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The arts
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The arts represent an outlet of expression that is usually influenced by culture in society and which in turn helps to change culture. As such, the arts are a manifestation of peoples internal creative impulse. Some art forms combine a visual element with performance or artwork with the written word, from prehistoric cave paintings to modern day films, art serves as a vessel for storytelling and conveying humankinds relationship with its environment. A debate exists in the arts and video game cultures over whether video games can be counted as an art form. In its most basic definition, art is a documented expression of a sentient being through or on an accessible medium so that anyone can view. The act itself of producing an expression can also be referred to as a certain art, or as art in general. If this solidified expression, or the act of producing it, is good or has value depends on those who access and rate it and this public rating is dependent on various subjective factors. Merriam-Webster defines the arts as painting, sculpture, music, theater, literature, etc. considered as a group of activities done by people with skill, and the study and application of the arts to the human environment. In Ancient Greece, all art and craft was referred to by the same word, thus, there was no distinction between the arts. Ancient Greek art brought the veneration of the form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty. Ancient Roman art depicted gods as idealized humans, shown with characteristic distinguishing features, in Byzantine and Gothic art of the Middle Ages, the dominance of the church insisted on the expression of biblical and not material truths. Eastern art has worked in a style akin to Western medieval art, namely a concentration on surface patterning. A characteristic of this style is that the colour is often defined by an outline. This is evident in, for example, the art of India, Tibet, religious Islamic art forbids iconography, and expresses religious ideas through geometry instead. The Artes Mechanicae were practised and developed in guild environments, the modern distinction between artistic and non-artistic skills did not develop until the Renaissance. In modern academia, the arts are usually grouped with or as a subset of the humanities, some subjects in the humanities are history, linguistics, literature, theology, philosophy, and/or logic. Drawing is a means of making an image, using any of a variety of tools. It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, common tools are graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax colour pencils, crayons, charcoals, pastels, and markers
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Design
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Design is the creation of a plan or convention for the construction of an object, system or measurable human interaction. Design has different connotations in different fields, in some cases, the direct construction of an object is also considered to use design thinking. Designing often necessitates considering the aesthetic, functional, economic, and it may involve considerable research, thought, modeling, interactive adjustment, and re-design. Meanwhile, diverse kinds of objects may be designed, including clothing, graphical user interfaces, skyscrapers, corporate identities, business processes, and even methods or processes of designing. Thus design may be a substantive referring to an abstraction of a created thing or things. It is an act of creativity and innovation, here, a specification can be manifested as either a plan or a finished product, and primitives are the elements from which the design object is composed. With such a broad denotation, there is no language or unifying institution for designers of all disciplines. This allows for many differing philosophies and approaches toward the subject, the person designing is called a designer, which is also a term used for people who work professionally in one of the various design areas usually specifying which area is being dealt with. A designers sequence of activities is called a process while the scientific study of design is called design science. Another definition of design is planning to manufacture an object, system, thus the word design can be used as a noun or a verb. In a broader sense, the design is an applied art, while the definition of design is fairly broad, design has a myriad of specifications that professionals utilize in their fields. Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, the prevailing view has been called The Rational Model, Technical Problem Solving and The Reason-Centric Perspective. The alternative view has been called Reflection-in-Action, Evolutionary Design, co-evolution, the Rational Model was independently developed by Herbert A. Simon, an American scientist, and Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz, two German engineering design theorists. The Rational Model is based on a rationalist philosophy and underlies the waterfall model, systems development life cycle, according to the rationalist philosophy, design is informed by research and knowledge in a predictable and controlled manner. Technical rationality is at the center of the process, each stage has many associated best practices. Unrealistic assumptions – goals are often unknown when a design project begins, the Action-Centric Perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to The Rational Model. Substantial empirical evidence supports the veracity of this perspective in describing the actions of real designers, like the Rational Model, the Action-Centric model sees design as informed by research and knowledge. Designers context-dependent experience and professional judgment take center stage more than technical rationality, at least two views of design activity are consistent with the Action-Centric Perspective
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Architecture
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Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
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Postmodernism
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Postmodernism describes a broad movement that developed in the mid to late 20th century across philosophy, the arts, architecture and criticism which marked a departure from modernism. Accordingly, postmodern thought is characterized by tendencies to epistemological and moral relativism, pluralism, irreverence. The term postmodernism has been applied both to the era following modernity, and to a host of movements within that era that reacted against tendencies in modernism. Postmodernism includes skeptical critical interpretations of culture, literature, art, philosophy, history, linguistics, economics, architecture, fiction, feminist theory, and literary criticism. Postmodernism is often associated with schools of such as deconstruction and post-structuralism, as well as philosophers such as Jean-François Lyotard. The term postmodern was first used around the 1880s, John Watkins Chapman suggested a Postmodern style of painting as a way to depart from French Impressionism. In 1921 and 1925, postmodernism had been used to new forms of art. In 1942 H. R. Hays described it as a new literary form, however, as a general theory for a historical movement it was first used in 1939 by Arnold J. Toynbee, Our own Post-Modern Age has been inaugurated by the general war of 1914–1918. Peter Drucker suggested the transformation into a post modern world happened between 1937 and 1957, post-structuralism resulted similarly to postmodernism by following a time of structuralism. It is characterized by new ways of thinking through structuralism, contrary to the original form, postmodernist describes part of a movement, Postmodern places it in the period of time since the 1950s, making it a part of contemporary history. Martin Heidegger rejected the philosophical basis of the concepts of subjectivity and objectivity, instead of resisting the admission of this paradox in the search for understanding, Heidegger requires that we embrace it through an active process of elucidation he called the hermeneutic circle. He stressed the historicity and cultural construction of concepts while simultaneously advocating the necessity of an atemporal, in this latter premise, Heidegger shares an affinity with the late Romantic philosopher, Friedrich Nietzsche, another principal forerunner of post-structuralist and postmodernist thought. Instead, Foucault focused on the ways in which such constructs can foster cultural hegemony, violence and his writings have had a major influence on the larger body of postmodern academic literature. These metanarratives still remain in Western society but are now being undermined by rapid Informatization, Richard Rorty argues in Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature that contemporary analytic philosophy mistakenly imitates scientific methods. For Baudrillard, “simulation is no longer that of a territory and it is the generation by models of a real without origin or a reality, a hyperreal. In Analysis of the Journey, a journal birthed from postmodernism, Douglas Kellner insists that the assumptions and his terms defined in the depth of postmodernism are based on advancement, innovation, and adaptation. Extensively, Kellner analyzes the terms of theory in real-life experiences and examples. Kellner used science and technology studies as a part of his analysis
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Idealism
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In philosophy, idealism is the group of philosophies which assert that reality, or reality as we can know it, is fundamentally mental, mentally constructed, or otherwise immaterial. Epistemologically, idealism manifests as a skepticism about the possibility of knowing any mind-independent thing, in a sociological sense, idealism emphasizes how human ideas—especially beliefs and values—shape society. As an ontological doctrine, idealism goes further, asserting that all entities are composed of mind or spirit, Idealism thus rejects physicalist and dualist theories that fail to ascribe priority to the mind. The earliest extant arguments that the world of experience is grounded in the mental derive from India, the Hindu idealists in India and the Greek Neoplatonists gave panentheistic arguments for an all-pervading consciousness as the ground or true nature of reality. This turn toward the subjective anticipated empiricists such as George Berkeley, beginning with Immanuel Kant, German idealists such as G. W. F. Hegel, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, and Arthur Schopenhauer dominated 19th-century philosophy. This tradition, which emphasized the mental or ideal character of all phenomena, gave birth to idealistic, the historical influence of this branch of idealism remains central even to the schools that rejected its metaphysical assumptions, such as Marxism, pragmatism and positivism. Idealism is a term with related meanings. It comes via idea from the Greek idein, meaning to see, the term entered the English language by 1743. In ordinary use, as speaking of Woodrow Wilsons political idealism, it generally suggests the priority of ideals, principles, values. Idealists are understood to represent the world as it might or should be, unlike pragmatists, in the arts, similarly, idealism affirms imagination and attempts to realize a mental conception of beauty, a standard of perfection, juxtaposed to aesthetic naturalism and realism. Any philosophy that assigns crucial importance to the ideal or spiritual realm in its account of human existence may be termed idealist, metaphysical idealism is an ontological doctrine that holds that reality itself is incorporeal or experiential at its core. Beyond this, idealists disagree on which aspects of the mental are more basic, epistemological idealism is the view that reality can only be known through ideas, that only psychological experience can be apprehended by the mind. Thus Kant defines idealism as the assertion that we can never be certain all of our putative outer experience is not mere imagining. He claimed that, according to idealism, the reality of external objects does not admit of strict proof, on the contrary, however, the reality of the object of our internal sense is clear immediately through consciousness. However, not all idealists restrict the real or the knowable to our subjective experience. Objective idealists make claims about a world, but simply deny that this world is essentially divorced from or ontologically prior to the mental. Nor do all metaphysical idealists agree on the nature of the ideal, for Plato, monistic idealism holds that consciousness, not matter, is the ground of all being. It is monist because it holds that there is one type of thing in the universe
6.
