1.
Quechua language
–
Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua
Quechua language
–
Quechua
2.
Spanish Empire
–
The Spanish Empire was one of the largest empires in history. The Spanish Empire became the foremost global power of its time and was the first to be called the empire on which the sun never sets, the Spanish Empire originated during the Age of Discovery after the voyages of Christopher Columbus. Following the Spanish–American War of 1898, Spain ceded its last colonies in the Caribbean and its last African colonies were granted independence or abandoned during Decolonisation of Africa finishing in 1976. The unity did not mean uniformity, nevertheless, some historians assert that Portugal was part of the Spanish monarchy at the time, while others draw a clear distinction between the Portuguese and Spanish empires. During the 15th century, Castile and Portugal became territorial and commercial rivals in the western Atlantic. The conquest was completed with the campaigns of the armies of the Crown of Castile between 1478 and 1496, when the islands of Gran Canaria, La Palma, and Tenerife were subjugated. The Portuguese tried in vain to keep secret their discovery of the Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea, chronicler Pulgar wrote that the fame of the treasures of Guinea spread around the ports of Andalusia in such way that everybody tried to go there. Worthless trinkets, Moorish textiles, and above all, shells from the Canary and Cape Verde islands were exchanged for gold, slaves, ivory and Guinea pepper. The Crown officially organized this trade with Guinea, every caravel had to get a government license, the treaty delimited the spheres of influence of the two countries, establishing the principle of the Mare clausum. It was confirmed in 1481 by the Pope Sixtus IV, in the papal bull Æterni regis, thus, the limitations imposed by the Alcáçovas treaty were overcome and a new and more balanced worlds division would be reached at Tordesillas between both emerging maritime powers. Seven months before the treaty of Alcaçovas, King John II of Aragon died, Ferdinand and Isabella drove the last Moorish king out of Granada in 1492 after a ten-year war. The Catholic Monarchs then negotiated with Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor attempting to reach Cipangu by sailing west, Castile was already engaged in a race of exploration with Portugal to reach the Far East by sea when Columbus made his bold proposal to Isabella. Columbus discoveries inaugurated the Spanish colonization of the Americas and these actions gave Spain exclusive rights to establish colonies in all of the New World from north to south, as well as the easternmost parts of Asia. The treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed by Pope Julius II in the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis on 24 January 1506, Spains expansion and colonization was driven by economic influences, a yearning to improve national prestige, and a desire to spread Catholicism into the New World. The Catholic Monarchs had developed a strategy of marriages for their children in order to isolate their long-time enemy, the Spanish princes married the heirs of Portugal, England and the House of Habsburg. Following the same strategy, the Catholic Monarchs decided to support the Catalan-Aragonese house of Naples against Charles VIII of France in the Italian Wars beginning in 1494. As King of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in the struggle against France and Venice for control of Italy, these conflicts became the center of Ferdinands foreign policy as king. Only a year later, Ferdinand became part of the Holy League against France and this war was less of a success than the war against Venice, and in 1516, France agreed to a truce that left Milan in its control and recognized Spanish control of Upper Navarre
Spanish Empire
–
Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs (The return of Columbus to Spain).
Spanish Empire
–
Flag
Spanish Empire
–
The death of French general
Gaston de Foix at the
Battle of Ravenna (1512).
Spanish Empire
–
Upon the death of
Ferdinand the Catholic, the lordship of the Spanish Indies became Kingdoms of the Indies.
3.
Department of Cusco
–
Cusco is a region in Peru. It is bordered by the Ucayali Region on the north, the Madre de Dios and Puno regions on the east, the Arequipa Region on the south, and its capital is Cusco, the capital of the Inca Empire. It is located about 3,000 metres above sea level and is used to cultivate mainly high altitude such as potatoes, tarwi, barley. According to the 2007 Peru Census, the language learnt first by most of the residents was Quechua, the Quechua variety spoken in this region is Cusco Quechua
Department of Cusco
–
Machu Picchu, the lost city of the
Inca
Department of Cusco
–
Political division of the Cusco Region
Department of Cusco
–
Balconies at the main square in Cusco
4.
Peru
–
Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
Peru
–
Sculpted
Chavin head embedded in one of the walls of the temple of
Chavín de Huantar
Peru
Peru
–
A
Moche ceramic vessel from the 5th century depicting a man's head
Peru
–
The citadel of
Machu Picchu, an iconic symbol of pre-Columbian Peru
5.
Quechua languages
–
Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua
Quechua languages
–
Quechua
6.
Inca religion
–
In the heterogeneous Inca Empire, polytheistic religions were practiced. Some deities, such as Pachamama and Viracocha, were known throughout the empire, Inca deities occupied the three realms, hanan pacha, the celestial realm in the sky. Ukhu pacha, the earth realm. Kay pacha, the earth realm, where humans live. Ukhu pacha was the domain of Pachamama, the Earth mother, kanopa was the God of Pregnancy. Con-Tici Viracocha Pachayachachic, the first god, creator of the three ancient realms and their inhabitants, was also the father of Inti, many ancient Andean peoples traced their origins to ancestral deities. Multiple clans could share similar ancestral origins, the Inca claimed descent from the Sun and the Moon, their Father and Mother. Many clans claimed descent from early proto-humans that emerged from local sites in nature called pacarinas, the earliest ancestors of the Inca were known as Ayar, the first of which was Manco Cápac or Ayar Manco. Inca mythology tells of his travels, in which he and the Ayar shaped and marked the land, religious traditions in the Andes tended to vary among different ayllus. The Inca attempted to combine their deities with conquered ones in ways that raised the status of their own, one example of this is Pachamama, the goddess of Earth, who was worshiped long before the rise of the Inca. In the Inca mythology Pachamama having been integrated was placed below the Moon who the Inca believed ruled over all female gods, a theme in Inca mythology is the duality of the Cosmos. The realms were separated into the upper and lower realms, the hanan pacha, kay pacha, the realm of the outer earth, where humans resided was viewed as an intermediary realm between hanan pacha and ukhu pacha. The realms were represented by the condor, puma and snake, sacred sites or things named waka were spread around the Inca Empire. A waka could also be an object such as pottery which was believed to be a deity-carrying vessel. Spiritual leaders in a community would use prayer and offerings to communicate with a waka for advice or assistance, human sacrifice was part of Incan rituals in which they usually sacrificed a child or a slave. The Incan people thought it was an honor to die as an offering, divination was used to inform people in the city of social events, predict battle outcomes, and ask for metaphysical intervention. Divination was an important part of Inca religion, as reflected in the following quote, apachetas, coca and the sun were major elements in pre-Conquest religion, and divination, the worship of sacred mountains and the bringing retribution against enemies were important ritual practices. The Inca calendar had 12 months of 30 days, with each month having its own festival, the Incan year started in December, and began with Qhapaq Raymi, the magnificent festival
Inca religion
–
Inca Empire
Inca religion
–
Inti Raymi,
Sacsayhuaman,
Cuzco
7.
Roman Catholicism
–
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
Roman Catholicism
–
Saint Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholicism
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholicism
–
Pope Francis, elected in the
papal conclave, 2013
Roman Catholicism
–
Traditional graphic representation of the Trinity: The earliest attested version of the diagram, from a manuscript of
Peter of Poitiers ' writings, c. 1210
8.
