block II CSM with a crew on board. It was the first time a Saturn IB vehicle put a crew space, Apollo 7 was the first three-person American space mission. It was launched on October 11,1968, from what was known as Cape Kennedy Air Force Station. Despite tension between the crew and ground controllers, the mission was a technical success, giving NASA the confidence to send Apollo 8 into orbit around the Moon two months later. The flight would prove to be the space flight for all of its three crew members—and the only one for both Cunningham and Eisele—when it splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean on October 22,1968. It was also the only manned launch from Launch Complex 34, ronald E. Evans William R. Pogue John L. Swigert Schirra, Eisele, and Cunningham were first named as an Apollo crew on September 29,1966. In December 1966, the mission was deemed redundant and canceled. Plans for the first manned Apollo flights were disrupted by the January 27,1967 cabin fire which killed Grissom, White. Schirra, Eisele, and Cunningham were later named as prime crew for the first manned flight, the Command Module and astronauts spacesuits had been extensively redesigned, to reduce and eliminate the chance of a repeat of the accident which killed the first crew. Schirra thus became the astronaut to fly Mercury, Gemini. His crew would test the support, propulsion, guidance. The duration was limited to 11 days, reduced from the original 14-day limit for Apollo 1. Since it flew in low Earth orbit and did not include the Lunar Module, Apollo 7 was launched with the Saturn IB booster rather than the much larger and he earned the astronauts respect and admiration, including Schirras
28.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
29.
USS Cole bombing
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The USS Cole bombing was a terrorist attack against the United States Navy guided-missile destroyer USS Cole on 12 October 2000, while it was being refueled in Yemens Aden harbor. Seventeen American sailors were killed and 39 injured in the deadliest attack against a United States naval vessel since 1987, the terrorist organization al-Qaeda claimed responsibility for the attack. A U. S. judge has held Sudan liable for the attack, the United States Navy has reconsidered their rules of engagement in response to this attack. On the morning of Thursday,12 October 2000, USS Cole, under the command of Commander Kirk Lippold, Cole completed mooring at 09,30, refueling started at 10,30. Former CIA intelligence officer Robert Finke said the blast appeared to be caused by explosives molded into a charge against the hull of the boat. Around 400 to 700 pounds of explosive were used, much of the blast entered a mechanical space below the ships galley, violently pushing up the deck, thereby killing crew members who were lining up for lunch. The crew fought flooding in the spaces and had the damage under control after three days. Divers inspected the hull and determined that the keel was not damaged, seventeen sailors were killed and 39 were injured in the blast. The injured were taken to the United States Armys Landstuhl Regional Medical Center near Ramstein, Germany, the attack was the deadliest against a U. S. naval vessel since the Iraqi attack on USS Stark on 17 May 1987. The asymmetric warfare attack was organized and directed by the terrorist organization al-Qaeda, in June 2001, an al-Qaeda recruitment video featuring Osama bin Laden boasted about the attack and encouraged similar attacks. The plan was to load a full of explosives and explode it near The Sullivans. However, the boat was so overladen that it sank, forcing the attack to be abandoned, planning for the attack was discussed at the Kuala Lumpur al-Qaeda Summit shortly after the attempt, which was held from 5 to 8 January 2000. On 10 June 2000, Mihdhar left San Diego to visit his wife in Yemen at a house used as a communications hub for al-Qaeda. After the bombing, Yemeni Prime Minister Abdul Karim al-Iryani reported that Mihdhar had been one of the key planners of the attack and had been in the country at the time of the attacks. He would later return to the United States to participate in 9/11 on American Airlines Flight 77, the first naval ship on the scene to assist the stricken Cole was the Royal Navy Type 23 frigate, HMS Marlborough, under the command of Capt Anthony Rix, RN. She was on passage to the UK after a deployment in the Gulf. Marlborough had full medical and damage control teams on board and when her offer of assistance was accepted she immediately diverted to Aden, eleven of the most badly injured sailors were sent via MEDEVAC to a French military hospital in Djibouti and underwent surgery before being sent to Germany. The first U. S. military support to arrive was a U. S and they were followed by another small group of United States Marines from the Interim Marine Corps Security Force Company, Bahrain flown in by P-3
30.
September 11 attacks
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The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia and it was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively. Suspicion for the attack fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaedas leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U. S. support of Israel, the presence of U. S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U. S. Navy in May 2011. S. many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, on November 18,2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was opened on November 3,2014. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets. Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical, in 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed, Muslim legal scholars have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries, according to bin Laden. Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement, in November 2001, U. S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi, on December 27,2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, It has become clear that the West in general and it is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, the transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims. He said that the attacks were carried out because, we are free, and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours, Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon
31.