Avant-garde
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The avant-garde are people or works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox, with respect to art, culture, and society. It may be characterized by nontraditional, aesthetic innovation and initial unacceptability, the avant-garde pushes the boundaries of what is accepted as the norm or the status quo, primarily in the cultural realm. The avant-garde is considered by some to be a hallmark of modernism, the avant-garde also promotes radical social reforms. Several writers have attempted, with limited success, to map the parameters of avant-garde activity, the Italian essayist Renato Poggioli provides one of the best-known analyses of vanguardism as a cultural phenomenon in his 1962 book Teoria dellarte davanguardia. Other authors have attempted both to clarify and to extend Poggiolis study, bürgers essay also greatly influenced the work of contemporary American art-historians such as the German Benjamin H. D. Buchloh. Buchloh, in the collection of essays Neo-avantgarde and Culture Industry critically argues for an approach to these positions. Subsequent criticism theorized the limitations of these approaches, noting their circumscribed areas of analysis, including Eurocentric, chauvinist, and genre-specific definitions. The concept of avant-garde refers primarily to artists, writers, composers and thinkers whose work is opposed to cultural values. For Greenberg, these forms were therefore kitsch, phony, faked or mechanical culture, for instance, during the 1930s the advertising industry was quick to take visual mannerisms from surrealism, but this does not mean that 1930s advertising photographs are truly surreal. In this way the autonomous artistic merit so dear to the vanguardist was abandoned and sales became the measure. It has become common to describe successful rock musicians and celebrated film-makers as avant-garde, nevertheless, an incisive critique of vanguardism as against the views of mainstream society was offered by the New York critic Harold Rosenberg in the late 1960s. Since then it has been flanked by what he called avant-garde ghosts to the one side, and this has seen culture become, in his words, a profession one of whose aspects is the pretense of overthrowing it. Avant-garde in music can refer to any form of working within traditional structures while seeking to breach boundaries in some manner. The term is used loosely to describe the work of any musicians who radically depart from tradition altogether, although most avant-garde composers have been men, this is not exclusively the case. Women avant-gardists include Pauline Oliveros, Diamanda Galás, Meredith Monk, there are movements in theatre history that are characterized by their contributions to the avant-garde traditions in both the United States and Europe. Among these are Fluxus, Happenings, and Neo-Dada, Avant-garde – Wikipedia book Barron, Stephanie, and Maurice Tuchman. The Avant-garde in Russia, 1910–1930, New Perspectives, Los Angeles County Museum of Art Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Los Angeles, CA, Los Angeles County Museum of Art ISBN 0-87587-095-3, Cambridge, MA, ISBN 0-671-20422-X Berg, Hubert van den, and Walter Fähnders
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
8.
Futurist architecture
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The movement attracted not only poets, musicians, and artists but also a number of architects. A cult of the age and even a glorification of war. The latter group included the architect Antonio SantElia, who, though building little, in 1912, three years after Marinettis Futurist Manifesto, Antonio SantElia and Mario Chiattone take part to the Nuove Tendenze exhibition in Milano. In 1914 the group presented their first exposition with a Message by SantElia, also Boccioni unofficially worked on a similar manifesto, but Marinetti preferred SantElias paper. Later in 1920, another manifesto was written by Virgilio Marchi, ottorino Aloisio worked in the style established by Marchi, one example being his Casa del Fascio in Asti. Another futurist manifesto related to architecture is the Manifesto dell’Arte Sacra Futurista by Fillia and Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, on 27 January 1934 it was the turn of the Manifesto of Aerial Architecture by Marinetti, Angiolo Mazzoni and Mino Somenzi. Mazzoni had publicly adhered to only the year before. In this paper the Lingotto factory by Giacomo Matté-Trucco is defined as the first Futurist constructive invention, the Art Deco style of architecture with its streamlined forms was regarded as futuristic when it was in style in the 1920s and 1930s. The original name for early and late Art Deco was Art Moderne—the name Art Deco did not come into use until 1968 when the term was invented in a book by Bevis Hillier. The Chrysler Building is an example of Art Deco futurist architecture. After World War II, Futurism was considerably weakened and redefined itself thanks to the enthusiasm towards the Space Age, the Atomic Age, the car culture, for example, this trend is found in the architecture of Googies in the 1950s in California. He designed all of the buildings in Futuroscope, whose Kinemax is the flagship building, today it is sometimes confused with blob architecture or high-tech architecture. The futurist architecture created since 1960 may be termed Neo-Futurism, and is referred as Post Modern Futurism or Neo-Futuristic architecture. Angiolo Mazzoni e lArchitettura Futurista, Supplement of CE. S. A. R, september/December 2008 Architettura Futurista Italiana 1909/1944 Civilization 0.000 Skyscraper | Dimo Ivanov | Chile | DesignDaily Futurist Architecture 2015
9.
Art Deco
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Art Deco, sometimes simply referred to as Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in France just before World War I. It took its name, short for Arts Decorators, from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925 and it combined modernist styles with fine craftsmanship and rich materials. During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, Art Deco was a pastiche of many different styles, sometimes contradictory, united by a desire to be modern. It featured rare and expensive materials such as ebony and ivory, the Chrysler Building and other skyscrapers of New York were the most visible monuments of the new style. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, the became more subdued. New materials arrived, including chrome plating, stainless steel and plastic, a more sleek form of the style, called Streamline Moderne, appeared in the 1930s, it featured curving forms and smooth, polished surfaces. Art Deco became one of the first truly international architectural styles, with examples found in European cities, the style came to an end with the beginning of World War II. Deco was replaced as the dominant global style by the functional and unadorned styles of modernism. The term arts décoratifs was first used in France in 1858, in 1868, Le Figaro newspaper used the term art décoratifs with respect to objects for stage scenery created for the Théâtre de lOpéra. In 1875, furniture designers, textile, jewelry and glass designers and it took its present name of ENSAD in 1927. The term Art déco was then used in a 1966 newspaper article by Hillary Gelson in the Times, describing the different styles at the exhibit. Art Deco gained currency as a broadly applied stylistic label in 1968 when historian Bevis Hillier published the first major book on the style. Hillier noted that the term was already being used by art dealers and cites The Times, in 1971, Hillier organized an exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, which he details in his book about it, The World of Art Deco. The emergence of Art Deco was closely connected with the rise in status of decorative artists, the term arts décoratifs had been invented in 1875, giving the designers of furniture, textiles, and other decoration official status. The Société des artistes décorateurs, or SAD, was founded in 1901, a similar movement developed in Italy. The first international exhibition devoted entirely to the arts, the Esposizione international dArte decorative moderna, was held in Turin in 1902. Several new magazines devoted to decorative arts were founded in Paris, including Arts et décoration, Decorative arts sections were introduced into the annual salons of the Sociéte des artistes français, and later in the Salon dautomne. French nationalism also played a part in the resurgence of decorative arts, in 1911 the SAD proposed the holding of a major new international exposition of decorative arts in 1912
10.
Googie architecture
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Googie architecture is a form of modern architecture, a subdivision of futurist architecture influenced by car culture, jets, the Space Age, and the Atomic Age. Originating in Southern California during the late 1940s and continuing approximately into the mid-1960s, Googie-themed architecture was popular among motels, coffee houses and gas stations. The school later became known as part of the Mid-Century modern style, elements of which represent the populuxe aesthetic. The term Googie comes from a now defunct coffee shop and cafe built in West Hollywood designed by John Lautner, similar architectural styles are also referred to as Populuxe or Doo Wop. Features of Googie include upswept roofs, curvaceous, geometric shapes and these stylistic conventions represented American societys fascination with Space Age themes and marketing emphasis on futuristic designs. As with the Art Deco style of the 1930s, Googie became less valued as time passed, some examples have been preserved, though, such as the oldest McDonalds stand, which was put on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983. The origin of the name Googie dates to 1949, when architect John Lautner designed the West Hollywood coffee shop Googies, the name Googie had been a family nickname of Lillian K. Burton, the wife of the original owner, Mortimer C. Burton. Googies was located at the corner of Sunset Boulevard and Crescent Heights in Los Angeles but was demolished in 1989, Haskell insisted on stopping the car upon seeing Googies and proclaimed This is Googie architecture. He popularized the name after an article he wrote appeared in a 1952 edition of House, though Haskell coined the term Googie and was an advocate of modernism, he did not appreciate the Googie aesthetic. In his article he used the fictional Professor Thrugg’s overly-effusive praise to mock Googie, at the same time lampooning Hollywood, Googies beginnings are with the Streamline Moderne architecture of the 1930s. With car ownership increasing, cities no longer had to be centered on a central downtown but could spread out to the suburbs, the suburbs offered less congestion by offering the same businesses, but accessible by car. Instead of one main store downtown, businesses now had multiple stores in suburban areas and this new trend required owners and architects to develop a visual imagery so customers would recognize it from the road. This modern consumer architecture was based on communication, the new smaller suburban drive-in restaurants were essentially architectural signboards advertising the business to vehicles on the road. This was achieved by using bold style choices, including large pylons with elevated signs, bold neon letters, Hess writes that because of the increase in mass production and travel during the 1930s, Streamline Moderne became popular because of the high energy silhouettes its sleek designs created. Streamline Moderne, much like Googie, was styled to look futuristic to signal the beginning of a new era – that of the automobile, drive-in services such as diners, movie theaters and gas stations built with the same principles developed to serve the new American city. The prosperous 1950s, however, celebrated its affluence with optimistic designs, the development of nuclear power and the reality of spaceflight captivated the public’s imagination of the future. Googie architecture exploited this trend by incorporating energy into its design elements such as the boomerang, diagonals, atomic bursts. According to Hess, commercial architecture was influenced by the desires of the mass audience, the public was captivated by rocket ships and nuclear energy, so, in order to draw their attention, architects used these as motifs in their work
11.