Monarchy
–
The actual power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic, to partial and restricted, to completely autocratic. Traditionally and in most cases, the monarchs post is inherited and lasts until death or abdication, occasionally this might create a situation of rival claimants whose legitimacy is subject to effective election. Finally, there have been cases where the term of a reign is either fixed in years or continues until certain goals are achieved. Thus there are widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy, Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 19th century, but it is no longer prevalent. Currently,47 sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state,19 of which are Commonwealth realms that recognise Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state. The monarchs of Cambodia, Japan, and Malaysia reign, the word monarch comes from the Greek language word μονάρχης, monárkhēs which referred to a single, at least nominally absolute ruler. In current usage the word usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule. Depending on the held by the monarch, a monarchy may be known as a kingdom, principality, duchy, grand duchy, empire, tsardom, emirate, sultanate, khaganate. The form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric, the Greek term monarchia is classical, used by Herodotus. The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as king, the Chinese, Japanese and Nepalese monarchs continued to be considered living Gods into the modern period. Since antiquity, monarchy has contrasted with forms of democracy, where power is wielded by assemblies of free citizens. In antiquity, monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome, much of 19th century politics was characterised by the division between anti-monarchist Radicalism and monarchist Conservativism. Many countries abolished the monarchy in the 20th century and became republics, advocacy of republics is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism. In the modern era, monarchies are more prevalent in small states than in large ones, most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, the centre of the royal household and court. Growing up in a family, future monarchs are often trained for the responsibilities of expected future rule. Different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, and agnatic seniority. While most monarchs have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned in history, rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy, such as that of family dictatorships or political families in many democracies. The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the continuity of leadership
Monarchy
–
Richard I of England being anointed during his coronation in
Westminster Abbey, from a 13th-century chronicle.
Monarchy
–
Thutmose I, the third
Pharaoh of the
Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt.
Monarchy
–
King George III of the United Kingdom, Portrait by
Allan Ramsay, 1762
Monarchy
–
King
Salman of Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarch.
9.
Sapa Inca
–
The Sapa Inca or Sapa Inka, also known as Apu, Inka Qhapaq, or simply Sapa, was the ruler of the Kingdom of Cusco and, later, the Emperor of the Inca Empire and the Neo-Inca State. While the origins of the position are mythical and tied to the foundation of the city of Cusco. The position was hereditary, with son succeeding father, the emperor was viewed as a god. There were two known dynasties, led by the Hurin and Hanan moieties respectively, the latter was in power at the time of Spanish conquest. The last effective Sapa Inca of Inca Empire was Atahualpa, who was executed by Francisco Pizarro and his conquistadors in 1533, little is known of the rulers of the first dynasty of Sapa Incas. Evidently, they were affiliated with the Hurin moiety and their rule did not extend beyond the Kingdom of Cusco and their origins are tied to the mythical establishment of Cusco and are shrouded in later foundation myth. The dynasty was founded by Manco Cápac, considered the son of the sun god Inti. As a rough guide to the reputation of the early Sapa Incas, in later years capac meant warlord. The second dynasty was affiliated with the Hanan moiety and was founded under Inca Roca, after Cápac Yupanquis death, another of his sons, Inca Rocas half-brother Quispe Yupanqui, was intended to succeed him. However, the Hanan revolted and installed Inca Roca instead and he had been with Huayna Cápac when he died. The death of Ninan, the heir, led to the Inca Civil War between Huáscar and Atahualpa, a weakness that the Spanish exploited when they conquered the Inca Empire. This last Sapa Inca must not be confused with Túpac Amaru II, pachacutec, a resurrected Sapa Inca king who is over 500 years old, plays a major role in James Rollins novel Excavation. Kingdom of Cusco Inca Empire Neo-Inca State
Sapa Inca
–
Representation of the Sapa Inca,
Pachacuti, wearing the "
Mascapaicha " (royal crown), in the main square of
Aguas Calientes,
Peru
Sapa Inca
–
Sinchi Roca c. 1230 – c. 1260
Sapa Inca
–
Lloque Yupanqui c. 1260 – c. 1290
Sapa Inca
–
Mayta Cápac c. 1290 – c. 1320
10.
Manco Inca Yupanqui
–
Manco Inca Yupanqui was the founder and monarch of the independent Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba, although he was originally a puppet Inca Emperor installed by the Spaniards. He was also known as Manco II and Manco Cápac II and he was one of the sons of Huayna Cápac and a younger brother of Huascar. Túpac Huallpa was a puppet ruler crowned by the conquistador Francisco Pizarro, after his death, Manco Inca joined Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro in Cajamarca. When Pizarros force arrived in Cusco, he had the caciques acknowledge Manco as their Inca, Manco Inca then joined Almagro and Hernando de Soto in pursuit of Quizquiz. The Pizarro brothers so mistreated Manco Inca that he tried to escape in 1535. He failed, was captured and imprisoned, Hernando Pizarro released him to recover a golden statue of his father Huayana Capac. Only accompanied by two Spaniards, he escaped a second time. Manco then gathered an army of 200,000 Inca warriors and laid siege to Cusco in early 1536, after ten months, Manco retreated to the nearby fortress of Ollantaytambo in 1537. Here Manco successfully defended attacks by the Spaniards in the battle of Ollantaytambo, Manco coordinated his siege of Cusco with one on Lima, led by one of his captains, Quiso Yupanqui. The Incans were able to defeat four relief expeditions sent by Francisco Pizarro from Lima and this resulted in the death of nearly 500 Spanish soldiers. Some Spaniards were captured and sent to Ollantaytambo, alonso de Alvarado was sent by Pizarro to Cusco, but upon his arrival at Abancay, he and his army were captured by Rodrigo Orgóñez in the Battle of Abancay. This was the beginning of the first civil war between the conquistadors, abandoning Ollantaytambo, Manco Inca retreated to Vitcos and finally to the remote jungles of Vilcabamba, where he founded the Neo-Inca State which lasted until the death of Túpac Amaru in 1572. From there, he continued his attacks against the Wankas, having some success after fierce battles, and to the highlands of present-day Bolivia, the Spaniards crowned his younger half brother Paullu Inca as puppet Sapa Inca after his retreat for his valuable help in that last campaign. The Spanish succeeded in capturing Mancos sister-wife, Cura Ocllo, and had her murdered in 1539. They in turn were all killed by Mancos soldiers, Manco was succeeded by his son Sayri Tupaq. Manco Inca had several sons, including Sayri Tupaq, Titu Cusi, Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire Sapa Inca Cura Ocllo
Manco Inca Yupanqui
–
Manco Inca Yupanqui (drawing by
Guaman Poma)
11.
Titu Cusi
–
Don Diego de Castro Titu Cusi Yupanqui was a son of Manco Inca Yupanqui, and became the Inca ruler of Vilcabamba, the penultimate leader of the Neo-Inca State. He was crowned in 1563, after the death of his half brother and he ruled until his death in 1571, probably of pneumonia. During his rule at Vilcabamba, the provisional governor-general Lope Garcia de Castro wanted to negotiate with him, the negotiations were about Cusi leaving the Vilcabamba and accepting a Crown pension. After negotiations escalated, around 1568, Titi Cusi was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church, Titu Cusi made Túpac Amaru a priest and custodian of Manco Incas body in Vilcabamba. Túpac Amaru became the Inca ruler after Titu Cusis sudden death in 1571, Titu Cusis close companion Martin de Pando, who had worked as a scribe for the Inca for over ten years and the Augustinian Friar Diego Ortiz were blamed for killing Titu Cusi by poisoning him. The resulting hybrid document offers a unique Inca perspective on the Spanish conquest of Peru, the confusion and misunderstandings of first contact are described in the account, including mistaken beliefs that the Spaniards were gods. When my father heard this, he was himself and said. Who are these people and what are their ways, the messengers answered, Lord, these people cannot but be gods, for they claim to have come by the wind. They are bearded people, very beautiful and white and they eat out of silver plates. Even their sheep, who carry them, are large and wear silver shoes, ralph Bauer ISBN 0-87081-821-X Andean Worlds by Kenneth J. Andrien. ISBN 0-8263-2358-8 Castro Tito Cusi Yupanqui, Diego de, Relación de la Conquista del Perú y hechos del Inca Manco II, archived from the original on 2012-07-12. Tupac Amaru, The Life, Times, and Execution of the Last Inca
Titu Cusi
–
Titu Cusi
12.