Plowshares movement
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The Plowshares movement is an anti-nuclear weapons and Christian pacifist movement that advocates active resistance to war. The group often practices a form of symbolic protest that involves the damaging of weapons, the movement gained notoriety in the early 1980s when several members damaged nuclear warhead nose cones and were subsequently convicted. The name plowshares refers to the text of prophet Isaiah who said that weapons shall be beaten into plowshares, roman Catholicism has deeply influenced the U. S. Plowshares group. — KJV On September 9,1980, Daniel Berrigan, his brother Philip Berrigan and they trespassed onto the General Electric Nuclear Missile facility in King of Prussia, Pennsylvania, where they damaged MK12A nuclear warhead nose cones and poured blood onto documents and files. They were arrested and charged more than ten different felony. On April 10,1990, after 10 years of appeals and their legal battle was re-created in Emile de Antonios 1982 film In the King of Prussia, which starred Martin Sheen and featured appearances by the Plowshares Eight as themselves. As of 2000, some 71 such actions happened on several continents, each actor claimed personal responsibility for her or his actions, never fleeing the scene but rather standing accountable,3. Making some effort, big or small, real or symbolic, there have been several more such actions in the new millennium. The swords have included nuclear weapons, components of the nuclear arsenal. Pouring of blood is a symbolic act to symbolize the recognition of the violence of the government. Symbolically it reminds others what the weapons are designed for, and is used to break through the rationalizations that justify weapons of mass destruction, Plowshares activist Mary Sprunger-Froese explained, War has been sanitized. Because we mostly do it through our technology and satellite surveillance, back when people hand to hand, you would see the blood and gore and you would see the consequences. Now were so far removed and we watch war coverage on TV like its a miniseries, so when we use blood, it has a very powerful effect. The blood is real, very arresting, shocking. It says, This is what were talking about - human life, all this technology is made to destroy it, to spill human blood. Weve found that the people are offended when you pour blood on their weapons because they dont like to think of it as a bloody machine. So its very necessary to try to break through that with a symbol that is shocking and it may not affect people in a positive way but there is the chance that later on, in another moment, people can be affected by it. I met a U. S. marshal who was a fundamentalist Christian and he said that we were wasting the blood and it was a sin
32.
USS Iowa (BB-61)
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USS Iowa is the lead ship of her class of battleship and the fourth in the United States Navy to be named after the state of Iowa. She also served as the Third Fleet flagship, flying Adm. William F. Halseys flag at the Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay. During the Korean War, Iowa was involved in raids on the North Korean coast, after which she was decommissioned into the United States Navy reserve fleets, better known as the mothball fleet. She was reactivated in 1984 as part of the 600-ship Navy plan, in April 1989, an explosion of undetermined origin wrecked her No.2 gun turret, killing 47 sailors. The Iowa was decommissioned for the last time in the year 1990 and she was reinstated from 1999 to 2006 to comply with federal laws that required retention and maintenance of two Iowa-class battleships. USS Iowa was the ship of her class of fast battleship designs planned in 1938 by the Preliminary Design Branch at the Bureau of Construction. She was the first ship of her class of battleship to be commissioned, USS Iowas main battery consisted of nine 16 in /50 caliber Mark 7 guns, which could fire 2,700 lb armor-piercing shells 20 nmi. Her secondary battery consisted of twenty 5 in /38 cal guns in twin mounts, on 24 February 1943, Iowa put to sea for a shakedown in the Chesapeake Bay and along the Atlantic coast. After refueling and gathering her escorts, Iowa carried President Roosevelt, Secretary of State Cordell Hull, Chief of Staff Admiral William D. Leahy, on being warned, Iowa turned hard to avoid being hit by the torpedo and the torpedo detonated in the ships wake. Iowa was unhurt and trained her guns on William D. Porter. Iowa completed her presidential escort mission on 16 December by returning the President to the United States, Roosevelt addressed the crew of Iowa prior to leaving by stating. From all I have seen and all I have heard, the Iowa is a happy ship and he also touched on the progress made at the conference before concluding his address with. Good luck, and remember that I am with you in spirit, each, from 29 January to 3 February, she supported carrier air strikes made by Rear Admiral Frederick C. Shermans Task Group 38.3 against Kwajalein and Eniwetok atolls and her next assignment was to support air strikes against the major Japanese naval and logistics base at Truk, Caroline Islands. On 21 February, she was underway with the Fast Carrier Task Force while it conducted the first strikes against Saipan, Tinian, Rota, and Guam in the Mariana Islands. On 18 March 1944, Iowa, flying the flag of Vice Admiral Willis A. Lee, although struck by two Japanese 4.7 in projectiles, Iowa suffered negligible damage. She then rejoined TF58 on 30 March, and supported air strikes against the Palau Islands, from 22–28 April, Iowa supported air raids on Hollandia, Aitape, and Wake Islands to support Army forces on Aitape and at Tanahmerah and Humboldt Bays in New Guinea. She then joined the Task Forces second strike on Truk, on 29 and 30 April, and bombarded Japanese facilities on Ponape in the Carolines on 1 May
33.
Tomahawk (missile)
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The Tomahawk is a long-range, all-weather, subsonic cruise missile named after the Native American axe. Introduced by McDonnell Douglas in the 1970s, it was designed as a medium to long-range. It has been improved several times, and after corporate divestitures, some Tomahawks were also manufactured by General Dynamics. The Tomahawk missile family consists of a number of subsonic, jet engine-powered missiles designed to attack a variety of surface targets, although a number of launch platforms have been deployed or envisaged, only sea launched variants are currently in service. Tomahawk has a design, allowing a wide variety of warhead, guidance. The Tomahawk project was awarded to Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel. James H. Walker led a team of scientists to design, the original design with advanced technology is still used today. There have been variants of the BGM-109 Tomahawk employing various types of warheads. BGM-109A Tomahawk Land Attack Nuclear - Not deployed, bGM-109A Tomahawk Land Attack Missile – Nuclear with a W80 thermonuclear weapon. Retired from service sometime between 2010 and 2013, rGM/UGM-109B Tomahawk Anti Ship Missile – active radar homing anti-ship missile variant, withdrawn from service in the 1990s. BGM-109C Tomahawk Land Attack Missile – Conventional with a unitary warhead and this was initially a modified Bullpup warhead. BGM-109D Tomahawk Land Attack Missile – Dispenser with cluster munitions, rGM/UGM-109E Tomahawk Land Attack Missile – improved version of the TLAM-C. BGM-109G Ground Launched Cruise Missile – with a W84 nuclear warhead, aGM-109H/L Medium Range Air to Surface Missile – a shorter range, turbojet powered ASM with cluster munitions, never entered service, cost US$569,000. Many of the versions were converted into TLAMs at the end of the Cold War. The Block III TLAMs that entered service in 1993 can fly farther, Block IV TLAMs are completely redesigned with an improved turbofan engine. The F107-402 engine provided the new BLK III with a throttle control and this engine also provided better fuel economy. The Block IV TLAMs have enhanced capabilities and are equipped with a real-time targeting system for striking fleeting targets. A major improvement to the Tomahawk is network-centric warfare-capabilities, using data from sensors to find its target
34.