High-tech architecture
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High-tech architecture appeared as revamped modernism, an extension of those previous ideas helped by even more technological advances. This category serves as a bridge between modernism and post-modernism, however, there remain gray areas as to one category ends. In the 1980s, high-tech architecture became more difficult to distinguish from post-modern architecture, some of its themes and ideas were later absorbed into the style of Neo-Futurism art and architectural movement. In buildings such as the Pompidou Centre, this idea of revealed structure is taken to the extreme, in this case, the use of structural steel is a stylistic or aesthetic matter. Early high-tech buildings were referred to by historian Reyner Banham as serviced sheds due to their exposure of mechanical services in addition to the structure, most of these early examples used exposed structural steel as their material of choice. As hollow structural sections had become widely available in the early 1970s. Buildings in this style were constructed mainly in North America. It is deeply connected with what is called the Second School of Chicago which emerged after World War II, the main content is that the technological kind of construction, mostly with steel and glass, is expressed in a formal independent way to gain aesthetic qualities from it. The first proper example are the 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments by German architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, potter, New York. —found in industrial catalogues and putting these to use in residential settings. The foreword to the book by architect Emilio Ambasz, former curator of design at the Museum of Modern Art, put the trend in historical context. As a result of the publicity and popularity of the book, the style became known as High-Tech. In 1979, the term high-tech appeared for the first time in a New Yorker magazine cartoon showing a woman berating her husband for not being enough, Youre middle-, middle-. But credit should go to a shop on 64th Street and Lexington Avenue in New York, Ad Hoc Housewares, which opened in 1977, for marketing these objects to a residential audience before anyone else. The book went on to be reprinted in England, France, and Japan, high-tech architecture was, in some ways, a response to growing disillusionment with modern architecture. The realization of Le Corbusiers urban development plans led to cities with monotonous, enthusiasm for economic building led to extremely low-quality finishes, with subsequent degradation countering a now-waning aesthetic novelty. High-tech architecture created a new aesthetic in contrast with modern architecture. In High Tech, The Industrial Style and Source Book for The Home, when discussing the high-tech aesthetic and this humour so aptly demonstrates the rebellious attitude. A prime example of this is the Centre Pompidou in Paris and this highlights one of the aims of high-tech architecture, to show the technical elements of the building by externalizing them
12.
Buckminster Fuller
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Richard Buckminster Bucky Fuller was an American architect, systems theorist, author, designer, and inventor. Fuller published more than 30 books, coining or popularizing terms such as Spaceship Earth, ephemeralization and he also developed numerous inventions, mainly architectural designs, and popularized the widely known geodesic dome. Carbon molecules known as fullerenes were later named by scientists for their structural and mathematical resemblance to geodesic spheres, Fuller was the second World President of Mensa from 1974 to 1983. Fuller was born on July 12,1895, in Milton, Massachusetts, the son of Richard Buckminster Fuller and Caroline Wolcott Andrews and he spent much of his youth on Bear Island, in Penobscot Bay off the coast of Maine. He often made items from materials he found in the woods and he experimented with designing a new apparatus for human propulsion of small boats. Later in life, Fuller took exception to the term invention, Fuller earned a machinists certification, and knew how to use the press brake, stretch press, and other tools and equipment used in the sheet metal trade. Fuller attended Milton Academy in Massachusetts, and after that studying at Harvard College. He was expelled from Harvard twice, first for spending all his money partying with a vaudeville troupe, by his own appraisal, he was a non-conforming misfit in the fraternity environment. Between his sessions at Harvard, Fuller worked in Canada as a mechanic in a textile mill, and later as a laborer in the meat-packing industry. He also served in the U. S. Navy in World War I, as a radio operator, as an editor of a publication. After discharge, he worked again in the packing industry. In 1917, he married Anne Hewlett, Buckminster Fuller recalled 1927 as a pivotal year of his life. His daughter Alexandra had died in 1922 of complications from polio, Fuller dwelled on her death, suspecting that it was connected with the Fullers damp and drafty living conditions. This provided motivation for Fullers involvement in Stockade Building Systems, a business which aimed to provide affordable, in 1927, at age 32, Fuller lost his job as president of Stockade. The Fuller family had no savings, and the birth of their daughter Allegra in 1927 added to the financial challenges, Fuller drank heavily and reflected upon the solution to his familys struggles on long walks around Chicago. During the autumn of 1927, Fuller contemplated suicide, so that his family could benefit from an insurance payment. Fuller said that he had experienced a profound incident which would provide direction and he felt as though he was suspended several feet above the ground enclosed in a white sphere of light. A voice spoke directly to Fuller, and declared, From now on you need never await temporal attestation to your thought and you do not have the right to eliminate yourself
13.
John C. Portman Jr.
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John Calvin Portman Jr. is an American neofuturistic architect and real estate developer widely known for popularizing hotels and office buildings with multi-storied interior atria. Portman also had a large impact on the cityscape of his hometown of Atlanta, with the Peachtree Center complex serving as downtowns business. The Peachtree Center area includes Portman-designed Hyatt, Westin, Mandarin Oriental, portmans plans typically deal with primitives in the forms of symmetrical squares and circles. Portman graduated from the Georgia Institute of Technology in 1950 and his firm completed the Merchandise Mart in downtown Atlanta in 1961. The multi-block Peachtree Center was begun in 1965 and would expand to become the center of hotel and office space in Downtown Atlanta. Portman would develop a similar complex at San Franciscos Embarcadero Center. The Shanghai Centre was the first of major projects in China. Portmans work was featured in an exhibition at Atlantas High Museum of Art in 2009. Portman is a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects, Portman is praised for his cinematic interiors artfully relating interior space and elements to the individual
14.
Eero Saarinen
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Eero Saarinen was a 20th-century Finnish American architect and industrial designer noted for his neofuturistic style. Eero Saarinen was born on August 20,1910 to Finnish architect Eliel Saarinen and his wife, Louise. They immigrated to the United States in 1923, when Eero was thirteen and he grew up in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, where his father taught and was dean of the Cranbrook Academy of Art, and he took courses in sculpture and furniture design there. He had a relationship with fellow students Charles and Ray Eames. Saarinen began studies in sculpture at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière in Paris, France and he then went on to study at the Yale School of Architecture, completing his studies in 1934. Subsequently, he toured Europe and North Africa for a year, after his tour of Europe and North Africa, Saarinen returned to Cranbrook to work for his father and teach at the academy. The firm was Saarinen, Swansen and Associates, headed by Eliel Saarinen, the firm was located in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, until 1961 when the practice was moved to Hamden, Connecticut. The Tulip Chair, like all other Saarinen chairs, was taken into production by the Knoll furniture company, founded by Hans Knoll, the competition award was mistakenly sent to his father. All of these designs were successful except for the Grasshopper lounge chair. One of Saarinens earliest works to international acclaim is the Crow Island School in Winnetka. The GM Technical Center was constructed in 1956, with Saarinen using models, which allowed him to share his ideas with others, and gather input from other professionals. With the success of the scheme, Saarinen was then invited by other major American corporations such as John Deere, IBM, despite their rationality, however, the interiors usually contained more dramatic sweeping staircases, as well as furniture designed by Saarinen, such as the Pedestal Series. Saarinen served on the jury for the Sydney Opera House commission in 1957 and was crucial in the selection of the now internationally known design by Jørn Utzon, after his fathers death in July 1950, Saarinen founded his own architects office, Eero Saarinen and Associates. He was the partner from 1950 until his death in 1961. Many of these projects use catenary curves in their structural designs, one of the best-known thin-shell concrete structures in America is the Kresge Auditorium, which was designed by Saarinen. Another thin-shell structure that he created is Yales Ingalls Rink, which has suspension cables connected to a single backbone and is nicknamed the whale. The younger Saarinens leaded glass designs are a prominent feature of buildings throughout the campus. Saarinen was recruited by Donal McLaughlin, a school friend from his Yale days
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Peter Cook (architect)
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Sir Peter Cook RA is an English architect, lecturer and writer on architectural subjects. He was a founder of Archigram, and was knighted in 2007 by the Queen for his services to architecture and he is also a Royal Academician and a Commandeur de lOrdre des Arts et des Lettres of the French Republic. His achievements with Archigram were recognised by the Royal Institute of British Architects in 2004, Cook was born in Southend-on-Sea, Essex and studied architecture at Bournemouth College of Art from 1953–58. He then entered the Architectural Association School of Architecture in London and he continues to curate, organise and exhibit around the world, in Seoul, LA and Cyprus, the Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris and Design Museum, London as well as in castles, sheds and garages. He is a Senior Fellow of the Royal College of Art, cooks professorships include those of the Royal Academy, University College, London and the Hochschule fur Bildende Kunste in Frankfurt-Main, Germany. Construction of his arts building, the Kunsthaus Graz in Graz, Cook has also built in Osaka, Nagoya, Berlin and Madrid. He practices with Gavin Robotham as CRAB studio, and is married to the Israeli architect, Cook was awarded a knighthood in the Queens 2007 Birthday Honours List, for services to architecture. 1960 – Henry Florence Student A. A, curator of Venice Biennale of Architecture British Pavilion 2004, Cyprus Pavilion 2006 Personal exhibitions – various dates, Los Angeles, Tokyo, Oslo, Berlin, Osaka, Frankfurt. 1967 – Architecture, Action and Plan, London, Studio Vista/Reinhold, Birkhauser 1975 – Melting Architecture. 1976 – Art Net The Rally, Forty London Architects,1976 – Arcadia, The Search for the Perfect Suburb. 1985 – Peter Cook –21 Years,21 Ideas, london/New York, Princeton Architectural Press 1999 –. The House of the Book, Building, Zvi Hecker,2000 – Bartlett Book of Ideas. 2003 – The City, Seen As A Garden Of Ideas,2008 – Drawing, The Motive Force of Architecture
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Architectural Association School of Architecture