Early modern period
–
The early modern period of modern history follows the late Middle Ages of the post-classical era. Historians in recent decades have argued that from a worldwide standpoint, the period witnessed the exploration and colonization of the Americas and the rise of sustained contacts between previously isolated parts of the globe. The historical powers became involved in trade, as the exchange of goods, plants, animals, and food crops extended to the Old World. The Columbian Exchange greatly affected the human environment, New economies and institutions emerged, becoming more sophisticated and globally articulated over the course of the early modern period. This process began in the medieval North Italian city-states, particularly Genoa, Venice, the early modern period also included the rise of the dominance of the economic theory of mercantilism. The European colonization of the Americas, Asia, and Africa occurred during the 15th to 19th centuries, the early modern trends in various regions of the world represented a shift away from medieval modes of organization, politically and economically. Historians typically date the end of the modern period when the French Revolution of the 1790s began the modern period. Early modern themes Other In 16th century China, the Ming Dynastys economy was stimulated by trade with the Portuguese, Spanish. China became involved in a new trade of goods, plants, animals. Trade with Early Modern Europe and Japan brought in massive amounts of silver, during the last decades of the Ming the flow of silver into China was greatly diminished, thereby undermining state revenues and the entire Chinese economy. This damage to the economy was compounded by the effects on agriculture of the incipient Little Ice Age, natural calamities, crop failure, the ensuing breakdown of authority and peoples livelihoods allowed rebel leaders such as Li Zicheng to challenge Ming authority. The Ming Dynasty fell around 1644 to the Qing Dynasty, which was the last ruling dynasty of China, during its reign, the Qing Dynasty became highly integrated with Chinese culture. The Azuchi-Momoyama period saw the unification that preceded the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate. The Edo period from 1600 to 1868 characterized early modern Japan, the Tokugawa shogunate was a feudal regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family. This period gets its name from the city, Edo. The Tokugawa shogunate ruled from Edo Castle from 1603 until 1868, in 1392, General Yi Seong-gye established the Joseon Dynasty with a largely bloodless coup. Joseon experienced advances in science and culture, King Sejong the Great promulgated hangul, the Korean alphabet. The period saw various other cultural and technological advances as well as the dominance of neo-Confucianism over the entirety of Korea, during the late 16th and early 17th centuries, invasions by the neighboring Japanese and Qing Chinese nearly overran the Korean peninsula
Early modern period
–
Waldseemüller map with joint sheets, 1507
Early modern period
–
15th century Hanging Houses in
Cuenca,
Spain from the
Early Renaissance, and the Early modern period.
Early modern period
–
Gutenberg reviewing a press proof (a colored engraving created probably in the 19th century)
Early modern period
–
The
Cantino planisphere (1502), the oldest surviving Portuguese nautical chart showing the results of the explorations of
Vasco da Gama to India,
Columbus to Central America,
Gaspar Corte-Real to Newfoundland and
Pedro Álvares Cabral to Brazil. The meridian of
Tordesillas, separating the Portuguese and Spanish halves of the world is also depicted
13.
Francisco de Toledo
–
Francisco Álvarez de Toledo was an aristocrat and soldier of the Kingdom of Spain and the fifth Viceroy of Peru. He is often considered the best of Perus viceroys, albeit controversial for the impact of some of his actions on the Native American population. He held the position of viceroy from November 30,1569, until 1 May 1581 and he died in Escalona, Spain aged 67. Francisco de Toledo was born on 15 July 1515 in Oropesa, Castile belonging to the noble family Álvarez de Toledo, while his mother died and her aunts Mary and Elizabeth were responsible for their upbringing. At the age of eight he moved to the court of King Charles I of Spain, to serve as a page to the queen Leonor and he learned Latin, history, rhetoric and theology, fencing, music, dancing and courtly manners. Francisco de Toledo was fifteen years old when in 1530 King Charles I accepted him at home, the first military action in which intervened was the Conquest of Tunis, a great triumph of the imperial troops over the Ottoman Turks who snatched the plaza in North Africa. Following the signing of peace, Álvarez de Toledo returned to Spain and later went to Ghent, once participated in the expedition to Algiers, important Turkish square in North Africa, campaign which ended in failure due to bad weather. In the following years he continued to serve the imperial arms and it was a very turbulent time, as well as the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks occurred progress of Protestantism in Germany, region under imperial orbit. In all this time Álvarez de Toledo was near the emperor Charles V and he met the Spanish negotiations with England to start a new war against France. He dealt with the issues of Hispanic America interested about the status that should have the Indians. He left Barcelona in 1543 with the emperor, for Italy and he participated in the battles of Gelderland and Düren. The stay lasted until February 3,1557 when the works in Yuste were finished and they both served him until his death in 1558. The following years were spent by Álvarez de Toledo in activities related to the Order of Alcántara, between 1558 and 1565 he remained in Rome, where he participated in the discussion and definition of the Statutes of the Order, as attorney general. Toledo became the viceroy of Peru in 1569. He was appointed viceroy by Philip II after serving as a steward in the royal court, during his rule, Toledo took charge of the government and implemented many reforms. He centralized colonial governmental functions and laid the foundation for the administration of the viceroyalty. He established royal authority and Spanish dominance in the colony and he broke the power of the encomenderos, reducing them to obedient servants of the crown. He has been called one of the administrators of human times
Francisco de Toledo
–
Francisco Álvarez de Toledo
Francisco de Toledo
–
The king
Charles I of Spain and emperor
Charles V of the
Holy Roman Empire
14.
Governorate of New Castile
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The Governorate of New Castile was the gubernatorial region administered to Francisco Pizarro in 1528 by King Charles I of Spain, of which he was appointed governor. The region roughly consisted of modern Peru and was after the foundation of Lima in 1535 divided, the conquest of the Inca empire in 1531–1533, performed by Pizarro and his brothers set the basis for the territorial boundaries of New Castile. Governorate of New Toledo, forming the southern half of the Inca empire. New Andalusia Governorate, which was not formally conquered by Spain until decades later, Governorate of New Léon, the southernmost part of the continent. This territorial division set the basis for the administration of South America for several decades. It was formally dissolved in 1544, when King Charles I sent his envoy, Blasco Núñez Vela. List of Viceroys of Peru Viceroyalty of Peru Spanish colonization of the Americas Spanish Empire Nueva Castilla in the Spanish East Indies Ushistory. org/civ/11c. asp
Governorate of New Castile
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Military flag
15.
