1.
South Lanarkshire
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South Lanarkshire is one of 32 unitary authorities of Scotland. It borders the south-east of the City of Glasgow and contains some of Greater Glasgows suburbs and it also contains many towns and villages. It also shares borders with Dumfries and Galloway, East Ayrshire, East Renfrewshire, North Lanarkshire and it includes part of the historic county of Lanarkshire. South Lanarkshire Council has its headquarters in Hamilton, has 16,000 employees, there are 20 council wards in South Lanarkshire, each represented on the council by 3 or 4 elected councillors using single transferable vote. South Lanarkshire shares borders with the authorities of Dumfries and Galloway, East Ayrshire, East Renfrewshire, City of Glasgow, North Lanarkshire, West Lothian. The area was formed in 1996, from the areas of Clydesdale, Hamilton and East Kilbride districts, since the 2012 local government election, a by-election was held for Rutherglen South on Thursday 14 February 2013 and for Hamilton South on Thursday 24 October 2013. The current political composition is 2 Independents,3 Conservative,35 Labour,1 Liberal Democrat and 26 SNP, the Council is currently ruled by a Labour Group majority administration. The Council Headquarters building, on Almada Street, Hamilton, was built as the Lanark County Buildings in 1963, the 16 storey,165 foot tower is the largest in Hamilton, and is a highly visible landmark across this part of the Clyde Valley. The modernist design was influenced by the United Nations building in New York, glass curtain walls cover the north and south facades, with the narrow east and west sides being blank white walls. At the front of the building is the council chamber. It is known by locals as the County Buildings
2.
Subdivisions of Scotland
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For local government purposes, Scotland is divided into 32 areas designated as council areas, which are all governed by unitary authorities designated as councils. The council areas have been in existence since 1 April 1996, historically, Scotland has been divided into 34 counties or shires. Although these no longer have any function, they are still used to some extent in Scotland for cultural and geographical purposes. Traditionally burghs have been the key unit of the government of Scotland, being highly autonomous entities. Even after the Acts of Union 1707, burghs continued to be the principal subdivision, until 1889 administration was on a burgh and parish basis. The years following 1889 saw the introduction of a hierarchy of local government administration comprising counties, counties of cities, large burghs, source,2011 Census for Scotland Scotland has several other administrative divisions, some of which are handled by joint boards of the councils. The Police and Fire Reform Act 2012 resulted in the merger of police and fire services on 1 April 2013 to form the Police Service of Scotland. Policing was the responsibility of the Cities and Burghs of Scotland, Police and fire service areas date from the era of regions and districts and island council areas. There are several joint boards for electoral registration and the purposes of property valuation for assessing council tax, see also NHS Scotland Until 1 April 2014 the towns of Cambuslang and Rutherglen were in the Greater Glasgow and Clyde health board area despite being located in South Lanarkshire. They are now part of NHS Lanarkshire, the Scottish Government has created seven Regional Transport Partnerships, for establishing transport policy in the regions. They broadly follow council area groupings and these areas in most cases resemble those of the pre-1975 administrative counties with Glasgow being the only current city to form a registration county. Although they have had no administrative function since 1930, they still exist and are used for statistical purposes such as the census. Many former civil parish areas also continue to form current registration districts and it should be noted that many boundary changes have occurred over the years and that an area currently derived from an old parish might no longer contain a place previously within that parish. The base level of sub-division in Scotland is that of communities, the main role of the CCs is to channel local opinion to larger local-government bodies. Otherwise, they have limited powers. There are around 1,200 communities in Scotland, not all communities have councils, some have joint councils. Scottish communities are the nearest equivalent to parishes in England. List of articles about local government in the United Kingdom ISO 3166-2, GB, subdivision codes for the United Kingdom
3.
Lieutenancy areas of Scotland
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The lieutenancy areas of Scotland are the areas used for the ceremonial lord-lieutenants, the monarchs representatives, in Scotland. The lord-lieutenants titles chosen by the monarch and her advisers are mainly based on placenames of the traditional counties of Scotland. In 1794 permanent lieutenancies were established by Royal Warrant, by the Militia Act 1797, the lieutenants appointed for the Counties, Stewartries, Cities, and Places were given powers to raise and command County Militia Units. Lieutenancy areas are different from the current local government council areas and they also differ from other subdivisions of Scotland including sheriffdoms and former regions and districts. The Lord Provosts of Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh, and Glasgow also act ex officio as lord-lieutenants and this is a unique right in the United Kingdom, all other lord-lieutenants are appointed by the monarch, rather than being elected politicians. The regions and districts were themselves superseded in 1995, but the lieutenancy areas remain the same, the Lord-Lieutenants Order 1975, Statutory Instrument 1975 No.428. The Lord-Lieutenants Order 1996, Statutory Instrument 1996 No.731, subdivisions of Scotland List of burghs in Scotland List of places in Scotland Media related to Maps of traditional counties of Scotland at Wikimedia Commons
4.