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Its wide-ranging programme of exhibitions, lectures, symposia and publications have given it a central position in global discussions and developments within contemporary architectural culture. The foundation of the Architectural Association was as an alternative to the practice where young men were articled to established architects and this practise offered no guarantee for educational quality or professional standards. The AA believed it was open to vested interests, abuse, dishonesty and this situation led two articled pupils, Robert Kerr and Charles Gray, to propose a systematic course of training provided by the students themselves. Kerr became the first president, 1847–48, the AA School was formally established in 1890. In 1901, it moved premises to the former Royal Architectural Museum, in 1917, it moved again, to its current premises in Bedford Square, central London. The school has acquired property on Morwell Street behind Bedford Square. Women were first admitted as students to the AA School during the First World War in 1917. The students of the AA have been addressed by many eminent figures, from John Ruskin and George Gilbert Scott in the 19th century, to more recently Richard Rogers, recently launched programmes Projective Cities, Design + Make and Interprofessional Studio. The school has a bookshop, containing a range of architectural books, the bookshop is used as a platform for the AAs own books. AA Publications are designed and edited by the AA Print Studio, the school had its own independent radio station. The school is notable as existing outside the university system. It is also noted that due to its nature of an independent school and it exists outside the UCAS application system, even at undergraduate/first degree level direct application is the norm. It is not included in books which guide potential undergraduates to choose appropriate courses. Howard Robertson Alvin Boyarsky Alan Balfour Mohsen Mostafavi John Summerson, The Architectural Association 1847–1947, Pleiades Books, official website Bedford Press AA Publications
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Illinois Institute of Technology
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It traces its history to several 19th century engineering and professional education institutions. In 1890, when advanced education was reserved for societys elite. When Armour Institute opened in 1893, it offered courses in engineering, chemistry, architecture. Illinois Tech was created in 1940 by the merger of Armour Institute, located on the west side of Chicago, Lewis Institute, established in 1895 by the estate of hardware merchant and investor Allen C. Lewis, offered liberal arts as well as science and engineering courses for men and women. At separate meetings held by their respective boards on Oct.26,1939, a Cook County circuit court decision on April 23,1940 solidified the merger. The Institute of Design, founded in Chicago by László Moholy-Nagy in 1937, Chicago-Kent College of Law, founded in 1887, became part of the university in 1969, making Illinois Institute of Technology one of the few technology-based universities with a law school. The program became the Stuart School of Business in 1999, as of April 2014, the University Tech Park at Illinois Institute of Technology is home to many companies. Today, IIT is a private, Ph. D. -granting university with programs in engineering, science, human sciences, applied technology, architecture, business, design and law. One of the 16 institutions that comprise the Association of Independent Technological Universities, through a committed faculty and close personal attention, IIT provides a challenging academic program focused by the rigor of the real world. The university and its contract research affiliate, IIT Research Institute, have an annual volume of $130 million. IIT has more than 40,000 living alumni and is known as the mater of accomplishments as well as of people. IIT architects have shaped the skyline of Chicago and cities throughout the world, IIT Research Institute has several locations throughout the United States, and the university has five campuses in the Chicago area. In 1976, the American Institute of Architects recognized the campus as one of the 200 most significant works of architecture in the U. S. S. R. Crown Hall, home of IIT College of Architecture, was named a National Historic Landmark in 2001, Institute of Design, an international leader in teaching systemic, human-centered design, is located at 350 N. LaSalle Street in Chicagos River North neighborhood. The 19-acre Daniel F. and Ada L. IIT continued to expand after the merger. As one of the first American universities to host a Navy V-12 program during World War II the school saw an increase in students. Two years before the merger, German architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe joined the then Armour Institute of Technology to head both Armours and the Art Institute of Chicagos architecture program, the Art Institute would later separate and form its own program
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Henning Larsen
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Henning Larsen, Hon. FAIA was a Danish architect. He is internationally known for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs building in Riyadh, Larsen studied at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, from which he graduated in 1952. He continued studies subsequently at the Architectural Association School of Architecture and his mentors included Arne Jacobsen and Jørn Utzon. Larsen founded a firm that bears his name, Henning Larsen Architects. From 1968 to 1995, he was a professor of architecture at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, in 1985, he established the SKALA architecture gallery and the parallel SKALA architecture journal, both entities of which continued until 1994. F. En frise over Henning Larsen som menneske og arkitekt, Politikens Forlag 2000, ISBN 87-567-6551-7 Henning Larsen, kulturhistorisk testamente om Operaen, Peoples Press 2009. ISBN 978-87-7055-783-2 Henning Larsen at the archINFORM database, Henning Larsen Architects Sketches by Henning Larsen University Campus In Kolding
19.
Light art
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Light art is an applied arts form in which light is the main medium of expression. It is an art form in either a sculpture produces light, or light is used to create a sculpture through the manipulation of light, colours. These sculptures can be temporary or permanent, and can exist in two spaces, indoor galleries, such as museum exhibits, or outdoors at events like festivals. Light art can be an interaction of light with in an architectural space, Light artist are those that devote all their creative experimentation to light art, some artist experiment with light and neon signage and use light in their practice but would be artist using light. Modern light art has its beginning in the advent of electricity at the turn of the century, Light has been used for architectural effect throughout human history. Prounenraum, by El Lissitzky, is considered by art historians to be the first time an artist incorporated architectural lighting elements as a component integral to his work. The first object-based light sculpture was the Light-Space Modulator, by László Moholy-Nagy, experimentation and innovations in theatrical light have often influenced other areas of light use such as light art. The development of Modernism and the electric light go hand-in-hand, the idea of the city with high-rises. All visual art uses light in form, but in modern photography and motion pictures. Constructivist Naum Gabo experimented with the transparent materiality light reflects on an object, marcel Duchamps Hat Rack, hangs from the ceiling and casts a shadow against the wall. Art critic Hilarie M. Sheets explains that the interplay of dark and light has been a running from Greek. But as technology advanced from the glow of the light bulb to the computer monitor, artists have been experimenting with actual light as material. Closely associated art forms are projectors, 3-D map projection, multi-media, video art and these forms of light art have their antecedents in new media-based, video art and photography which are sometimes classified as light art since light and movement are important to the work. Many modern art museums include light sculptures and installations in their permanent, the Centre for International Light Art in Unna, Germany is currently the worlds only museum dedicated exclusively to the collection and presentation of light art. The Light Art Museum in Eindhoven, Netherlands, another dedicated to the display of light art. Many well-known art museums, such as the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, Light festivals and the smart city LED revolution was driven by outdoor urban light sculpture with low energy LED luminaires. Light artists were able to create new exhibition spaces collectively in the form of light art festivals and these festivals have continued to grow internationally and help to highlight ecological change. This LED low energy movement dates back to the 2009 by the Vivid Smart Light Festival in Sydney, in Singapore, the i Light Marina Bay festival—Asias only sustainable light festival—was first hosted in 2010
20.
Syd Mead
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Sydney Jay Mead, commonly Syd Mead, is a prolific and influential American visual futurist, industrial designer and a neofuturistic concept artist. He is best known for his designs for science-fiction films such as Blade Runner, Aliens, of his work, Mead was once moved to comment, Ive called science fiction reality ahead of schedule. His works, many of which are acclaimed and highly regarded, have lead to Mead being called The Artist who illustrates the future. After serving a three-year enlistment in the U. S. Army, Syd Mead continued on to the Art Center School in Los Angeles and he was recruited by the Ford Motor Company’s Advanced Styling Studio under the management of Elwood Engel. In 1970, he launched Syd Mead, Inc. in Detroit, Michigan to accommodate the offers he received, most notably from Philips Electronics. As the principal of his newly formed corporation in the 1970s, Syd Mead spent about a third of his time in Europe and his work for international clients continues to this day. His architectural clients recently have expanded to include the New York firm of Philip Koether Architects, design activity accelerated after the corporate and personal move to California in 1975. In the 1990s, Syd supplied designs for two Japanese anime icons, Yamato 2520 and Turn A Gundam, Syd Mead continues an active schedule of one-man shows, which started with an invitation to exhibit at Documenta 6, Kassel, West Germany in 1973. His work has since exhibited in Japan, Italy, California. In 1983, in response to an invitation from Chrysler Corporation to be a guest speaker to their design staff, in March 2010, Syd completed a four-city tour in Australia. In 1993, a digital gallery consisting of 50 examples of his art with interface screens designed by him one of the first CD-ROMs released in Japan. In 2004, Mead cooperated with Gnomon School of Visual Effects to produce a 4 volume, “How To” DVD series titled, the highlight of the show turned out to be Syd’s presentation and lecture, which attracted an audience that exceeded the available capacity of the auditorium. Subsequent personal appearances at schools across the country have attracted record numbers, a touring exhibition of his work, titled PROGRESSIONS, has attracted record numbers in Southern California, Detroit, Grand Rapids, New York, Fort Collins and in August 2014, Myrtle Beach, SC. In June 1981, he was joined by Roger Servick, who became the Manager of Business Affairs for Syd Mead Inc. in 1991, in May 2007 he completed work on a documentary of his career with director Joaquin Montalvan entitled Visual Futurist. Mead attributes success in a range of activities to the premise that imagination —the idea— supersedes technique. Mead has worked on or for the following,1959, Ford Motor Companys Advanced Styling Center in Dearborn, 1960–1961, Ford Motor Company Styling in Detroit, Michigan. 1961, Futuristic paintings for a U. S. Steel booklet,1970, Starts own company, Syd Mead, Inc. 1976, Book of designs Sentinel published,1978, production illustrator for the film Star Trek, The Motion Picture 1980, Begins his work as visual futurist on Blade Runner, designing city backgrounds and vehicles
21.