Inca Empire
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The Inca Empire, also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, and possibly the largest empire in the world in the early 16th century. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru, the Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century. Its last stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572, from 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. The Incas considered their king, the Sapa Inca, to be the son of the sun, the Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many features associated with civilization in the Old world. In the words of one scholar, The Incas lacked the use of wheeled vehicles, the Incan economy has been described as feudal, slave, socialist. The economy functioned largely without money and without markets, instead, exchange of goods and services was based on reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers. Taxes consisted of an obligation of a person to the Empire. The Inca rulers reciprocated by granting access to land and goods and providing food, the Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, the four suyu. The four suyu were, Chinchaysuyu, Antisuyu, Qullasuyu and Kuntisuyu, the name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu, the term Inka means ruler or lord in Quechua and was used to refer to the ruling class or the ruling family. The Incas were a small percentage of the total population of the empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000. The Spanish adopted the term as a term referring to all subjects of the empire rather than simply the ruling class. As such the name Imperio inca referred to the nation that they encountered, the Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Incan oral history tells a story of three caves. The center cave at Tampu Tuqu was named Qhapaq Tuqu, the other caves were Maras Tuqu and Sutiq Tuqu. Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave and they were, Ayar Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Awqa and Ayar Uchu, and Mama Ocllo, Mama Raua, Mama Huaco and Mama Qura. Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans, Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live and they traveled for a long time
Inca Empire
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Inca Empire
Inca Empire
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Banner of the Tawantinsuyu
Inca Empire
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The first image of the Inca in Europe,
Pedro Cieza de León, Cronica del Peru, 1553
Inca Empire
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View of
Machu Picchu
16.
Viceroyalty of Peru
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The Viceroyalty of Peru was a Spanish colonial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America, governed from the capital of Lima. The Viceroyalty of Peru was one of the two Spanish Viceroyalties in the Americas from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian established by the Treaty of Tordesillas. The treaty was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal, eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. From September 2,1564 to November 26,1569 he was viceroy of Peru. In 1542, the Spanish created the Viceroyalty of New Castile, in 1544, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V named Blasco Núñez Vela Perus first viceroy, but the viceroyalty was not organized until the arrival of Viceroy Francisco Álvarez de Toledo. Toledo made a tour of inspection of the colony. He improved the safety in the viceroyalty with fortifications, bridges, still, Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón sent out the third expedition to explore the Amazon River, under Cristóbal de Acuña. Many Pacific islands were visited by Spanish ships in the sixteenth century and these included New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands and the Marquesas Islands by Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira. These groups had the advantage of remote geography and river access from the mouth of the Amazon, meanwhile, the Spanish were barred by their laws from slaving of indigenous people, leaving them without a commercial interest deep in the interior of the basin. One famous attack upon a Spanish mission in 1628 resulted in the enslavement of 60,000 indigenous people, in fact as time passed they were used as a self funding occupation force by the Portuguese authorities in what was effectively a low level war of territorial conquest. In 1617, Francisco de Borja y Aragón divided the government of Río de la Plata into two, Buenos Aires and Paraguay, both dependencies of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Viceroy Borja y Aragón also established the Tribunal del Consulado, a special court, Diego Fernández de Córdoba, Marquis of Guadalcázar reformed the fiscal system and stopped the interfamily rivalry that was bloodying the domain. Fernández de Cabrera suppressed an insurrection of the Uru and Mapuche Indians, viceroys had to protect the Pacific coast from French contraband and English and Dutch pirates. They expanded the naval forces, fortified the ports of Valdivia, Valparaíso, Arica and Callao and constructed city walls in Lima, nevertheless, the famous English privateer Henry Morgan took Chagres and captured and sacked the city of Panama in the early part of 1670. Also Peruvian forces repelled the attacks by Edward David, Charles Wager, the Peace of Utrecht allowed the British to send ships and merchandise to the fair at Portobello. In this period, revolts were common, around 1656, Pedro Bohórquez crowned himself Inca of the Calchaquí Indians, inciting the indigenous population to revolt. From 1665 until 1668, the rich mineowners José and Gaspar Salcedo revolted against the colonial government, the clergy were opposed to the nomination of prelates from Spain. Viceroy Diego Ladrón de Guevara had to take measures against an uprising of slaves at the hacienda of Huachipa de Lima, there were terrible earthquakes and epidemics, too
Viceroyalty of Peru
Viceroyalty of Peru
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Cross of Burgundy (Flag of the Viceroyalty of Peru)
Viceroyalty of Peru
–
Francisco Álvarez de Toledo, Viceroy of Peru
Viceroyalty of Peru
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The Plaza Mayor and the
Cathedral of Lima
17.
Inca society
–
The Inca society was the society of the Inca civilization in South America. The Inca Empire, which was centred in what is now called Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador and southern Colombia and lasted from 1438 to 1533 AD, the Inca state was known as the Kingdom of Cusco before 1438. Over the course of the Inca Empire, the rulers used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate in their empire a large portion of western South America, the last Inca stronghold, the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba was conquered by the Spanish in 1572. Population estimates for the Tawantinsuyu society range from as few as 4 million people to more than 37 million, most estimates are between 6 and 14 million people. The reason for these estimates is that, despite that the Inca kept excellent census records using their quipus. Almost all of them were destroyed by the Spanish in the course of their conquest, Incan women were typically married at the age of sixteen, while men married at the age of 20. In Inca society, due to regulations, men of lower rank could only have one wife. The aristocracy, starting with the curaca, were allowed to engage in polygamy, trial marriages were typical within Inca culture. In this type of marriage, the man and woman would agree to try out being married to one another for a few years. At the end of time, the woman could go home to her parents if she wished. However, once the marriage was made final, they could only divorce if the woman was childless, women would almost always marry men in the same social class as themselves. However, while it was rare for them to marry a man with a higher social ranking. The only way for a woman to alter her social ranking would be if a man of higher ranking took notice of her. In the Inca society, a wedding was not a joyous celebration, instead, it was looked at more as a business-like agreement. Therefore, for the Inca, marriage was an agreement between two families. Once a woman was married, she was expected to collect food and cook, watch over the animals, a woman’s household obligations would not change after she became pregnant. The simple abstract geometric forms and highly stylised animal representation in ceramics, wood carvings, textiles, the motifs were not as revivalist as previous empires. No motifs of other societies were used with the exception of Huari
Inca society
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Inca Empire
Inca society
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Chimú -Inca ceramic from the
Late Horizon.
Inca society
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An
Andean silver bottle made by Chimú artisans from circa 1300 A.D.
Inca society
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Around 200 varieties of Peruvian potatoes were cultivated by the Incas and their predecessors
18.
Inca education
–
Inca education during the time of the Inca Empire was divided into two principal spheres, education for the upper classes and education for the general population. The Amawtakuna constituted a class of wise men similar to the bards of Great Britain. They included illustrious philosophers, poets, and priests who kept the histories of the Incas alive by imparting the knowledge of their own culture, history, and traditions throughout the kingdom. Thus, education throughout the territories of the Incas was socially discriminatory, barring the rank, the Amawtakuna did ensure that the general population learned Quechua as the language of the Empire, much in the same way the Romans promoted Latin throughout Europe. According to Fray Martín de Murúa, a chronicler of the time, the Amawtakuna used their erudition to teach the young novices of the empire about Inca religion, history and government, and moral norms. In addition, the men were given careful training in physical education. Most Inca novices finished their education at around age 19, after passing their examinations, the young men would receive their wara as proof of their maturity and virility. Some historians and authors have pointed to feminine schools for Inca princesses and it is believed the education given at the Acllahuasi in Cuzco was much different from that given at the other Acllahuasis in the provinces of the empire. The women learned Inca lore and the art of womanhood as well as related to governance. Other skills included spinning, weaving, and chicha brewing, when the Spanish chroniclers and conquistadors arrived they viewed these institutions as the Inca version of the European nunnery. Like the men, women were brought into the Acllahuasis from faraway villages throughout the empire after being chosen by Inca agents. The general population of the Inca Empire did not go to schools like the nobles did. This type of knowledge was passed on by the fathers and eldest family members through the generations
Inca education
–
Inca Empire
19.