Lanarkshire
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Lanarkshire, also called the County of Lanark is a historic county in the central Lowlands of Scotland. Historically, Lanarkshire was the most populous county in Scotland and, in times, had considerably greater boundaries. Lanarkshire was historically divided between two administrative areas, other significant settlements include Coatbridge, East Kilbride, Motherwell, Airdrie, Blantyre, Cambuslang, Rutherglen, Wishaw and Carluke. In 1975, the county council was abolished and the area absorbed into the larger Strathclyde region, there is also a joint health board, which does not cover Rutherglen and the surrounding area in South Lanarkshire. Without the northern portion of North Lanarkshire, this is also a Lieutenancy area, from the mid-eighteenth century to the early twentieth century Lanarkshire profited from its rich seams of coal in places such as Glenboig. Unfortunately, as the industry developed around Glasgow in the 1700s the price of coal to the city rose under the control of a cartel of coal owners. The solution was to out a canal to take advantage of the good coal deposits of the Monklands area. By 1793, the Monklands canal was completed and the Lanarkshire coal industry thrived, the resulting boom lasted for over 100 years but reached its peak by the second decade of the twentieth century and even two world wars failed to halt the contraction. Output in the county continued to fall and the National Coal Board concentrated investment in Ayrshire, Fife, by 1970 there were only four collieries left in Lanarkshire and the closure of Cardowan in 1983 brought the long decline to an end. Lanarkshire hosted the International Childrens Games in August 2011, a total of 1,300 competitors and coaches, along with administrators and delegates, representing 77 cities from 33 countries worldwide attended
5.
Countries of the United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom comprises four countries, England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Within the United Kingdom, a sovereign state, Northern Ireland, Scotland. England, comprising the majority of the population and area of the United Kingdom, England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales are not themselves listed in the International Organization for Standardization list of countries. However the ISO list of the subdivisions of the UK, compiled by British Standards, Northern Ireland, in contrast, is described as a province in the same lists. Each has separate governing bodies for sports and compete separately in many international sporting competitions. Northern Ireland also forms joint All-Island sporting bodies with the Republic of Ireland for most sports, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man are dependencies of the Crown and are not part of the UK. Similarly, the British overseas territories, remnants of the British Empire, are not part of the UK, southern Ireland left the United Kingdom under the Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922. * Figures for GVA do not include oil and gas revenues generated beyond the UKs territorial waters, various terms have been used to describe England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. Wales was described as the country, principality, and dominion of Wales, outside Wales, England was not given a specific name or term. The Laws in Wales Acts have subsequently been repealed, the Acts of Union 1707 refer to both England and Scotland as a part of a united kingdom of Great Britain The Acts of Union 1800 use part in the same way to refer to England and Scotland. The Northern Ireland Act 1998, which repealed the Government of Ireland Act 1920, the Interpretation Act 1978 provides statutory definitions of the terms England, Wales and the United Kingdom, but neither that Act nor any other current statute defines Scotland or Northern Ireland. Use of the first three terms in other legislation is interpreted following the definitions in the 1978 Act and this definition applies from 1 April 1974. United Kingdom means Great Britain and Northern Ireland and this definition applies from 12 April 1927. In 1996 these 8 new counties were redistributed into the current 22 unitary authorities, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are regions in their own right while England has been divided into nine regions. The official term rest of the UK is used in Scotland, for example in export statistics and this term is also used in the context of potential Scottish independence to mean the UK without Scotland. The alternative term Home Nations is sometimes used in sporting contexts, the second, or civic group, contained the items about feeling British, respecting laws and institutions, speaking English, and having British citizenship. Contrariwise, in Scotland and Wales there was a much stronger identification with each country than with Britain, studies and surveys have reported that the majority of the Scots and Welsh see themselves as both Scottish/Welsh and British though with some differences in emphasis. The propensity for nationalistic feeling varies greatly across the UK, and can rise and it reported that 37% of people identified as British, whilst 29% identified as Irish and 24% identified as Northern Irish
6.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
7.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
8.