Richard Rogers
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Richard George Rogers, Baron Rogers of Riverside CH FRIBA FREng RA is a British architect noted for his modernist and functionalist designs in high-tech architecture. He is a winner of the RIBA Gold Medal, the Thomas Jefferson Medal, the RIBA Stirling Prize and he is a Senior Partner at Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners, previously known as the Richard Rogers Partnership. Richard Rogers was born in Florence in 1933 from Italian parents and his father, William Nino Rogers, was the cousin of Italian architect Ernesto Nathan Rogers. His ancestors moved from Sunderland to Venice in about 1800, then settling in Trieste, Milan, during World War II William Nino Rogers decided to come back to England. Upon moving to England, Richard Rogers went to St Johns School and he was called stupid because he could not read or memorize his school work and was always at the bottom of his class, and as a consequence he became very depressed. He wasnt able to read until the age of 11, while studying at Yale, Rogers met fellow architecture student Norman Foster and planning student Su Brumwell. After leaving Yale he joined Skidmore, Owings & Merrill in New York, on returning to England in 1963, he, Norman Foster and Brumwell set up architectural practice as Team 4 with Wendy Cheeseman. Rogers and Foster earned a reputation for what was termed by the media high-tech architecture. By 1967, Team 4 had split up, but Rogers continued to collaborate with Su Rogers, along with John Young, in early 1968 he was commissioned to design a house and studio for Humphrey Spender near Maldon, Essex, a glass cube framed with I-beams. He continued to develop his ideas of prefabrication and structural simplicity to design a Wimbledon house for his parents and this was based on ideas from his conceptual Zip-Up House, such as the use of standardized components based on refrigerator panels to make energy-efficient buildings. Rogers subsequently joined forces with Italian architect Renzo Piano, a partnership that was to prove fruitful and this building established Rogerss trademark of exposing most of the buildings services on the exterior, leaving the internal spaces uncluttered and open for visitors to the centres art exhibitions. This style, dubbed Bowellism by some critics, was not universally popular at the time the centre opened in 1977, after working with Piano, Rogers established the Richard Rogers Partnership along with Marco Goldschmied, Mike Davies and John Young in 1977. This became Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners in 2007, the firm maintains offices in London, Shanghai and Sydney. Rogers has devoted much of his career to wider issues surrounding architecture, urbanism, sustainability. This exhibition made public a series of proposals for transforming an area of central London. In 1995, he became the first architect to deliver the BBCs annual Reith Lectures and this series of five talks, titled Sustainable City, were later adapted into the book Cities for a Small Planet. The BBC made these available to the public for download in July 2011. This work resulted in a paper, Towards an Urban Renaissance
22.
Renzo Piano
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Renzo Piano, OMRI, OMCA is an Italian architect and engineer. His notable buildings include the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, The Shard in London, and he won the Pritzker Architecture Prize in 1998. Piano was born in Genoa, Italy, into a family of builders and his grandfather had created a masonry enterprise, which had been expanded by his father, Carlo Piano, and his fathers three brothers, into the firm Fratelli Piano. The firm prospered after World War II, constructing houses and factories, when his father retired the enterprise was led by Renzos older brother, Ermanno, who studied engineering at the University of Genoa. Renzo studied architecture at the Milan Polytechnic University and he graduated in 1964 with a dissertation about modular coordination supervised by Giuseppe Ciribini and began working with experimental lightweight structures and basic shelters. In 1970, he received his first international commission, for the Pavilion of Italian Industry for Expo 70 in Osaka and he collaborated with his brother Ermanno and the family firm, which manufactured the structure. It was lightweight and original composed of steel and reinforced polyester, the first project of the firm was the administrative building of B&B Italia, an Italian furniture company, in Novedrate, Como, Italy. This design featured suspended container and an open bearing structure, with the conduits for heating and these unusual features attracted considerable attention in the architectural world, and influenced the choice of the jurors who selected Piano and Rogers to design the Pompidou Center. The award came a surprise, to the world, since the two were little-known, and had no experience with museums or other major structures. The New York Times declared that their design turned the world upside down. The escalator, in a transparent tube, crossed the facade of the building at a diagonal, the building was an astonishing success, entirely transforming the character a run-down commercial section near the Marais in Paris, and made Piano one of the best-known architects in the world. The media dubbed the style of the building as high-tech, Beaubourg, he said, was a joyous urban machine, a creature which might have come out of a Jules Verne novel, a sort of bizarre boat in dry dock. It is a provocation, a challenge to academism. To consider it as an object is a mistake. In 1977 Piano ended his collaboration with Rogers and began a new collaboration with engineer Peter Rice and they established their offices in Genoa. One of their first projects was a plan for the rehabilitation of the old port of Otranto from a site into a commercial. Their first major building was the Menil Collection, in art museum for the art collector Dominique de Menil, the chief requirements of the owner for this building was to make the maximum use of natural light in the interiors. Piano wrote, Paradoxically, the Menil Collection, with its serenity, its calm, its discretion, is more modern, scientifically speaking
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Centre Georges Pompidou
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It was designed in the style of high-tech architecture by the architectural team of Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano, along with Gianfranco Franchini. Because of its location, the Centre is known locally as Beaubourg and it is named after Georges Pompidou, the President of France from 1969 to 1974 who commissioned the building, and was officially opened on 31 January 1977 by President Valéry Giscard dEstaing. As of 2006, the Centre Pompidou has had over 180 million visitors since 1977 and more than 5,209,678 visitors in 2013, including 3,746,899 for the museum. The sculpture Horizontal by Alexander Calder, a mobile that is 7.6 m tall, was placed in front of the Centre Pompidou in 2012. Hoping to renew the idea of Paris as a city of culture and art. Paris also needed a large, free library, as one did not exist at this time. At first the debate concerned Les Halles, but as the settled, in 1968. A year later in 1969, the new president adopted the Beaubourg project, in the process of developing the project, the IRCAM was also housed in the complex. By the mid-1980s, the Centre Pompidou was becoming the victim of its huge and unexpected popularity, its activities. By 1992, the Centre de Création Industrielle was incorporated into the Centre Pompidou, since re-opening in 2000 after a three-year renovation, the Centre Pompidou has improved accessibility for visitors. Now they can access the escalators if they pay to enter the museum. The Centre was designed by Italian architect Renzo Piano, British architect Richard Rogers, the project was awarded to this team in an architectural design competition, the results of which were announced in 1971. It was the first time in France that international architects were allowed to participate, world-renowned architects Oscar Niemeyer, Jean Prouvé and Philip Johnson made up the jury which would select one design out of the 681 entries. National Geographic described the reaction to the design as love at second sight, an article in Le Figaro declared Paris has its own monster, just like the one in Loch Ness. The Pritzker jury said the Pompidou revolutionised museums, transforming what had once been elite monuments into popular places of social and cultural exchange, the Centre was built by GTM and completed in 1977. The building cost 993 million 1972 French francs, renovation work conducted from October 1996 to January 2000 was completed on a budget of 576 million 1999 francs. The black-painted mechanical sculptures are by Tinguely, the works by de Saint-Phalle. Video footage of the fountain appeared frequently throughout the French language telecourse, the Place Georges Pompidou in front of the museum is noted for the presence of street performers, such as mimes and jugglers
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Manifesto
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A manifesto is a published verbal declaration of the intentions, motives, or views of the issuer, be it an individual, group, political party or government. A manifesto usually accepts a previously published opinion or public consensus or promotes a new idea with prescriptive notions for carrying out changes the author believes should be made and it often is political or artistic in nature, but may present an individuals life stance. Manifestos relating to religious belief are generally referred to as creeds and it is derived from the Italian word manifesto, itself derived from the Latin manifestum, meaning clear or conspicuous. Its first recorded use in English is from 1620, in Nathaniel Brents translation of Paolo Sarpis History of the Council of Trent, To this citation he made answer by a Manifesto. Board of Education Report on the Construction of Situations, by Guy Debord The Manifesto of the 121 against the Algerian War The Sharon Statement, the Port Huron Statement, by Tom Hayden et al
25.