Religion in the Inca Empire
–
In the heterogeneous Inca Empire, polytheistic religions were practiced. Some deities, such as Pachamama and Viracocha, were known throughout the empire, Inca deities occupied the three realms, hanan pacha, the celestial realm in the sky. Ukhu pacha, the earth realm. Kay pacha, the earth realm, where humans live. Ukhu pacha was the domain of Pachamama, the Earth mother, kanopa was the God of Pregnancy. Con-Tici Viracocha Pachayachachic, the first god, creator of the three ancient realms and their inhabitants, was also the father of Inti, many ancient Andean peoples traced their origins to ancestral deities. Multiple clans could share similar ancestral origins, the Inca claimed descent from the Sun and the Moon, their Father and Mother. Many clans claimed descent from early proto-humans that emerged from local sites in nature called pacarinas, the earliest ancestors of the Inca were known as Ayar, the first of which was Manco Cápac or Ayar Manco. Inca mythology tells of his travels, in which he and the Ayar shaped and marked the land, religious traditions in the Andes tended to vary among different ayllus. The Inca attempted to combine their deities with conquered ones in ways that raised the status of their own, one example of this is Pachamama, the goddess of Earth, who was worshiped long before the rise of the Inca. In the Inca mythology Pachamama having been integrated was placed below the Moon who the Inca believed ruled over all female gods, a theme in Inca mythology is the duality of the Cosmos. The realms were separated into the upper and lower realms, the hanan pacha, kay pacha, the realm of the outer earth, where humans resided was viewed as an intermediary realm between hanan pacha and ukhu pacha. The realms were represented by the condor, puma and snake, sacred sites or things named waka were spread around the Inca Empire. A waka could also be an object such as pottery which was believed to be a deity-carrying vessel. Spiritual leaders in a community would use prayer and offerings to communicate with a waka for advice or assistance, human sacrifice was part of Incan rituals in which they usually sacrificed a child or a slave. The Incan people thought it was an honor to die as an offering, divination was used to inform people in the city of social events, predict battle outcomes, and ask for metaphysical intervention. Divination was an important part of Inca religion, as reflected in the following quote, apachetas, coca and the sun were major elements in pre-Conquest religion, and divination, the worship of sacred mountains and the bringing retribution against enemies were important ritual practices. The Inca calendar had 12 months of 30 days, with each month having its own festival, the Incan year started in December, and began with Qhapaq Raymi, the magnificent festival
Religion in the Inca Empire
–
Inca Empire
Religion in the Inca Empire
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Inti Raymi,
Sacsayhuaman,
Cuzco
20.
Inca mythology
–
Inca mythology includes many stories and legends that attempt to explain or symbolize Inca beliefs. Ethnographic and anthropological studies such as Prof and this was the main tool to ensure cultural transmission of key information, in spite of regime change or social catastrophes. The Inca myths have been interpreted from a Eurocentric perspectives, this is detached from cosmology and agriculture, depriving of its richness, all those that followed the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire by Francisco Pizarro burned the records kept by the Inca culture. There is currently a theory put forward by Gary Urton that the Quipus could have represented a system capable of recording phonological or logographic data. Manco Cápac the legendary founder of the Inca Dynasty in Peru, the legends and history surrounding this mythical figure are very jumbled, especially those concerning his rule at Cuzco and his birth or his origins respectively. In one legend, he was the son of Tici Viracocha, in another, he was brought up from the depths of Lake Titicaca by the sun god Inti. However, commoners were not allowed to speak the name of Inca Viracocha, there were also many myths about Manco Cápac and his coming to power. In one myth, Manco Cápac and his brother Pacha Kamaq were sons of the sun god Inti, Manco Cápac, himself, was worshiped as a fire and sun god. In another myth, Manco Cápac was sent with Mama Ocllo to Lake Titicaca where they resurfaced and settled in Isla Del Sol, Bolivia. They were instructed to create a Temple of the Sun in the spot where the staff sank into the earth to honor the sun god Inti, their father. In another version of this legend, instead of emerging from a cave in Cuzco, since this was a later origin myth than that of Pacaritambo it may have been created as a ploy to bring the powerful Aymara tribes into the fold of the Tawantinsuyo. In the Inca Virachocha legend, Manco Cápac was the son of Inca Viracocha of Paqariq Tampu which is 25 km south of Cuzco. He and his brothers, and sisters lived near Cusco at Paqariq Tampu, and uniting their people and this legend also incorporates the golden staff, which is thought to have been given to Manco Cápac by his father. Accounts vary, but according to versions of the legend, the young Manco jealously betrayed his older brothers, killed them. Like the Romans, the Incas permitted the cultures they integrated into their empire to keep their individual religions, below are some of the various gods worshiped by the peoples of the Incan empire, many of which have overlapping responsibilities and domains. Unless otherwise noted, it can safely be assumed these were worshipped by different ayllus or worshipped in particular former states, Apu was a god or spirit of mountains. All of the important mountains have their own Apu, and some of them receive sacrifices to bring out aspects of their being. Some rocks and caves also are credited as having their own apu, apocatequil or Illapa was the god of lightning
Inca mythology
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Inca Empire
Inca mythology
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Viracocha, is the great creator god in Inca mythology
Inca mythology
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Supay, god of death in the Andean diablada
Inca mythology
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Chakana or tree of life
21.
Inca architecture
–
Incan architecture is the most significant pre-Columbian architecture in South America. The Incas inherited a legacy from Tiwanaku, founded in the 2nd century BCE in present-day Bolivia. The capital of the Inca empire, Cuzco, still contains many examples of Inca architecture. The famous royal estate of Machu Picchu is an example of Inca architecture. Other significant sites include Saksaywaman and Ollantaytambo, the Incas also developed an extensive road system spanning most of the western length of the continent. Inca buildings were made out of fieldstones or semi-worked stone blocks and dirt set in mortar, adobe walls were quite common. The material used in Inca buildings depended on the region, for instance, the most common shape in Inca architecture was the rectangular building without any internal walls and roofed with wooden beams and thatch. There were several variations of basic design, including gabled roofs. Rectangular buildings were used for different functions in almost all Inca buildings. Even so, there are examples of curved walls on Inca buildings. Two-story buildings were infrequent, when they were built the second floor was accessed from the outside via a stairway or high terrain rather than from the first floor. Wall apertures, including doors, niches and windows, usually had a trapezoidal shape, other kinds of decoration were scarce, some walls were painted or adorned with metal plaques, in rare cases walls were sculpted with small animals or geometric patterns. The most common form in Inca architecture was the kancha. A testimony of the importance of these compounds in Inca architecture is that the part of the Inca capital of Cusco consisted of large kancha, including Qurikancha. The best preserved examples of kancha are found at Ollantaytambo, an Inca settlement located along the Urubamba River, Inca architecture is widely known for its fine masonry, which features precisely cut and shaped stones closely fitted without mortar. However, despite this fame, most Inca buildings were made out of fieldstone. In the 1940s, American archaeologist John H. Rowe classified Inca fine masonry in two types, coursed, which features rectangular shaped stones, and polygonal, which blocks of irregular shape. In addition to references, they also identified some formal similarities between Tiwanaku and Inca architecture including the use of cut and polished stone blocks, as well as of double jambs
Inca architecture
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Twelve angle stone, in the Hatun Rumiyoc street of
Cuzco, is an example of Inca masonry
Inca architecture
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Cyclopean polygonal masonry at
Sacsayhuamán
Inca architecture
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Inca wall in Cuzco
Inca architecture
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Digital reconstruction of original
Inca painting on Room 42 wall,
Tambo Colorado; this late Inca period fortress/palace is still largely intact despite being constructed of adobe and located in an earthquake-prone area of
Peru. Remaining traces of the original paint guided this 2005 reconstruction. Laser scan data taken from a
CyArk /
University of California research partnership
22.