USS Cole (DDG-67)
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USS Cole is an Arleigh Burke-class Aegis-equipped guided missile destroyer homeported in Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia. Cole is named in honor of Marine Sergeant Darrell S. Cole, the ship was built by Ingalls Shipbuilding and was delivered to the Navy on 11 March 1996. On 29 November 2003, Cole engaged in her first overseas deployment after the bombing and subsequently returned to her homeport of Norfolk, Virginia, Cole was launched on 10 February 1995 and commissioned on 8 June 1996. Cole was in service for the United States Navy for several years after being commissioned. The first seven months of 2000 were spent completing the Intermediate, Cole was the only unit not damaged during the exercise. From 9 to 22 May, Cole participated in Joint Task Force Exercise 00-2 with the group, operating within the Cherry Point. On 8 August 2000, Cole departed on deployment, spending time in the Mediterranean. On 12 October 2000, while at anchor in Aden, Cole was attacked by Al-Qaeda suicide bombers, the blast created a hole in the port side of the ship about 40 feet in diameter, killing 17 crewmembers and injuring 39. The ship was under the command of Commander Kirk Lippold, eleven seriously injured sailors, were evacuated to various hospitals in Aden by French Air Force C-160 Transalls from the French Forces of Djibouti. French forces were mobilized to treat the wounded and they were evacuated by a USAF McDonnell Douglas C-9 thereafter. Cole was returned to the United States aboard the Norwegian heavy-lift vessel Blue Marlin owned by Offshore Heavy Transport of Oslo, Norway. The ship was off-loaded 13 December 2000 from Blue Marlin in a pre-dredged deep-water facility at the Pascagoula, Mississippi, shipyard of Northrop Grumman Ship Systems, Ingalls Operations. On 14 January 2001, Cole was moved from the dry dock at Litton Ingalls Shipbuilding to the land facility in order to fully begin its restoration process. Coles movement over land was accomplished by a system of electrically powered cars that travelled over rails, Cole was moved to a construction bay near where the ship was originally built five years before. On 1 July 2001, still under repair, Cole was transferred to Carrier Group 2, on 14 September 2001, Cole was moved from drydock into the water once again. The process of moving the ship from the dry dock to the water took approximately eight hours, as part of the increased security surrounding the undocking, sister ship Bulkeley provided weapons and a physical presence to deter the possibility of any type of militant activity during the move. After 14 months of repair, Cole departed on 19 April 2002, on 3 December 2001, Cole transitioned from Destroyer Squadron 22, to COMDESRON18 and the Enterprise Battle Group. The move to CDS18 was followed by a visit to Cole by Commodore Daniel Holloway, Commander, Destroyer Squadron 18, on 10–11 December 2001
35.
Aden
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Aden is a port city in Yemen, located by the eastern approach to the Red Sea, some 170 kilometres east of Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people, Adens ancient, natural harbour lies in the crater of a dormant volcano which now forms a peninsula, joined to the mainland by a low isthmus. This harbour, Front Bay, was first used by the ancient Kingdom of Awsan between the 5th and 7th centuries BC, the modern harbour is on the other side of the peninsula. Aden gives its name to the Gulf of Aden, Aden consists of a number of distinct sub-centres, Crater, the original port city, Maalla, the modern port, Tawahi, known as Steamer Point in the colonial period, and the resorts of Gold Mohur. Aden encloses the eastern side of a vast, natural harbour that comprises the modern port, the volcanic peninsula of Little Aden forms a near-mirror image, enclosing the harbour and port on the western side. Little Aden became the site of the oil refinery and tanker port, both were established and operated by British Petroleum until they were turned over to Yemeni government ownership and control in 1978. From March to July 2015, the Battle of Aden raged between Houthis and loyalists to President Hadi, water, food, and medical supplies ran short in the city. On 14 July, the Saudi Army launched an offensive to retake Aden for Hadis government, within three days the Houthis had been removed from the city. A local legend in Yemen states that Aden may be as old as human history itself, some also believe that Cain and Abel are buried somewhere in the city. The ports convenient position on the sea route between India and Europe has made Aden desirable to rulers who sought to possess it at times throughout history. The same work describes Aden as a village by the shore, there is no mention of fortification at this stage, Aden was more an island than a peninsula as the isthmus was not then so developed as it is today. Although the pre-Islamic Himyar civilization was capable of building large structures, fortifications at Mareb and other places in Yemen and the Hadhramaut make it clear that both the Himyar and the Sabean cultures were well capable of it. Thus, watch towers, since destroyed, are possible, however, the Arab historians Ibn al Mojawir and Abu Makhramah attribute the first fortification of Aden to Beni Zureea. Abu Makhramah has also included a biography of Muhammad Azim Sultan Qamarbandi Naqsh in his work. The aim seems to have been twofold, to hostile forces out and to maintain revenue by controlling the movement of goods. In its original form, some of work was relatively feeble. After 1175 AD, rebuilding in a solid form began. According to Muqaddasi, Persians formed the majority of Adens population in the 10th century, the envoys boarded three treasure ships and set sail from Sumatra to the port of Aden
36.