Postcodes in the United Kingdom
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Postal codes used in the United Kingdom are known as postcodes. They are alphanumeric and were adopted nationally between 11 October 1959 and 1974, having been devised by the GPO, a full postcode is known as a postcode unit and designates an area with a number of addresses or a single major delivery point. For example, the postcode of the University of Roehampton in London is SW15 5PU, the postcode of GCHQ is GL51 0EX, where GL signifies the postal town of Gloucester. The postal town refers to an area and does not relate to a specific town. GL51 is one of the postcodes for the town of Cheltenham which is where GCHQ is located, the London post town covers 40% of Greater London. On inception it was divided into ten districts, EC, WC, N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W. The S and NE sectors were later abolished and these divisions changed little, usually only changed for operational efficiency. Some older road signs in Hackney still indicate the North East sector/district, following the successful introduction of postal districts in London, the system was extended to other large towns and cities. Liverpool was divided into Eastern, Northern, Southern and Western districts in 1864/65, in 1917 Dublin – then still part of the United Kingdom – was divided into numbered postal districts. These continue in use in a form by An Post. In 1923 Glasgow was divided in a way to London. In January 1932 the Postmaster General approved the designation of some urban areas into numbered districts. In November 1934 the Post Office announced the introduction of numbered districts in every town in the United Kingdom large enough to justify it. Pamphlets were issued to each householder and business in ten areas notifying them of the number of the district in which their premises lay, the pamphlets included a map of the districts, and copies were made available at local head post offices. The public were invited to include the district number in the address at the head of letters. A publicity campaign in the following year encouraged the use of the district numbers, the slogan for the campaign was For speed and certainty always use a postal district number on your letters and notepaper. A poster was fixed to every box in the affected areas bearing the number of the district. Every post office in the district was also to display this information
9.
Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom
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Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom are administered by the UK governments Office of Communications. For this purpose Ofcom established a telephone numbering plan, known as the National Telephone Numbering Plan, since 28 April 2001, almost all geographic numbers and most non-geographic numbers have 9 or 10 national numbers after the 0 trunk code. All mobile telephone numbers have 10 national numbers after the 0 trunk code, regions with shorter area codes, typically large cities, permit the allocation of more telephone numbers as the local number portion has more digits. Local customer numbers are four to eight figures long, the total number of digits is ten, but in a very few areas the total may be nine digits. The area code is referred to as an STD or a dialling code in the UK. The code allocated to the largest population is for London, the code allocated to the largest area is for all of Northern Ireland. The UK Numbering Plan also applies to three British Crown dependencies—Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man—even though they are not part of the UK itself. Possible number formats for UK telephone numbers are as follows, Number ranges starting 01 can have NSN length as 10 or 9 digits, the 0800 range can have NSN length as 10,9 or 7 digits. The 0845 range can have NSN length as 10 or 7 digits, the 0500 range has NSN length as 9 digits only. There are no numbers in the UK with an NSN length of 8 digits. Geographic telephone numbers in the UK always have nine or ten digits, four-digit area codes have either six-digit subscriber numbers or a mix of five- and six-digit subscriber numbers. Xxxxxx This is the used by most areas. It has an area code and a six digit subscriber number. These area codes were changed by adding a 1 directly after the zero as a part of PhONEday in 1995. Just short of 581 areas use this format, and the area range from 01200 to 01998. A small number of areas also have a few subscriber numbers that have only five digits. That is, almost all area codes now have only six digit local numbers, six of the four-digit area codes are known as mixed areas as they share those four digits with the twelve five-digit area codes. The numbers therefore have only nine digits after the initial zero trunk code and these area codes were changed by adding a 1 directly after the initial zero as a part of PhONEday in 1995
10.