Incan engineers
–
The builders of Incan planned and built impressive waterworks in their city centers, including canals, fountains, drainage systems and expansive irrigation. Incas infrastructure and water system have been hailed as “the pinnacle of the architectural. Major Incan centers were chosen by experts who decided the site, its apportionment, in 1450 the best example of Incan civil engineering, Machu Picchu, was constructed. The famous lost Inca city is a remnant of a society whose understanding of civil. At 8,000 feet in the Andes Mountains, the city planners had to consider the steep slopes of the site as well as the 2,000 mm of rainfall per year. Making models out of clay before beginning to build, the city planners remained consistent with Inca architecture and laid out a city separated the agriculture. Before construction began the engineers had to assess the spring and whether it could provide for all of the city’s anticipated citizens, after evaluating the water supply, the civil engineers designed a 2, 457-foot -long canal to what would become the city’s center. The canal descends the slope, enters the city walls, passes through the agricultural sector, then crosses the inner wall into the urban sector. At the head of each fountain, a cut stone conduit carries the water to a rectangular spout, the water collects in a stone basin in the floor of the fountain, then enters a circular drain that delivers it to the approach channel for the next fountain. The Incans built the canals on steady grades, using cut stones as the water channels, most citizens worked on the construction and maintenance of the canal and irrigation systems, bronze and stone tools to complete the water-tight stone canals. The water then traveled through the channels into sixteen fountains known as the stairway of fountains and this incredible feat supplied the population of Machu Picchu, which varied between 300 and 1000 people when the emperor was present, and also helped irrigate water to the farming steppes. The fountains and canal system were built so well that they would, after a few minor repairs, to go along with the Incans advanced water supply system, an equally impressive drainage system was built as well. Machu Picchu contains nearly 130 outlets in the center moved the water out of the city through walls. These channels carried the runoff into the drain, avoiding the main water supply. This carefully planned system, which was more advanced than European cities, shows the Incans concern. “Inka Hydraulic Engineering” University of Colorado at Denver. “Water Supply and Drainage Systems at Machu Picchu”19 September 2006 Wright, Kenneth R. “Machu Picchu, Prehistoric Public Works. ”American Public Works Association APWA Reporter,17 November 2003 D’Altroy, Terence N. new York, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers,2001. Wright, Kenneth, Jonathan M. Kelly, Alfredo Valencia Zegarra, journal of Hydraulic Engineering, October 1997
Incan engineers
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Inca Empire
23.
Inca road system
–
The Inca road system was the most extensive and advanced transportation system in pre-Columbian South America. It was about 39,900 kilometres long, the network was based on two north-south roads with numerous branches. The best known portion of the system is the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu. Part of the network was built by cultures that precede the Inca Empire. During the Spanish colonial era, parts of the system were given the status of Camino Real. In 2014 the road became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The eastern route ran high in the grasslands and mountain valleys from Quito, Ecuador to Mendoza. The western route followed the coastal plain not including in coastal deserts where it hugged the foothills, more than twenty routes ran over the western mountains, while others traversed the eastern cordillera in the mountains and lowlands. Some of these roads reach heights of over 5,000 metres above sea level, the trails connected the regions of the Inca empire from the northern provincial capital in Quito, Ecuador past the modern city of Santiago, Chile in the south. The Inca road system linked together about 40,000 kilometres of roadway, although the Inca roads varied greatly in scale, construction, and appearance, for the most part they varied between about 1 to 4 metres in width. Much of the system was the result of the Incas claiming exclusive right over numerous traditional routes, many new sections were built or upgraded substantially, through Chiles Atacama desert, and along the western margin of Lake Titicaca, serve as two examples. The Incas developed techniques to overcome the difficult territory of the Andes, on steep slopes they built stone steps resembling giant flights of stairs. In desert areas near the coast they built low walls to keep the sand from drifting over the road, the Qhapaq Ñan constituted the principal north-south highway of the Inca Empire traveling 6,000 kilometres along the spine of the Andes. The Qhapaq Ñan unified this immense and heterogeneous empire through a political system of power. It allowed the Inca to control his Empire and to troops as needed from the capital. The most important Inca road was the Camino Real, as it is known in Spanish and it began in Quito, Ecuador, passed through Cusco, and ended in what is now Tucumán, Argentina. The Camino Real traversed the mountain ranges of the Andes, with altitudes of more than 5,000 m. El Camino de la Costa, the trail, with a length of 4,000 kilometres
Inca road system
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Extension of the Inca road system
Inca road system
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Inca Empire
24.
Inca army
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The Inca Army was a multi-ethnic army charged with defending the sovereignty of try. As the Inca empire grew, the army of peasant warriors was replaced by an army with professional officers, officers were chosen during the Warachikuy festival during which candidates had to undergo various tests of physical skill such as racing, marksmanship, simulated combat and battle drill. There was even a competition to see if they could stay awake for a long period, Inca battalions contained permanent staff and non-permanent personnel composed of drafted hatun runas who would be serving their military mita public service. Once the mita was fulfilled, each hatun runa would return to their respective ayllu, each battalion was made up of a single ethnic group, the whole group being directed by a kuraka who had the same ethnicity. In the event that a kuraka fell in battle a replacement was appointed from within the ethnic group. This concept of duality is widespread in the Andean world, since the government of Tupac Yupanqui, a specialized elite group of soldiers was appointed for the safekeeping of the Sapa Inca during parades, travel or campaigns. These bodyguards originated primarily in Cusco, even though with time outstanding soldiers from other ethnicities were accepted into the group and this imperial guard, all of them belonging to the nobility, reached a size of 10,000. All members of the Inca army were between 25 and 50 years old, all of the empires citizens had to perform either military or community service. One of every 50 men over 25 years old would be chosen for military service, for noblemen, this was an honor and a duty, for common men, it was a means of social promotion. In accordance with the duality concept, one of every 50 young women were selected to serve in the Temple of the Virgins of the Sun, after a certain period of time, the military service was considered to be fulfilled for common men. However, professional officers were permanent soldiers and paid by the state and this military caste enjoyed several privileges as the State paid for their food and housing costs as well as clothing and several other gifts such as coca, jewelry, and wives. Runas from the region, unlike people from the highlands, were not compelled to serve in the army. This is probably explained by their lack of adaptation to the climate conditions of the highlands. It is worth noting that the units would march in the company of a large number of women. Women would take care of cooking and repairing the clothes and after battles would attend the wounded. Inca armies would not fight at night for religious reasons, a group of priests would also be attached to the army units, in order to pray, make sacrifices, and try to weaken the opposing force by casting spells before and during battle. Weapons and other equipment were transported by llamas, during the beginnings of the Incan empire the army was mainly formed of ethnic Inca troops, however, later on only the officers and imperial guards were Incas. The squads were organized according to the ethnicity of the soldiers, they were armed and dressed according to their tribe, with skins, fabric shields, feathers
Inca army
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Inca Empire
Inca army
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The Inca soldier Cahuide jumping from the tower of
Saksaywaman.