Yemen
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Yemen, officially known as the Republic of Yemen, is an Arab country in Western Asia, occupying South Arabia, the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. Yemen is the second-largest country in the peninsula, occupying 527,970 km2, the coastline stretches for about 2,000 km. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, the Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea to the south, although Yemens constitutionally stated capital is the city of Sanaa, the city has been under rebel control since February 2015. Because of this, Yemens capital has been relocated to the port city of Aden. Yemens territory includes more than 200 islands, the largest of these is Socotra, Yemen was the home of the Sabaeans, a trading state that flourished for over a thousand years and probably also included parts of modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea. In 275 AD, the region came under the rule of the later Jewish-influenced Himyarite Kingdom, Christianity arrived in the fourth century, whereas Judaism and local paganism were already established. Islam spread quickly in the century and Yemenite troops were crucial in the expansion of the early Islamic conquests. Administration of Yemen has long been notoriously difficult, several dynasties emerged from the ninth to 16th centuries, the Rasulid dynasty being the strongest and most prosperous. The country was divided between the Ottoman and British empires in the twentieth century. The Zaydi Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen was established after World War I in North Yemen before the creation of the Yemen Arab Republic in 1962, South Yemen remained a British protectorate known as the Aden Protectorate until 1967 when it became an independent state and later, a Marxist state. The two Yemeni states united to form the modern republic of Yemen in 1990, Yemen is a developing country, and the poorest country in the Middle East. Under the rule of President Ali Abdullah Saleh, Yemen was described as a kleptocracy, according to the 2009 international corruption Perception Index by Transparency International, Yemen ranked 164 out of 182 countries surveyed. President Saleh stepped down and the powers of the presidency were transferred to Vice President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi, the transitional process was disrupted by conflicts between the Houthis and al-Islah, as well as the al-Qaeda insurgency. In September 2014, the Houthis took over Sanaa, later declaring themselves in control of the government in a coup détat, since then, a Saudi-led intervention has taken place, however, it could not stop the civil war. Instead, the Saudis and the others have destroyed some hospitals, schools and homes, Yemen was mentioned in Old South Arabian inscriptions as Yamnat. In Arabic literature, the term includes much greater territory than that of the republic of Yemen. It stretches from the northern Asir Region in southwestern Saudi Arabia to Dhofar Governorate in southern Oman, one etymology derives Yemen from yumn, meaning felicity, as much of the country is fertile. The Romans called it Arabia Felix, as opposed to Arabia Deserta, al-Yaman significantly plays on the notion of the land to the right, when in Mecca facing the dawn, complementary to Al-Sham, the Land to the Left, referring to the Levant
37.
USS Mahan (DDG-72)
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USS Mahan is an Arleigh Burke-class destroyer currently in service with the United States Navy. She is named for seapower naval theorist Alfred Thayer Mahan being the fourth Navy ship to bear the name and this ship is the 22nd destroyer of her class. USS Mahan was the 12th ship of class to be built at Bath Iron Works in Bath, Maine. She was launched and christened on 29 June 1996, on 14 February 1998 she was commissioned in Tampa, Florida. Mahan is homeported in Norfolk, Virginia, and as of 2012 is attached to Destroyer Squadron 2, by 2016, the ship was part of Destroyer Squadron 22. The keel of Mahan was laid on 17 August 1995 and her mast was stepped on 6 February 1996, and she was launched and christened later that year on 29 June. The ships sponsor is Mrs. Jennie Lou Arthur, wife of Admiral Stan Arthur and her Aegis Combat System was lit off on 19 December. 1997 was a year for Mahan. Alpha/Bravo trials occurred on 21 July, Charlie trials on 5 August, the ship was officially transferred to the Navy on 22 August, and her Crew moved aboard on 17 October. The ship’s first underway was 16–17 January 1998 from Bath, Maine, to Portland, Maine, the weather was particularly heavy, and many of the crew members who had not put to sea before felt the effects of seasickness. Underway from Portland on 21 January, the ship pulled into her new homeport of Norfolk, Virginia, Mahan stayed in Norfolk until departing for her commissioning ceremony. Mahan was commissioned at 1100 on 14 February 1998 at Tampa, Florida by the Commander, Naval Surface Forces Atlantic, griffin, III, USN with Commander Michael L. James, USN, commanding. Mahan stayed in Tampa until 17 February, returning to Norfolk on 21 February, Mahan briefly left at the end of the month to conduct Combat Direction Finding System testing at sea. In August, Mahan hosted the change of command ceremony for Commander Destroyer Squadron 26, Mahan was placed in drydock in Portland, Maine on 1 September as part of the post-Shipyard Availability. Mahan departed Portland on 16 November, and during the back to Norfolk, conducted her first underway replenishment. The ship was underway twice for Helicopter Deck Landing Qualifications before the end of the year, Mahan departed Norfolk, Virginia, on 19 February 2000, on her maiden deployment to the Meditrranean as part of the USS Dwight D. Eisenhower Battle Group. She returned home on 18 August later that year, Mahans second deployment began when she departed Norfolk, Virginia,20 June 2002. While deployed to the Mediterranean and North Atlantic Ocean, she made visits in France, Scotland, Spain, Gibraltar, Slovenia, Crete, Malta
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Carrier strike group