Bureau International des Expositions
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To February 4,2016,169 member countries have adhered to the BIE Convention. The BIE regulates two types of expositions, Registered Exhibitions and Recognized Exhibitions, Horticultural Exhibitions with an A1 grade, regulated by the International Association of Horticultural Producers, are recognized since 1960. The USA had its membership of the BIE withdrawn in June 2001, the cause was the non-allocation of funds by the U. S. Congress for two years. The United States Congress has not provided a reason for failing to pay membership. The BIE remains open to participation from the United States, in a letter from April 20,2006, the secretary-general said, As you are aware, the United States government withdrew from the BIE in June 2001. Citizens realize and would welcome the strong impact a worlds fair can have on their city, state and it would be wonderful to, once again, attend an exhibition in the United States. Participation in the BIE is controlled by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, rydell said the 1982 fair was not as bad as many people make it out to be. Since the start of the 21st century, Universal Expositions may occur every five years, lasting six months, on 5 and 0 ending years, i. e. Expo 2010 in Shanghai, Expo 2015 in Milan, and so forth. Countries, international organizations, civil societies, and corporations are allowed to participate in Registered Expositions, the Plaza of Africa at Seville was constructed for the same purpose. Registered Expositions are also massive in scale, sometimes 300 or 400 hectares in size, montreals Expo 67 attracted 54 million visitors, Osakas Expo 70,64 million visitors, the Seville Expo 92,41 million visitors and Shanghais Expo 2010 attracted 70 million visitors. Countries, international organizations, civil societies, and corporations are allowed to participate, the pavilions are built by the hosts and not the participants, and there is no rent for pavilions. Nevertheless, the largest pavilion may be no larger than 1000 square meters, for this reason Recognized Expositions are cheaper to run than Registered Expositions, and more money is spent on content of the pavilion as opposed to its design. A nation or organization does not need to be a member of the B. I. E. to be represented at a B. I. E, the use of mascots in World Exposition began with the 1984 Louisiana World Exposition. Seymore D. Fair, a 76 tall white pelican, was the mascot of the 1984 Louisiana World Exposition as well as the first mascot at any worlds fair. Seymore was seen as a way to highlight the water theme. Seymore D.9 in E Minor From the New World
26.
Milan
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Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
27.
Expo 2015
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Expo 2015 was a universal exposition hosted by Milan, Italy. It opened on May 1 at 10,00 CEST and closed on October 31, Milan hosted an exposition for the second time, the first was the 1906 Milan International. The Bureau International des Expositions general assembly in Paris decided in favour of Milan on March 31,2008, on November 23,2010, the event was announced by the BIE. Expo 2015s theme was Feeding the Planet, Energy for Life, Expo 2015s theme was Feeding the Planet, Energy for Life, encompassing technology, innovation, culture, traditions and creativity and how they relate to food and diet. Futuristic concerns about food security are compounded by forecasts of increasing uncertainty about the quantity of food which will be available globally.1 km2 and it is adjacent to the Fiera Milano fairgrounds, designed by Massimiliano Fuksas, which may be considered the cornerstone of the areas urban redevelopment. It had long been an industrial zone before its conversion to logistical and municipal services, the fairgrounds and the Expo site were connected by a pedestrian bridge adjacent to the Rho-Pero high-speed rail station. Originally-planned bicycle paths were never constructed, and several motorways were built to access to the site. The area is oblong in shape with a length of nearly 3 km. The design of pools and waterways in and around the Expo area was an element of primary importance and it was designed by a committee of four architects, Stefano Boeri, Richard Burdett, Mark Rylander and Jacques Herzog. The main idea was to trace two avenues, representing the ancient Roman layout of a cardo and a decumanus, the initial idea of a classical site composed of avenues and pavilions was replaced by the idea of a light Expo composed of exhibition areas arranged across the main boulevard. The exhibition areas, identical for each country, recreated the typical cycle of each nation from production to consumption. The centre of the avenue was occupied by a table in front of the country pavilions extending the length of the site, the area would be covered by large, tent-like structures to convey the idea of a global marketplace. A second idea was to build greenhouses on the site to reproduce the earth’s principal biomes. These would be thematic pavilions for the cultivation and production of foodstuffs used in the individual country pavilions. Each country would have a dedicated greenhouse in its exhibition area, in this version of the site, water remained an important element but was shifted toward the exterior as a large, navigable canal surrounding the site. A large lake was included in the design. The master plan for Expo 2015, coordinated by Stefano Boeri, was delivered to the BIE during its April 30,2010 registration ceremony in Paris, changes included, Each exhibiting country could rent areas ranging from 400 to 6,000 m2. Buildable areas were reduced to 30 percent of the assigned to each exhibitor
28.
Sustainable development
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The desirable end result is a state of society where living conditions and resource use continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural systems. As the concept developed, it has shifted to more on economic development, social development. The concept of development has been — and still is — subject to criticism. What, exactly, is to be sustained in sustainable development, Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with the social, political, and economic challenges faced by humanity. Sustainability science is the study of the concepts of sustainable development, there is an additional focus on the present generations responsibility to regenerate, maintain and improve planetary resources for use by future generations. Sustainable development has its roots in ideas about sustainable forest management which were developed in Europe during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In 1713 Hans Carl von Carlowitz, a mining administrator in the service of Elector Frederick Augustus I of Saxony published Sylvicultura oeconomica. Building upon the ideas of Evelyn and French minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert and his work influenced others, including Alexander von Humboldt and Georg Ludwig Hartig, eventually leading to the development of a science of forestry. Two years later, the United Nations World Charter for Nature raised five principles of conservation by which human conduct affecting nature is to be guided and judged. In 1987 the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development released the report Our Common Future, the report included what is now one of the most widely recognised definitions of sustainable development. In 1992, the UN Conference on Environment and Development published the Earth Charter, which outlines the building of a just, sustainable and it emphasises that in sustainable development everyone is a user and provider of information. Furthermore, Agenda 21 emphasises that broad public participation in making is a fundamental prerequisite for achieving sustainable development. Broadly defined, sustainable development is an approach to growth and development and to manage natural, produced. A2013 study concluded that sustainability reporting should be reframed through the lens of four interconnected domains, ecology, economics, politics, the goals are to be implemented and achieved in every country from the year 2016 to 2030. Sustainable development, or sustainability, has described in terms of three spheres, dimensions, domains or pillars, i. e. the environment, the economy. The three-sphere framework was proposed by the economist René Passet in 1979. It has also been worded as economic, environmental and social or ecology, economy and this has been expanded by some authors to include a fourth pillar of culture, institutions or governance. The ecological stability of human settlements is part of the relationship between humans and their natural, social and built environments, also termed human ecology, this broadens the focus of sustainable development to include the domain of human health
29.
United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
30.
Jean-Louis Cohen
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Jean-Louis Cohen is a French architect and architectural historian specializing in modern architecture and city planning. Since 1994 he has been the Sheldon H. Solow Professor in the History of Architecture at New York University Institute of Fine Arts and he received his Ph. D. in Art History from the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in 1985. In 1998 he was appointed to develop the Cité de lArchitecture et du Patrimoine in Paris which opened in 2007 and he was director of the project until 2003. In 2013 he was also appointed Commissioner of the French Pavilion for the 14th International Architecture Exhibition, Cohen was made a Chevalier of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in 2001. He is the recipient of the 2003 Medal for Architectural Analysis from the Académie dArchitecture, in 2013 the Collège de France in Paris appointed him for three years to hold a chair devoted to Architecture and Urban Form. Le Corbusier, an Atlas of Modern Landscapes, New York, interférences / Interferenzen, architecture, Allemagne, France 1800-2000, Strasbourg, Musées de la Ville de Strasbourg,2013. Architecture in Uniform, Designing and Building for WWII, Paris, mies van der Rohe, Paris, Hazan, Basel, Berlin, Boston, Birkhäuser,2007. Above Paris, the Aerial Survey of Roger Henrard, New York, liquid Stone, New Architecture in Concrete, New York, Princeton Architectural Press,2006. Le Corbusier, la planète comme chantier, Paris, Textuel,2005, alger, paysage urbain et architectures 1800-2000, Paris, Éditions de lImprimeur,2003. Encyclopédie Perret, Paris, Éditions du Patrimoine/Institut français darchitecture,2002, casablanca, Colonial Myths and Architectural Ventures, New York, The Monacelli Press,2002. Les Années 30, larchitecture et les arts de lespace entre industrie et nostalgie, Paris, scenes of the World to Come, European Architecture and the American Challenge 1893-1960, Paris, Flammarion,1995. Larchitecture dAndré Lurçat, lautocritique dun moderne, Liege, Pierre Mardaga,1995, des fortifs au périf, Paris, les seuils de la ville, Paris, Picard,1992. Le Corbusier and the Mystique of the USSR, Theories and Projects for Moscow, 1928-1936, officer of the Order of Arts and Letters A Beaux-Arts Exercise in the Giardini. Jean-Louis Cohen on the French Pavilion at the Venice Biennale designed by Fausto Finzi in 1912
31.