Inca army
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Star-headed spear.
Inca army
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Manco Inca using Spanish weapons.
25.
Incan agriculture
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Incan Agriculture was the culmination of thousands of years of farming and herding in the high-elevation Andes mountains of South America, the coastal deserts, and the rainforests of the Amazon basin. These three radically different environments were all part of the Inca Empire and required different technologies for agriculture, Inca agriculture was also characterized by the variety of crops grown, the lack of a market system and money, and the unique mechanisms by which the Incas organized their society. Andean civilization was pristine -- one of five civilizations worldwide which were indigenous, most Andean crops and domestic animals were likewise pristine -- not known to other civilizations. Potatoes and Quinoa were among the crops and Camelids. The Incan civilization was predominantly agricultural, the Incas had to overcome the adversities of the Andean terrain and weather. The heartland of the Inca Empire was in the plateaus and mountains of the Andes of Peru. This area is almost entirely above 3,000 metres in elevation and is characterized by low or seasonal precipitation, low temperatures, freezing temperatures may occur in every month of the year at these altitudes. Westward from the Andes is the Pacific Ocean, its coast often called the driest desert in the world, Agriculture is only possible with irrigation waters from the many rivers originating in the Andes and crossing the desert to the ocean. Eastward from the Andes are the foothills above the Amazon Basin, an area of abundant rainfall, exuberant vegetation. In the Inca Empire, society was tightly organized, land was divided in roughly equal shares for the emperor, the state religion, and the farmers themselves. Individual farmers were allocated land by the leader of the ayllu, the allocations of land to individual farmers depended upon kinship, social status, and number of family members. The farmers were expected to produce their own sustenance from the land they were allocated, rather than being taxed on their production, farmers were required to work on the lands of the emperor and the state religion for designated periods. The Inca state provided the inputs -- seeds, fertilizer, communities were essentially self-sufficient, growing a variety of crops, pasturing camelids, and weaving cloth. Private property existed in the form of estates, especially in the Sacred Valley near the Inca capital of Cuzco. Emperors customarily confiscated large quantities of land for their own use and exploitation, the famous archaeological site of Machu Picchu was a royal estate. The royal estates made use of labor, but also were staffed by a servant class called yanakunas who were ruled directly by Inca nobles and were outside the ayllu kinship system. In the oasis valleys on the desert coast, the population was more specialized, divided mostly into farmers, in the Andes, altitude, scarcity of flat land, and climatic uncertainty were major factors influencing farmers. The Incas, the leaders of the ayllus and the individual farmers decreased their risk of poor crop years with a variety of measures
Incan agriculture
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Andenes or terraces in the
Sacred Valley of the Incas, close to
Pisac,
Peru. Symbol of the technology
Incan agriculture
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Illustration of Inca farmers using a chaki taklla, by
Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, 1616.
Incan agriculture
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A farmer using the chaki taklla in the village of Hatunqulla,
Puno Region, Peru
Incan agriculture
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A traditional hoe still used by many small farmers throughout Peru.
26.
Inca cuisine
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Inca cuisine originated in pre-Columbian times within the Inca civilization from the 13th to the 16th century. The Inca civilization stretched across many regions, and so there was a diversity of plants and animals used for food. The most important staples were various tubers, roots, and grains, maize was of high prestige, but could not be grown as extensively as it was further north. The most common sources of meat were guinea pigs and llamas, there were also several types of edible clay, like pasa, which was used as sauce for potatoes and other tubers, and chaco, something used by the poor or religiously devout. As in the rest of Central and South America, chili peppers were an important, the Inca realm stretched north-south, encompassing a great variety of climate zones. In Peru in particular, the mountain ranges provide highly varied types of growing zones at different altitudes, the staples of the Incas included various plants with edible tubers and roots like potato and sweet potato, in hundreds of varieties. Slightly over 4,000 types are known to Peru, there was also oca, which came in two varieties, sweet and bitter. The sweet variety could be eaten raw or preserved and was used as a sweetener before the arrival of sugar, the insipid, starchy root ullucu, and arracacha, something like a cross between carrot and celery were, like potatoes, used in stews and soups. Achira, a species of Canna, was a sweet, starchy root that was baked in earth ovens, since it had to be transported up to the power center of Cuzco, it is considered to have been food eaten as part of a tradition. Although the roots and tubers provided the staples of the Inca, several species of seaweed were part of the Inca diet and could be eaten fresh or dried. Some freshwater algae and blue algae of the genus Nostoc were eaten raw or processed for storage, in post-colonial times it has been used to make a dessert by boiling it in sugar. Pepino, a refreshing and thirst-quenching fruit, was eaten by common folk, peoples of the Altiplano had two large domesticated animals, llamas and alpacas. They were kept for their wool and used as pack animals that were used in large caravans. The llama in particular was highly valued, and a white llama adorned in red cloth with gold earrings would often go before the Inca ruler as a royal symbol. Animals were believed to represent various gods depending on what color they had and were sacrificed in great number, the control over the sacred animals was very rigorous. Shepherds had to every last part of any animal that died. Among the food made from the Peruvian camelids was sharqui, strips of freeze-dried meat. The meat of the folk was the cuy, guinea pig
Inca cuisine
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Pachamanca, a traditional dish consisting of food prepared in a
huatia.
Inca cuisine
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The people of the Andes developed hundreds of varieties of potatoes. Most of them are still unknown in the rest of the world.
Inca cuisine
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Two modern
Peruvian dishes of cuy meat
27.
History of the Incas
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The Inca state was known as the Kingdom of Cusco before 1438. Over the course of the Inca Empire, the Inca used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate in their empire a large portion of western South America, centred on the Andean mountain ranges. However, shortly after the Inca Civil War, the last Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire was captured and killed on the orders of the conquistador Francisco Pizarro, marking the beginning of Spanish rule. The remnants of the empire retreated to the jungles of Vilcabamba and established the small Neo-Inca State. The Quechua name was Tawantin Suyu which can be translated The Four Regions or The Four United Regions, before the Quechua spelling reform it was written in Spanish as Tahuantinsuyo. Tawantin is a group of four things, suyu means region or province, the empire was divided into four suyus, whose corners met at the capital, Cuzco, in modern-day Peru. The official language of the empire was Quechua, although over seven hundred local languages were spoken, the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of their gods, the foremost of which was Inti, the sun god. The Inca had four types of origin myths, in one, Tici Viracocha of Colina de las Ventanas in Paqariq Tampu sent forth his four sons and four daughters to establish a village. Along the way, Sinchi Roca was born to Manco and Ocllo, there Manco became their leader and became known as Manco Cápac. In another origin myth the sun god Inti ordered Manco Cápac and Mama Ocllo to emerge from the depths of Lake Titicaca and they traveled by means of underground caves until reaching Cuzco where they established Hurin Cuzco, or the first dynasty of the Kingdom of Cuzco. In the third origin myth, an Inca sun god told his wife that he was lonely and she proposed that he create a civilization to worship him and keep him company. He saw this as a plan and carried it out. The Inca were born from Lake Cusco and populated the Andes and worshiped their sun god. In the last origin myth, Manco Cápac, who was the son of the sun, and his sister Mama Occlo and they were to tell when they were at the right place by carrying a special rod with them at all times. Wherever the rod sank into the ground, this was where they were to create a new city, the rod sank into the ground in Cuzco. The knowledge of myths is due to oral tradition, since the Incas did not have writing. Manco Cápac, who became the leader of his tribe, probably did exist, the Inca people began as a tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century AD. Under the leadership of Manco Cápac they formed the small city-state of Cusco Quechua Qosqo, in 1438 AD, under the command of Sapa Inca Pachacuti, whose name meant world-shaker, they began a far-reaching expansion
History of the Incas
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Inca Empire
History of the Incas
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Spanish colonization of the Americas
28.