Police Scotland
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The Police Service of Scotland is the police force of Scotland. Although not formally absorbing it, the merger resulted in the winding up of the Association of Chief Police Officers in Scotland. Police Scotland is the second-largest police force in the United Kingdom in terms of numbers. The Chief Constable is answerable to the Scottish Police Authority, Scotland is also policed by the Ministry of Defence Police, British Transport Police and the Civil Nuclear Constabulary within their specific jurisdictions. The National Crime Agency also has jurisdiction in Scotland. In 2016, the Scottish Government introduced legislation which will integrate the Scottish division of the British Transport Police into Police Scotland, after a consultation process, the Scottish Government confirmed on 8 September 2011 that a single police service would be created in Scotland. The Police and Fire Reform Bill was published in January 2012 and was approved on 27 June 2012 after scrutiny in the Scottish Parliament, the Bill received Royal Assent as the Police and Fire Reform Act 2012. In September 2012, Chief Constable Stephen House of Strathclyde Police was announced as the future first Chief Constable of Police Scotland and he was sworn into the post on 1 October 2012. The first chair of the Scottish Police Authority, Vic Emery, was appointed in August 2012, as the date of formation approached, it was widely reported that the new Chief Constable and the Scottish Police Authority were in disagreement over the control of backroom staff. In February 2013 it came to light that the previously announced logo for Police Scotland could not be used as the Force had failed to approval from the Court of the Lord Lyon. This new symbol, a stylised thistle upon a Scottish saltire shield, a permanent logo was not approved in time for 1 April 2013 creation of Police Scotland, but the pre-2013 crowned thistle emblem was finally introduced in July 2013. This emblem was designed for the former Dumfries Constabulary by Robert Dickie Cairns. With minor artistic variations, it was the logo used by all regional Scottish police forces before 1 April 2013. Police Scotland has previously denied setting stop and search performance targets for individual officers, also removed from the report were calls for a review of stop and search on children and for clarification of the policys primary aim. In October 2013, Police Scotland announced proposals to close 65 out of 215 police station public counters, the plans were condemned by some opposition MSPs. In November 2016, it emerged that 58 further stations could close as part of an estates review and it was also announced in October 2013 that the number of police control rooms in Scotland was under review, with the possibility of 7 out of 10 control rooms closing. Control rooms considered for closure include Aberdeen, Inverness and Dumfries, in 2014, the Scottish Crime Campus in Gartcosh was opened. The Assistant Chief Constables salary depends on their previous experience and would fall between £90,000 and £106,000 a year
11.
Fire services in the United Kingdom
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The fire services in the United Kingdom operate under separate legislative and administrative arrangements in England and Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland. Emergency cover is provided by over fifty fire and rescue services, many FRS were previously known as brigades or county fire services, but almost all now use the standard terminology. They are distinct from and governed by an authority, which is the legislative, public and administrative body. Fire authorities in England and Wales, and therefore fire and rescue services, Scotland and Northern Ireland have centralised fire and rescue services, and so their authorities are effectively committees of the devolved parliaments. The total budget for services in 2014-15 was £2.9 billion. The devolved government in Scotland has an agency, HMFSI Scotland. This Act provided for centralised co-ordination of fire brigades in Great Britain,1947, Fire Services Act 1947 This Act transferred the functions of the National Fire Service to local authorities. Now repealed entirely in England and Wales by Schedule 2 of the Fire,1959, Fire Services Act 1959 This Act amended the 1947 Act, it dealt with pensions, staffing arrangements and provision of services by other authorities. It was repealed in England and Wales along with the 1947 Act,1999, Greater London Authority Act 1999 This act was necessary to allow for the formation of the Greater London Authority and in turn the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority. In 2002, there was a series of fire strikes. In December 2002, the Independent Review of the Fire Service was published with the action still ongoing. Bains report ultimately led to a change in the relating to firefighting. 2002, Independent Review of the Fire Service published 2004, Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004, generally only applying to England and it came into force on 1 October 2006. The DfCLG has published a set of guides for non-domestic premises,2006, The Government of Wales Act 2006 gave the National Assembly for Wales powers to pass laws on Fire, promotion of fire safety otherwise than by prohibition or regulation. But does not prevent future legislation being passed by the UK government which applies to two or more constituent countries, There are further plans to modernise the fire service according to the Local Government Association. The fire service in England and Wales is scrutinised by a House of Commons select committee, in June 2006, the fire and rescue service select committee, under the auspices of the Communities and Local Government Committee, published its latest report. For example, where FRSs were historically inspected by HMFSI, much of this work is now carried out by the National Audit Office, Fire Control On 8 February 2010 the House of Commons Communities and Local Government Select Committee heard evidence on the Fire Control project. Called to give evidence were Cllr Brian Coleman and Cllr James Pearson from the Local Government Association, also giving evidence Matt Wrack from the Fire Brigades Union and John Bonney Chief Fire Officers Association
12.