Pritzker Architecture Prize
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Founded in 1979 by Jay A. Pritzker and his wife Cindy, the award is funded by the Pritzker family and sponsored by the Hyatt Foundation. It is considered to be one of the premier architecture prizes. The prize is said to be awarded irrespective of nationality, race, creed, the recipients receive US$100,000, a citation certificate, and since 1987, a bronze medallion. Before 1987, a limited edition Henry Moore sculpture accompanied the monetary prize, any licensed architect can also make a personal application for the prize before 1 November every year. In 1988 Gordon Bunshaft nominated himself for the award and eventually won it, the jury, each year consisting of five to nine experts. Recognized professionals in their own fields of architecture, business, education, publishing, the prize Chair is 2002 winner, Glenn Murcutt, earlier chairs were J. Carter Brown, the Lord Rothschild, and the Lord Palumbo. Inaugural winner Philip Johnson was cited for 50 years of imagination and vitality embodied in a myriad of museums, theaters, libraries, houses, gardens, the 2004 laureate Zaha Hadid was the first female prize winner. Ryue Nishizawa became the youngest winner in 2010 at age 44, partners in architecture have shared the award. In 1988, Gordon Bunshaft and Oscar Niemeyer were both honored with the award. The most recent winners, in 2017, are the Spanish architects Rafael Aranda, Carme Pigem and this was the first time three architects shared the prize. A. a Roche was born in Ireland, C Gehry was born in Canada. D Hadid was born in Iraq, E Rogers was born in Italy. Driehaus Architecture Prize List of architecture prizes General Past laureates
32.
Zaha Hadid
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Dame Zaha Mohammad Hadid, DBE, RA was an Iraqi-born British architect. She was the first woman to receive the Pritzker Architecture Prize and she received the UKs most prestigious architectural award, the Stirling Prize, in 2010 and 2011. In 2012, she was made a Dame by Elizabeth II for services to architecture and she was described by the The Guardian of London as the Queen of the curve, who liberated architectural geometry, giving it a whole new expressive identity. Her major works include the centre for the London 2012 Olympics, Michigan State Universitys Broad Art Museum in the US. Hadid was born on 31 October 1950 in Baghdad, Iraq and her father, Muhammad al-Hajj Husayn Hadid, was a wealthy industrialist from Mosul. He co-founded the left-liberal al-Ahali group in 1932, a significant political organisation in the 1930s and 1940s and he was the co-founder of the National Democratic Party in Iraq. Her mother, Wajiha al-Sabunji, was an artist from Mosul, in the 1960s Hadid attended boarding schools in England and Switzerland. Hadid studied mathematics at the American University of Beirut before moving, in 1972, there she studied with Rem Koolhaas, Elia Zenghelis and Bernard Tschumi. Her former professor, Koolhaas, described her at graduation as a planet in her own orbit, Zenghelis described her as the most outstanding pupil he ever taught. ‘We called her the inventor of the 89 degrees, nothing was ever at 90 degrees. All the buildings were exploding into tiny little pieces and he recalled that she was less interested in details, such as staircases. The way she drew a staircase you would smash your head against the ceiling, and the space was reducing and reducing and she couldn’t care about tiny details. Her mind was on the broader pictures – when it came to the joinery she knew we could fix that later. She was right. ’ Her fourth-year student project was a painting of a hotel in the form of a bridge, Hadid became a naturalised citizen of the United Kingdom. She earned her reputation with her lecturing and colorful and radical early designs and projects. Her ambitious but unbuilt projects included a plan for Peak in Hong Kong, and her reputation in this period rested largely upon her teaching and the imaginative and colorful paintings she made of her proposed buildings. In 1989 Fehlbaum had invited Frank Gehry, then little-known, to build a museum at the Vitra factory in Weil-am-Rhein. In 1993, he invited Hadid to design a small station for the factory
33.
Santiago Calatrava
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His best-known works include the Milwaukee Art Museum, the Turning Torso tower in Malmö, Sweden, the Margaret Hunt Hill Bridge in Dallas, Texas, and the Museum of Tomorrow in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. His architectural firm has offices in New York City, Doha, Calatrava was born on July 28,1951, in Benimàmet, an old municipality now part of Valencia, Spain. His mothers family were of Jewish heritage, but had converted during the Spanish Inquisition of the fifteenth century. His Calatrava surname was an old one from medieval times. He had his primary and secondary schooling in Valencia, and, beginning in 1957, in 1964, as the regime of General Francisco Franco ended and Spain became more open to rest of Europe, he went to France as an exchange student. In 1968, after completing school, he went to study at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, but he arrived in the midst of student uprisings and turmoil in Paris. He received his diploma as an architect and then did higher studies in urbanism, at the University he completed independent projects with fellow students, publishing two books on the vernacular architecture of Valencia and Ibiza. In 1975 he enrolled in the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich, in 1981 he was awarded a doctorate in the department of architecture, after completing his thesis on The Pliability of three-dimensional structures. Speaking of this period, Calatrava told biographer Philip Jodidio, The desire to start all over at zero was very strong in me. I was determined to put to one side all that I had learned in architecture school, I was fascinated by the concept of gravity and convinced that it was necessary to begin work with simple forms. As soon as Calatrava completed his doctorate in 1981, he opened his own office in Zurich, the train station has several of the features that became signatures of his work, straight lines and right angles are rare. In 1984–87, he built his first bridge, the Bac de Roda Bridge in Barcelona, Spain, the bridge, designed for cyclists and pedestrians, connects two parts of the city by crossing a wasteland of railway tracks. It is 128 meters long, with arches which lean at an angle of thirty degrees. The upper portion of the bridge, composed of arches and cables, is light and airy, like a network of lace, anchored to the massive concrete supports. His next bridge, the Puente del Alamillo, in Seville, Spain, was more spectacular. Built as part of the 1992 Expo 92, it is 200 meters long, crossing the Meandro San Jeronimo River and its main feature is a single pylon 142 meters high, leaning to 58 degrees, the same angle as the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt. The weight of the concrete of the pylon is sufficient to hold up the bridge with just thirteen pairs of cables, and his first building in the United States, the new structure of the Milwaukee Art Museum. The concrete pylon leans backwards, and seems to grasp the vertical broadcast antennas and its form suggests an athlete about to throw a javelin
34.
TWA Flight Center
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The TWA Flight Center or Trans World Flight Center, opened in 1962 as the original terminal designed by Eero Saarinen for Trans World Airlines at New York Citys John F. Kennedy International Airport. Together, the old and new buildings make up JetBlue Airways JFK operations and have been known collectively since 2008 as Terminal 5 or simply T5, the construction on the new hotel began in August,2016. Both the interior and the exterior were declared a New York City Landmark in 1994, in 2005, the terminal was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Noted architect Robert A. M. Stern called the TWA Flight Center the Grand Central of the jet age, the pragmatic new encircling terminal has been called hyper-efficient and a monument to human throughput. The concrete shell, which inspired Saarinen to develop curved-edge ceramic tiles conforming to the curvilinear shapes, the design straddles Futurism, Googie and Fantastic architecture. Food and beverage services included the Constellation Club, Lisbon Lounge, JFK was unusual in having company-owned and designed terminals. The original terminal opened in 1962 as the terminal designed by Eero Saarinen for Trans World Airlines at Idlewild Airport. Saarinen and his Detroit-based firm were commissioned in 1955 to design the TWA Flight Center, Saarinen, who projected a high patronage for the terminal, conceived the terminal to speed up processes. At the same time, the bird-shaped, emblematic construction featured a harmoniously coordinated interior and references to TWA’s corporate identity, Saarinen planned the appearance of the building from a purely formal perspective mainly to exploit market opportunities. Thus, the TWA Terminal represents a different approach than the thin concrete shells constructed at the same time. The terminal was built to span a space with a minimum of material, Saarinen, who was known as an indefatigable architect, indicated to his client that he needed more time, then took another year to resolve the design. The completed terminal was dedicated May 28,1962, the year that Saarinen won the AIA Gold Medal posthumously. In 1969, the received a new departure-arrival concourse and lounge. Known as Flight Wing Two, the expansion was designed by Roche-Dinkeloo to accommodate then-new wide-body aircraft, the City of New York designated both the interiors and the exteriors of the Eero Saarinen-designed terminal a historic landmark in 1994. Following TWAs continued financial deterioration during the 1990s and the sale of its assets to American Airlines. The concept received opposition from the Municipal Art Society of New York, as well the architects Philip Johnson and Robert A. M. That same year, the Municipal Art Society of New York succeeded in nominating the facility to the National Trust for Historic Preservation’s list of the 11 Most Endangered Places in America. In 2005, the National Park Service listed the TWA Flight Center on the National Register of Historic Places
35.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
36.