Kingdom of Cusco
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The Kingdom of Cusco was a small kingdom based in Cusco on the Andean mountain ranges that began as a small city-state founded by the Incas around the 12th century. In time, through warfare or peaceful assimilation, it began to grow and was succeeded by the Inca Empire. The Inca people began as a tribe in the Cuzco area around the 12th century AD, under the leadership of Manco Cápac, they formed the small city-state of Cusco, shown in red on the map below. In 1438 AD, under the command of the Sapa Inca Pachacuti, Pachacuti is thought to have built the citadel of Machu Picchu, either as a family home or as a vacation estate. The Sapa Inca of the first dynasty of the Kingdom of Cusco were, in order, Manco Cápac, Sinchi Roca, Lloque Yupanqui, Mayta Cápac, evidence of state organization dates from 1200 AD. Little is known of this population, but in years the meaning of cápac meant warlord. The Inca civilization spread rapidly from their beginnings in the Kingdom of Cuzco located in southern Peru. The following outlines each of the Incan rulers and a few of their accomplishments in greater detail, while in fact, his kingdom was still limited to the valley of Cuzco. His great military feat may have been the subjugation of another tribe in the valley, túpac Amaru was the last legitimate Inca to rule, and, unfortunately, the most unfit. With the death of his elder brother Titu Cosi, he ordered the execution of all Spanish people living in Vilcabamba and this resulted in his death and the end of Incan sovereignty, for Vilcabamba was occupied and the survivors enslaved. The Last Days of the Incas
Kingdom of Cusco
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Map of the Kingdom of Cusco.
Kingdom of Cusco
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Inca Empire
29.
Inca Civil War
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The war followed Huayna Capacs death in 1527, although it did not begin until 1529, and lasted until 1532. Huáscar initiated the war because he saw himself as the heir to the kingdom of all the Incas. Accounts from sources all vary in the exact details, in 1524-1526, the Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro explored South America. There were 62 horsemen and 106 foot soldiers, smallpox was taken to the continent, causing disaster for the Incas. Sapa Inca Huayna Capac travelled north to investigate the strangers, although he never met any Spaniards, he contracted smallpox and died in 1524. His eldest son and heir, Ninan Cuyochi, died soon after him, thus it became uncertain as to who should be the next Inca king. There were no rules of succession. The choice stood between two sons of Huayna Capac, Huáscar, and Atahualpa, born of different mothers and he was the eldest pure Inca, because his parents, Huayna Capac and Chincha Ocllo, were siblings. Huascar was ill tempered, suspicious and disrespectful of the laws, Atahualpas mother, Paccha, was born outside the royal family and was merely the daughter of Cacha Shyri Duchicela, the former leader against the Incan conquest in the north. He was much liked in the North, as he was good tempered and carried himself with royal dignity and he allegedly had cunning and early wisdom. Nobles considered Atahualpa illegitimate and Huáscar felt it an insult that a bastard was even considered for Sapa Inca, Huáscar eventually became king, but he felt that Atahualpa should not have any more land and that he should pay homage to him. Soon after Huascar claimed the throne, he expected all subjects to swear him allegiance, to announce his loyalty, Atahualpa sent his most trusted captains to Cuzco, along with generous gifts of gold and silver. Accusing him of rebellion, he ordered some of his messengers killed, Atahualpa declared war against his brother. Just before the Spaniards arrived in Cajamarca, Atahualpa had sent troops to Cusco to capture Huáscar, Huáscar gathered his soldiers in preparation for attack. After getting stunned by his brother, Huascar proclaimed him a traitor, people loyal to Atahualpa created a new capital in Quito, so they could follow their preferred ruler and gain favor within the government. Atahualpa agreed to take the role of Sapa Inca in this new capital. At this news, Huáscar and his army moved north in an attack at Tumebamba. The local Cañari supported the attack, in order to expel the nearest source of power, while the army celebrated, they got drunk and allowed a woman in to meet Atahualpa
Inca Civil War
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Emperor Atahualpa, the victorious brother, however, his reign as emperor was short.
Inca Civil War
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Inca Empire
Inca Civil War
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Huáscar, who was defeated in the war between him and his brother
30.
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
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The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. It was the first step in a campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory in 1572. The conquest of the Inca Empire led to spin-off campaigns into present-day Chile and Colombia, when the Spanish arrived at the borders of the Inca Empire in 1528, it spanned a considerable area, by far the largest of the four grand pre-Columbian civilizations. In less than a century, the Inca had expanded their empire from about 400,000 km² in 1448, to 1,800,000 km² in 1528 and this vast area of land varied greatly in cultures and in climate. Because of the cultures and geography, the Inca allowed many areas of the empire to be governed under the control of local leaders. However, under the administrative mechanisms established by the Inca, all parts of the empire answered to, and were ultimately under the control of. Scholars estimate that the population of the Inca Empire numbered more than 16,000,000, in 1528, Emperor Huayna Capac ruled the Inca Empire. He could trace his lineage back to a king named Manco Cápac, the mythical founder of the Inca clan. On his accession to the throne, Huayna Capac had continued the policy of expansion by conquest, while he had to put down a number of rebellions during his reign, by the time of his death, his legitimacy was as unquestioned as was the primacy of Inca power. However, expansion had resulted in its own problems, many parts of the empire maintained distinctive cultures and these were at best resistive participants in the imperial project. Huayna Capac relied on his sons to support his reign, while he had many legitimate and illegitimate children, two sons are historically important. Prince Túpac Cusi Hualpa, also known as Huáscar, was the son of Coya Mama Rahua Occllo of the royal line and these two sons would play pivotal roles in the final years of the Inca Empire. The Spanish conquistador Pizarro and his men were greatly aided in their enterprise by invading when the Inca Empire was in the midst of a war of succession between the princes Huáscar and Atahualpa. Atahualpa seems to have spent more time with Huayna Capac during the years when he was in the north with the army conquering Ecuador, Atahualpa was thus closer to, and had better relations with the army and its leading generals. Huayna had died before he could nominate the new heir, at the time of Huayna Capacs death, Huáscar was in the capital Cuzco, while Atahualpa was in Quitu with the main body of the Inca army. Huáscar had himself proclaimed Sapa Inca in Cuzco, but the army declared loyalty to Atahualpa, the resulting dispute led to the Inca Civil War. The civil war between Atahualpa and Huascar weakened the empire prior to its struggle with the Spanish. Atahualpa appeared to be popular with the people than his brother, and he was certainly more valued by the army
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
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Inca Empire
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
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Francisco Pizarro meets with Atahualpa, 1532
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
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The Inca–Spanish confrontation in the
Battle of Cajamarca left thousands of natives dead
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
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Pizarro and his followers founding Lima
Peru
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