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A carrier strike group is an operational formation of the United States Navy. It is composed of roughly 7,500 personnel, a carrier, at least one cruiser. A carrier strike group also, on occasion, includes submarines, attached logistics ships, Carrier strike groups comprise a principal element of U. S. power projection capability. Previously referred to as Carrier Battle Groups, they are referred to by the carrier they are associated with. As of March 2016 there are 10 carrier strike groups, the carrier strike group is a flexible naval force that can operate in confined waters or in the open ocean, during day and night, in all weather conditions. The principal role of the carrier and its air wing within the strike group is to provide the primary offensive firepower, while the other ships provide defense. These roles are not exclusive, however, other ships in the strike group sometimes undertake offensive operations and the carriers air wing contributes to the strike groups defense. Thus, from a command and control perspective, carrier strike groups are organized by mission rather than by platform. The development of the U. S. Navy carrier battle group can be traced to the 1920s and was based on previous experience grouping battleships. In World War II, administratively, aircraft carriers were assigned to carrier divisions, the single-carrier battle group was born with the military draw down that followed World War II. Carrier Division 1 was redesignated Carrier Group 1 on 30 June 1973, in the summer of 1992, the U. S. Navy instituted a concept that mandated greater task group integration of naval air and surface warfare assets into a more permanent carrier battle group structure. Each of the Navys 12 existing carrier battle groups consisted of a carrier, an embarked carrier air wing, cruisers, destroyer, and frigate units. On 1 October 2004, carrier groups and cruiser-destroyer groups were redesignated carrier strike groups, Carrier strike groups are tasked to accomplish a variety of wartime missions, as well as a wide variety of functions in situations short of war. The peacetime mission is to forward presence operations, to help shape the strategic environment, deter conflict, build interoperability with allies. The ships in the group often disaggregate from the carrier, performing missions hundreds or even thousands of miles away, gaining and maintaining sea control including coastal regions, bounded seas, choke points, and the open ocean. Protection of commercial and military shipping, protection of a United States Marine Corps Amphibious Ready Group prior to or during an amphibious operation. Surveillance/Intelligence to achieve and maintain a comprehensive picture of the littoral environment, including surface, undersea, air. Command and Control of assigned U. S. and multinational forces, establishing air superiority or air supremacy in an area by seizing and maintaining control of designated airspace
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Military Sealift Command
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The Military Sealift Command is a United States Navy organization that controls the replenishment and military transport ships of the Navy. The United States Military Sealift Command has the responsibility for providing sealift and it first came into existence on 9 July 1949 when the Military Sea Transportation Service became solely responsible for the Department of Defenses ocean transport needs. The MSTS was renamed the Military Sealift Command in 1970, Military Sealift Command ships are made up of a core fleet of ships owned by the United States Navy and others under long-term-charter augmented by short-term or voyage-chartered ships. Some ships may have Navy or Marine Corps personnel on board to carry out communication and special mission functions, ships on charter or equivalent, retain commercial colors and bear the standard merchant prefix MV, SS, or GTS, without hull numbers. Five programs comprise Military Sealift Command, Combat Logistics Force, Special Mission, Prepositioning, Service Support, the Combat Logistics Force’s role is to directly replenish ships that are underway at sea, enabling them to deploy for long periods of time without having to come to port. The Special Mission program operates vessels for military and federal government tasks, such as submarine support and missile flight data collection. The Prepositioning program sustains the US militarys forward presence strategy by deploying supply ships in key areas prior to actual need, also, MSC realigned two of its four mission-driven programs and adding a fifth program. The Prepositioning and Sealift programs are unchanged by the 2012 reorganization, as of June 2013, Military Sealift Command operated around 110 ships, and employed 9,800 people. The Combat Logistics Force is the part of the MSC most associated with supporting the Navy. In 1972, a study concluded that it would be cheaper for civilians to man USN support vessels such as tankers, the CLF is the American equivalent of the British Royal Fleet Auxiliary. These MSC ships are painted gray and can be easily identified by the blue. The Combat Logistics Force was formerly called the Naval Fleet Auxiliary Force, some of its ships were transferred to the new Service Support program. Special mission ships work for several different US Navy customers, including the Naval Sea Systems Command and these ships like those of the NFAF are painted haze gray with blue and gold stack bands. Some of its ships were transferred to the new Service Support program, as a key element of sea basing, afloat prepositioning provides the military equipment and supplies for a contingency forward deployed in key ocean areas before need. The MSC Prepositioning Program supports the US Army, Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps, Prepositioning ships remain at sea, ready to deploy on short-notice the vital equipment, fuel and supplies to initially support military forces in the event of a contingency. The Prepositioning Program consists of 34 at-sea ships plus 2 aviation support ships kept in reduced operating status and these ships wear civilian livery, and are only designated USNS if government-owned, those chartered from civilian owners are either SS or MV. It consists of four government-operated ships formerly in the Special Mission program, Sealift is divided into three separate project offices, Tanker Project Office, Dry Cargo Project Office and the Surge Project Office. As a result of a 2012 organization, MSCs 12 worldwide MSC ship support units will now report to the MSC operational area commands in their areas of responsibility