Washington Dulles International Airport
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Washington Dulles International Airport is an international airport in Loudoun and Fairfax counties in Virginia, United States,26 miles west of downtown Washington, D. C. The airport serves the Baltimore–Washington Metropolitan Area, centered on the District of Columbia, the airport is named after John Foster Dulles, the 52nd Secretary of State who served under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. The Dulles main terminal is a landmark designed by Eero Saarinen. Operated by the Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority, Dulles Airport occupies 13,000 acres straddling the Loudoun-Fairfax line, most of the airport is in the unincorporated community of Dulles, in Loudoun County, with a small portion in the unincorporated community of Chantilly in Fairfax County. Dulles is the one of the three airports in the larger Baltimore–Washington metropolitan area with more than 21 million passengers a year. On a typical day, more than 60,000 passengers pass through Washington Dulles to, however, Dulles Airport now ranks behind both Baltimore-Washington International Airport and Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport in total annual passenger boardings. Prior to World War II, Hoover Field was the commercial airport serving Washington. It was replaced by Washington National Airport in 1941, after the war, in 1948, the Civil Aeronautics Administration began to consider sites for a second major airport to serve the nations capital. Congress passed the Washington Airport Act in 1950 to provide funding for a new airport in the region. One competing plan called for the airport to be built in the Pender area of Fairfax County, while another called for the conversion of Andrews Air Force Base in Prince Georges County, the civil engineering firm Ammann and Whitney was named lead contractor. The airport was dedicated by President John F. Kennedy on November 17,1962, as originally opened, the airport had three runways. Its original name, Dulles International Airport, was changed in 1984 to Washington Dulles International Airport, the main terminal was designed in 1958 by famed Finnish-American architect Eero Saarinen and it is highly regarded for its graceful beauty, suggestive of flight. In the 1990s the main terminal at Dulles was reconfigured to allow space between the front of the building and the ticket counters. Additions at both ends of the main terminal more than doubled the structures length, the original terminal at Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport in Taoyuan, Taiwan was modeled after the Saarinen terminal at Dulles. The design included a landscaped man-made lake to collect rainwater, a hotel. The first scheduled flight at Dulles was an Eastern Air Lines Super Electra turboprop from Newark International Airport in New Jersey on November 19,1962. Airport operations grew along with Virginia suburbs and the Dulles Technology Corridor, perimeter, in 1969, Dulles had 2.01 million passengers while National had 9.9 million. The era of jumbo jets began on January 15,1970, rather than a traditional champagne bottle, red, white, and blue water was sprayed on the aircraft
37.
Chantilly, Virginia
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Chantilly is a census-designated place in western Fairfax County, Virginia, United States. The population was 23,039 at the 2010 census, Chantilly is named after an early-19th-century mansion and farm, which in turn took the name of an 18th-century plantation that was located in Westmoreland County, Virginia. The name Chantilly originated in France with the Château de Chantilly, located in the Northern Virginia portion of the Washington metropolitan area, Chantilly sits approximately 25 miles west of Washington, D. C. via Interstate 66 and U. S. Route 50. It is located between Centreville to the south, Herndon and Reston to the north and northeast, respectively, Chantilly was home to a number of colonial plantations in the 1700s, including the Sully Plantation built by Richard Bland Lee I. Other plantations included George Richard Lee Turbervilles Leeton Grove, the John Hutchison Farm, Cornelia Lee Turberville Stuart, who was born at Leeton and was the daughter of George Richard Lee Turberville and Henrietta Lee, inherited a portion of Leeton in 1817 from her father. During the Civil War, federal troops destroyed by fire the Chantilly Plantation manor house, one building remains, a stone house across Route 50 from the Greenbriar Shopping Center. After the war, Cornelia Stuart, who had become deeply in debt, sold her 1, the advertisement for the sale referenced several tenements, one of which was the Stone House. The village grew during the 19th century, particularly following the construction of the Little River Turnpike to Winchester, during the American Civil War on September 1,1862, the Battle of Chantilly was fought nearby. Reaching the Little River Turnpike northwest of Centreville, Jackson turned southeastward toward Fairfax Court House to strike in rear of Popes army, during September 1, Pope, apprised of Jacksons movement, began to withdraw toward Fairfax Court House. Late in the day, Jackson clashed with Union forces under Brigadier General Isaac Stevens and Major General Philip Kearny near Ox Hill, during the ensuing battle, which was fought amid a raging storm, both Union generals Stevens and Kearny were killed. The fighting ended at dusk, and Popes army continued its withdrawal to Fairfax, although commercial and residential development now covers most of the Chantilly battlefield, a small county park preserves a 5-acre portion of the battle site. Chantilly is located in western Fairfax County at 38°53′39″N 77°25′52″W, to the southwest is Schneider Crossroads, not part of any census-designated area. The present center of Chantilly is located around the intersection of U. S. Route 50 and Virginia Route 28. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 12.2 square miles, of which 12.0 square miles is land and 0.1 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 23,039 people,7,218 households, the population density was 1,916.7 people per square mile. There were 7,403 housing units at a density of 615. 9/sq mi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 57. 6% White,6. 5% African American,0. 3% Native American,25. 2% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,6. 1% some other race, and 4. 3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 15. 9% of the population,13. 0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 2. 4% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older
38.
Olympic Stadium (Montreal)
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Olympic Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium in Canada, located at Olympic Park in the Hochelaga-Maisonneuve district of Montreal. It is also called The Big Owe to reference the astronomical cost of the stadium, the stadium is the largest by seating capacity in Canada. After the Olympics, artificial turf was installed and it became the home of Montreals professional baseball and football teams, following the 2004 baseball season, the Expos relocated to Washington, D. C. to become the Washington Nationals. The stadium currently serves as a facility for special events with a permanent seating capacity of 56,040. The capacity is expandable with temporary seating, the Montreal Impact of Major League Soccer use the venue on occasion, when larger capacity is needed or when the weather restricts outdoor play at nearby Saputo Stadium in the spring months. The stadium has not had a tenant since the Expos left in 2004. Despite decades of use, the history of numerous structural and financial problems has largely branded it a white elephant. Incorporated into the base of the stadium is the Montreal Tower. The stadium and Olympic Park grounds border Maisonneuve Park, which includes the Montreal Botanical Garden, as early as 1963, Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau sought to build a covered stadium in Montreal. However, even as powerful as he was, he did not have the power to such a guarantee on his own authority. Just as Charles Bronfman, who was slated to become the franchises first owner, was ready to walk away and it was enough to persuade Bronfman to continue with the effort. The design of the stadium resembles that of the Australian Pavilion at Expo 70 in Osaka, soon after Montreal was awarded the 1976 Games, Drapeau struck a secret deal with Taillibert to build the stadium. It only came to light in 1972, the Olympic swimming pool is located under this tower. An Olympic velodrome was situated at the base of the tower in a similar in design to the swimming pool. The building was built as the stadium for the 1976 Summer Olympic Games. The stadium was host to events including the opening and closing ceremonies, athletics, football finals. The buildings design is cited as a masterpiece of Organic Modern architecture, Taillibert based the building on plant and animal forms, aiming to include vertebral structures with sinews or tentacles, while still following the basic plans of Modern architecture. The stadium was slated to be finished in 1972
39.
Montreal
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Montreal, officially Montréal, is the most populous municipality in the Canadian province of Quebec and the 2nd-most populous in Canada as a whole. Originally called Ville-Marie, or City of Mary, it is believed to be named after Mount Royal, the city has a distinct four-season continental climate, with warm-to-hot summers and cold, snowy winters. In 2016, Montreal had a population of 1,704,694, Montreals metropolitan area had a population of 4,098,927 and a population of 1,958,257 in the urban agglomeration, with all of the municipalities on the Island of Montreal included. Legally a French-speaking city,60. 5% of Montrealers speak French at home,21. 2% speak English and 19. 8% speak neither, Montreal is one of the most bilingual cities in Quebec and Canada, with 56% of the population able to speak both official languages. Montreal is the second-largest primarily French-speaking city in the world after Paris, historically the commercial capital of Canada, it was surpassed in population and economic strength by Toronto in the 1970s. It remains an important centre of commerce, aerospace, finance, pharmaceuticals, technology, design, education, culture, tourism, gaming, film, Montreal was also named a UNESCO City of Design. In 2009, Montreal was named North Americas leading host city for international events, according to the 2009 preliminary rankings of the International Congress. According to the 2015 Global Liveability Ranking by the Economist Intelligence Unit, in the 2017 edition of their Best Student Cities ranking, Quacquarelli Symonds ranked Montreal as the worlds best city to study abroad. Also, Montreal has 11 universities with 170,000 students enrolled, the Greater Montréal region has the highest number of university students per capita among all metropolitan areas in North America. It is the only Canadian city to have held the Summer Olympics, currently, the city hosts the Canadian Grand Prix of Formula One, the Montreal International Jazz Festival and the Just for Laughs festival. In 2012, Montreal was ranked as a Beta+ world city, in Kanien’kéha, or Mohawk language, the island is called Tiohtià, ke Tsi or Ka-wé-no-te. In Anishinaabemowin, or Ojibwe language, the land is called Mooniyaang, though the city was first named by French colonizers Ville Marie, or City of Mary, its current name comes from Mount Royal, the triple-peaked hill in the heart of the city. The most popular theory is that the name derives from Mont Réal, Cartiers 1535 diary entry, naming the mountain, according to the Commission de toponymie du Québec and the Geographical Names Board of Canada, Canadian place names have only one official form. Thus, Montreal is officially spelled with an accent over the e in both English and French. In practice, this is limited to governmental uses. English-speaking Montrealers, including English-language media, regularly omit the accent when writing in English, archaeological evidence demonstrates that First Nations native people occupied the island of Montreal as early as 4,000 years ago. By the year AD1000, they had started to cultivate maize, within a few hundred years, they had built fortified villages. Archeologists have found evidence of their habitation there and at locations in the valley since at least the 14th century
40.
Roger Taillibert
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Roger Taillibert is a French architect, active as a designer from about 1963 to 1987. Taillibert is notable for designing the Parc des Princes in Paris, CBC Archives - A look back on legacy of the problem plagued Montreal Olympic Stadium. CBC Archives Roger showing his tower to reporters
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