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COMSUBLANT
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Commander, Submarine Force Atlantic is the Submarine Force U. S. Atlantic Fleet type commander under the United States Fleet Forces Command, the principal responsibility of the Admiral commanding is to operate, maintain, train, and equip submarines. COMSUBLANT also has duties as commander of NATOs Allied Submarine Command and also Commander. As Commander, Naval Submarine Forces, a type commander role, he also supervises Commander. From the 1960s to the 1990s the commander also held the NATO post of Commander, Submarines, established on 7 December 1941, Rear Admiral Richard S. Edwards was its first commander. COMSUBLANT headquarters was at Naval Submarine Base New London until 1960, U. S. submarine operations in the Atlantic, however, date from before World War I. Nimitz was in command from May 1912 to March 1913, in October 1945, Submarine Squadron 2 was established at Naval Submarine Base New London, Groton, Connecticut, and in February 1946, Submarine Squadron 8 was commissioned at Groton. All other operations of any nature, even type training, ASW services, or fleet tactics, the initial staff included Captain Roy S. Benson, two officers and two yeomen reporting directly to him. In 1951, Submarine Squadron 10 was established at State Pier, New London, the squadron has the distinction of being the only unit associated with Submarine Base New London to actually be located in New London instead of Groton. In the early 1960s Squadron 10 became the first all-nuclear United States submarine squadron, the squadron was supported by USS Fulton for most of its existence, until both Fulton and the squadron were decommissioned in May,1991. In December 1969, Submarine Squadron 8 was decommissioned, Submarine Squadron 14 operated Fleet Ballistic Missile boats from Holy Loch, Scotland, from 1961 until it was disbanded in 1992. Submarine Group 8 continues to operate in support of U. S. on 1 May 1977, Submarine Development Group 2 was officially redesignated as Submarine Development Squadron 12 in recognition of its role and responsibilities and new organizational status. In August 1979, Submarine Squadron 8 was recommissioned in Norfolk, on January 13,2012, Submarine Squadron 2 similarly was disestablished, transferring its boats to Submarine Squadron 4 and Submarine Development Squadron 12. As Commander, Task Force 42, COMSUBLANT operated Atlantic Fleet attack submarines, Commander, Naval Submarine Forces wrote in June 2012 on his blog, We’re not perfect. In the Submarine Force we’ve had some high-visibility lapses in character, in each case, once discovered, these incidents were thoroughly investigated, and appropriate people were held accountable. This is our approach and we’ll continue to address these cases swiftly and decisively, there have also been previous problems of this nature. Commander Michael J. Alfonso was relieved as Commander, Blue Crew, USS Florida in 1997 for ignoring his executive officer and browbeating his crew. Rear Admiral Kenneth Perry, Commander, Submarine Group 2, retired on Friday, August 22,2014, the responsibilities of the 45 personnel in the group headquarters have been shifted to the individual submarine squadrons
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Carrier Strike Group 2
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Carrier Strike Group 2 is a U. S. Navy carrier strike group, tracing its history originally to 1931. The aircraft carrier USS George H. W. Bush is the groups current flagship. The group traces its history to the creation of Carrier Division 2 on 1 April 1931, the group took its current form on 1 October 2004. On 29 July 2010, Rear Admiral Nora W. Tyson assumed command of the group, the groups 2011 Mediterranean deployment marked the maiden deployment for the carrier USS George H. W. Bush and the guided-missile destroyer Truxtun. The groups units were the first U. S. naval forces to participate in Operation Inherent Resolve, on 1 April 1931, Rear Admiral Joseph M. Reeves took command of Carrier Division 2, becoming the first carrier division commander in the U. S. Navy. Reeves was also designated as Commander Aircraft U. S. Fleet, in February 1939, Carrier Division Two, now consisting of Yorktown and Enterprise, participated in the war game Fleet Problem XX. Rear Admiral Frederick C. Sherman commanded the division in 1943 while it was operating with the Fast Carrier Task Force, on 1 August 1955 the division was made up of USS Bennington and USS Lake Champlain at Mayport. Ranger sailed as the flagship of Rear Admiral H. H. Caldwell, Commander, Carrier Division 2, Air operations off Okinawa were followed by maneuvers with naval units from U. S. Naval Base Subic Bay. A special weapons warfare exercise and a patrol along the seaboard of Japan followed. During this deployment, Ranger launched more than 7,000 sorties, after the war, division aircraft carriers were involved in the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Vietnam War. USS Enterprise flew the flag of Commander Carrier Division 2 in 1963, Rear Admiral Bernard M. Strean, as division commander, led Enterprise, Long Beach, and Bainbridge around the world in Operation Sea Orbit from July to October 1964. Sea Orbit was a successful test of the first all-nuclear-powered task force, on 25 September 1965, Rear Admiral J. O. Cobb broke his flag as Commander, Carrier Division 2, aboard USS America. The division was re-designated as Commander Carrier Group 2 in 1973, in 1986, while commanding Carrier Group Two, Rear Admiral Jerry C. Breast commanded the Coral Sea carrier battle group and Task Group 60.1 of the U. S, sixth Fleet during a series of naval maneuvers code-named Attain Document. These naval maneuvers were intended to assert the freedom of navigation in the Gulf of Sidra as well as to challenge the claims of Libya to that body of water. On 15 August 1990, the group embarked in USS John F. Kennedy for a no-notification combat deployment in response to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Rear Admiral Riley Mixson, Commander, Carrier Group Two, acted as Commander, Battle Force Yankee included Saratoga and probably John F. Kennedy, and operated in the Red Sea. In the middle of 1992, the U. S. Navy instituted a concept which mandated greater task group integration of naval air, for details regarding this re-alignments as it pertained to Carrier Group Two, see the chart below
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Carrier Strike Group 8
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Commander, Carrier Strike Group 8, abbreviated as CCSG-8 or COMCARSTRKGRU8, is one of five U. S. Navy carrier strike groups currently assigned to the United States Fleet Forces Command. Carrier strike groups gain and maintain sea control as well as project naval airpower ashore, the current group flagship is the Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS Harry S. Truman. The other units of the group are the guided-missile cruiser USS Hué City, Carrier Air Wing Seven, during 1994, USS Hue City was a unit of Carrier Group 8. During 1999, the previous Carrier Group 8s flagship was Eisenhower, in May and June 1998, Vella Gulf completed a two-month BALTOPS Cruise, taking part in the 26th annual maritime exercise BALTOPS98 in the Western Baltic Sea from 8–19 June 1998. During the exercise, Commander, Carrier Group 8, commanded the exercise from the ship, fitzgerald was also serving as Commander Task Force 50 embarked in the carrier USS Theodore Roosevelt. The group was established by redesignation of the former Carrier Group 8 on 1 October 2004, the Strike Group deployed on 2 January 2010 to the Middle East to help with operations by the U. S. 5th and 6th Fleets. Effective 1 October 2012, when not deployed, Carrier Strike Group 8 is part of the U. S, Fleet Forces Command, and its commander reports to Commander Task Force 80, the director of Fleet Forces Maritime Headquarters. Carrier Strike Group 8 is designated Task Group 80.3, Fleet Forces Command announced that the Carrier Strike Group 8 command staff would deploy with Truman, instead of Eisenhower, in accordance with the U. S. Navys Optimized Fleet Response Plan. This change does not affect the ships or units that are otherwise assigned to either strike groups
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Carrier Strike Group 10
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Carrier Strike Group 10, abbreviated as CSG-10 or CARSTRKGRU10, is a U. S. Navy carrier strike group. Carrier strike groups gain and maintain sea control as well as project naval airpower ashore, the aircraft carrier USS Dwight D. Through Cruiser-Destroyer Group 2 and Cruiser-Destroyer Flotilla 2, the group traces its history to the formation of Destroyer Flotilla 2 during the First World War. From the 1970s, the group has made scores of deployments to the Mediterranean and Middle East, between 2004 and 2014, the group made four deployments to the U. S. Fifth Fleet operating in the Persian Gulf and North Arabian Sea, the groups aircraft flew over 10,800 air combat missions in support of coalition ground forces in Iraq and Afghanistan. The groups surface warships were involved in several high-profile anti-piracy. The group participated in two major exercises, Operation Brewing Storm 2005 and Operation Bold Step 2007. Carrier Strike Group 10s lineage can be traced to Destroyer Flotilla 2, the Flotilla was deactivated in 1922 as part of fleet reductions after the war. Destroyer Flotilla 2 was reactivated in 1931 and served throughout the 1930s as a caretaker of reserve destroyers until again deactivated in the days of World War II. As part of a Navy reorganization, the Flotilla was reactivated yet again in 1946, in 1973, Cruiser-Destroyer Flotilla 2 was renamed Cruiser-Destroyer Group 2, and it relocated to Charleston Navy Yard in South Carolina in 1974. Among its ships was USS Yosemite, a destroyer tender, Rear Admiral Samuel L. Gravely, Jr. the first African-American flag officer in the U. S. Navy, commanded Cruiser-Destroyer Group 2. Mustin, also commanded Cruiser-Destroyer Group 2 and their port call at Gdynia was the first visit by United States Navy vessels to Poland since 1927. In the middle of 1992, there was a U. S. Navy reorganization, the chart below shows Cruiser-Destroyer Group 2s units after the reorganization. Cruiser-Destroyer Group 2, late 1992 In 1993, following a reorganization, the group staff went aboard a new flagship. The group participated in the 2000 NATO Exercise Destined Glory, Operation Joint Endeavor, Operation Deny Flight, Operation Southern Watch, after 2001 the group took part in Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. In 1997 Commander Cruiser-Destroyer Group 2, Rear Admiral Michael Mullen, on 1 October 2004, Cruiser-Destroyer Group 2 was redesignated as Carrier Strike Group 10. Subsequently, George Washington was relieved as the flagship by the aircraft carrier USS Harry S. Truman. The strike group commander is responsible for training, integrated training
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Carrier Strike Group 12
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Carrier Strike Group Twelve is one of four U. S. Navy carrier strike groups currently assigned to the United States Fleet Forces Command. Carrier strike groups gain and maintain sea control as well as project naval airpower ashore, as of the completion of its 2015 active deployment with the USS Theodore Roosevelt, there is no aircraft carrier assigned as the strike groups flagship. Units currently assigned to Carrier Strike Group Twelve included Carrier Air Wing One, the Ticonderoga-class cruisers Vicksburg and Normandy, between 2006 and 2011, with Enterprise as its flagship, the group made four deployments to the U. S. Fifth Fleet in the Middle East, Strike group aircraft flew over 13,000 air combat missions in support of coalition ground forces in Iraq and Afghanistan, including 2006s Operation Medusa and Operation Mountain Fury in Iraq. The groups surface warships were involved in several high-profile anti-piracy operations. The 2015 deployment was led by its new flagship, Theodore Roosevelt, Carrier Strike Group Twelve was the first U. S. To augment this NIFC-CA capability, the group embarked the new E-2D airborne early warning aircraft. After December 8,1966, USS Columbus and USS Belknap of Cruiser-Destroyer Flotilla 8 were involved in the response to the sinking of SS Heraklion off Greece, commanding CRUDESFLOT8 at the time was Rear Admiral John D. Bulkeley. On 30 June 1973, Commander Cruiser Destroyer Flotilla 8 was re-designated as Commander Cruiser-Destroyer Group 8, Commander, Cruiser-Destroyer Group 8 subsequently served as the Immediate Superior-in-Command for the Saratoga, Dwight D. Eisenhower, and Theodore Roosevelt carrier battle groups. The group took part in Operation Southern Watch and Operation Deny Flight, in 1986, while commanding Cruiser-Destroyer Group 8, Rear Admiral David E. Jeremiah commanded the Saratoga group and Task Group 60.2 of the U. S. Sixth Fleet during a series of operations code-named Attain Document and they were intended to assert freedom of navigation in the Gulf of Sidra as well as to challenge Libyas maritime territorial claims. During both operations, Admiral Jeremiah commanded Task Force 60, the task force of the Sixth Fleet. In the middle of 1992, there was a Navy reorganization, the groups composition after the reorganization can be seen below. On 1 September 2004, Rear Admiral James W. Stevenson, Jr. Commander Cruiser Destroyer Group Eight, Admiral Stevenson had been in command of Cruiser-Destroyer Group Eight since May 2004. Formerly, the Enterprise Carrier Strike Group had been under the command of Commander Cruiser-Destroyer Group 12 based in Naval Station Mayport, on 1 October 2004, Cruiser-Destroyer Group 8 was re-designated as Carrier Strike Group Twelve. Commander Carrier Strike Group Twelve is responsible for training, integrated training. Group commanders since 2004 have included, On 3 September 2004, on 13 October 2005, the Enterprise pulled away from Norfolk Naval Stations Pier 12 for sea trials. Enterprises post-overhaul sea trials ended on 15 October 2005, on 2 May 2006, the strike group departed Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia, for its 2006 deployment under the command of Rear Admiral Ray Spicer
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Destroyer Squadron 28
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Destroyer Squadron 28, is a squadron of warships of the United States Navy. It is a component of Carrier Strike Group Two. The squadron was formed in 1951, DESRON28 was re-established on 1 September 1995, led by Commodore Donald P. Loren, during the most recent reorganization of the Atlantic Fleet surface force. The mission of DESRON28 is to provide a trained, combat ready force of surface combatants to the Commander. Destroyer Squadron 28 was a squadron of Arleigh-Burke Class destroyers and one frigate and it was composed of the following ships, USS Ramage USS Mitscher USS Forrest Sherman
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Destroyer Squadron 26
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Destroyer Squadron 26 is a destroyer squadron of the United States Navy. It was first created in 1950 and it has seen action in Korea, service in the Atlantic, in Vietnam, and many deployments in the Atlantic. From 1974 for a period it became the Mod Squad, trialling ships commanded by one rank junior to the usual appointment rank. In 1950, four general purpose destroyers were grouped into Destroyer Squadron Twenty-Six, following the end of the Korean War, the squadron departed the Pacific for a new homeport in Norfolk, Virginia. On February 6,1961 I went aboard USS Corry the day she returned to D&S Piers Norfolk from a Med Cruise, Corry was in DESRON26, DESDIV262. Commander H. W. Hiller was the CO and LCDR Crevier was XO, in July 1964, Destroyer Squadron TWENTY-SIX became one of the Navys three all guided missile squadrons consisting of six modern and versatile destroyers. The squadron also saw action off Vietnam with the U. S. Pacific Fleet from 1964 to 1970 and this Mod Squad, as it was nicknamed, initiated the Go Navy cruise recruiting program with 626 prospective recruits embarked in the squadrons ships conducting operations off Newport, Rhode Island. On 1 January 1971, USS Blandy joined the squadron, in April 1978, Destroyer Squadrons in the Atlantic were reorganized and Destroyer Squadron 26 was designated a tactical squadron. In September 1995, as a result of the reorganization of Commander, Naval Surface Forces Atlantic, destroyer squadrons became permanent Immediate Superior In Command to all destroyers and frigates. This reorganization replaced all tactical squadrons and readiness squadrons and combined the duties and responsibilities of the two into the new destroyer squadron. USS Barry was under command of Destroyer Squadron 26 in 1993,1994 and 1995, in July 1996 the squadron deployed with the USS George Washington Battle Group, completing a highly successful Black Sea visit. During the visit it made port visits to Varna, Bulgaria, Constanta, Romania, by the end of the deployment, DESRON26 ships had participated in 13 major exercises. DESRON26 crew members participated in community projects such as painting, electrical and mechanical repairs. When visiting high school students. Sailors shared stories about growing up in America, in 2005 the squadron was made up of USS Barry, USS Mahan, USS Mason, and USS Kauffman. Squadron duties also include the stewardship and oversight of training, material readiness, maintenance, in 2010–11, whether deployed or in homeport, DESRON26 reported administratively and operationally to Commander Carrier Strike Group Ten. In 2012, USS Gettysburg and Mitscher were detached from Destroyer Squadron 22 to Destroyer Squadron 26 for the UKs Joint Warrior 12-2 exercise, when deployed as part of a carrier strike group, the squadron commander serves as Alternate Composite Warfare Commander and Sea Combat Commander. During underway operations separate from the strike group, the squadron commander may also serve as a Joint or naval Task Group Commander
United States
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This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Navy.