Scottish Fire and Rescue Service
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The Scottish Fire and Rescue Service is the national fire and rescue service of Scotland. It was formed by the merger of eight regional fire services in the country on 1 April 2013 and it thus became the largest fire brigade in the United Kingdom, surpassing the London Fire Brigade, and the fourth-largest in the world. After a consultation, the Scottish Government confirmed on 8 September 2011 that a single fire, following further consultation on the detailed operation of the service, the Police and Fire Reform Bill was published on 17 January 2012. After scrutiny and debate by the Scottish Parliament, the legislation was approved on 27 June 2012, the Bill duly received royal assent as the Police and Fire Reform Act 2012. This Act also created Police Scotland in place of the eight regional police forces. The mergers were effective from 1 April 2013, eight months after the consolidation, an internal report said the reorganisation had not negatively affected operational response. The service is headquartered are in Cambuslang, Glasgow, which houses a national training centre opened in January 2013. There are a further three service delivery centres in the east, west and north of the country, pat Watters, former president of the Convention of Scottish Local Authorities, was also announced as chair of the service, an appointment to run for three years from September 2012. The Scottish Fire and Rescue Service attended 25,002 fires in 2014/15, the service also delivers a preventative programme, with 65,343 free home fire safety visits conducted in 2015/16. As well as fighting fires, the service attends tens of thousands of specialist services such as traffic collisions, water rescues. In 2014/15 it attended 10,740 non-fire incidents, firefighters are routinely called out to water, flood and boat rescues. For example, during Storm Frank in December 2015 the SFRS received 350 flood related calls in the space of six days, in 2015 the SFRS were called out to 78 wildfire incidents in total, with over half of those taking place in the north of Scotland. As of March 2016, the SFRS operates 356 stations throughout Scotland, stations are split into three categories, Wholetime, A station with full-time firefighters. Retained, Part-time, on a basis and predominantly based in some of the more rural areas of Scotland. Volunteer, On a call-out basis and predominantly based in some of the remote villages. The most northerly station is Baltasound on the Shetland Islands, the most southerly is a volunteer station in the village of Drummore in Dumfries and Galloway. The Scottish Fire and Rescue Service National Training Centre opened in January 2013, the facility in Cambuslang features a mock town with ultra-realistic motorways, railway tracks and buildings, including a multi-storey tenement structure. The number of control rooms handling 999 calls was reduced from eight to three
13.
Emergency medical services in the United Kingdom
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Emergency care including ambulance and emergency department treatment is free to everyone, regardless of immigration or visitor status. The NHS commissions most emergency services through the 14 NHS organisations with ambulance responsibility across the UK. As with other services, the public normally access emergency medical services through one of the valid emergency telephone numbers. This led to the formation of predominantly county based ambulance services, which gradually merged up and changed responsibilities until 2006, when there were 31 NHS ambulance trusts in England. Following further changes as part of the NHS foundation trust pathway, the commissioners in each region are responsible for contracting with a suitable organisation to provide ambulance services within their geographical territory. The primary contract for each area is held by a public NHS body, of which there are 11 in England. The service was operated before reorganisation in 1974 by the St Andrews’ Ambulance Association under contract to the Secretary of State for Scotland, the Northern Ireland Ambulance Service was established in 1995 by parliamentary order, and serves the whole of Northern Ireland. The Welsh Ambulance Service NHS Trust was established on 1 April 1998, there is a large market for private and voluntary ambulance services, with the sector being worth £800m to the UK economy in 2012. This places the voluntary providers in direct competition with private services, expenditure on private ambulances in England increased from £37m in 2011−12 to £67. 5m in 2013/4, rising in London from £796,000 to more than £8. 8m. In 2014−15, these 10 ambulance services spent £57.6 million on 333,329 callouts of private or voluntary services - an increase of 156% since 2010−11, in 2013, the CQC found 97% of private ambulance services to be providing good care. These private, registered services are represented by the Independent Ambulance Association, there are also a number of unregistered services operating, who do not provide ambulance transport, but only provide response on an event site. These firms are not regulated, and are not subject to the checks as the registered providers, although they may operate similar vehicles. There are a number of ambulance providers, sometimes known as Voluntary Aid Services or Voluntary Aid Societies, with the main ones being the British Red Cross. The history of the ambulance services pre-dates any government organised service. As they are in competition for work with the private ambulance providers. Voluntary organisations have also provided cover for the public when unionised NHS ambulance trust staff have taken industrial action, there are a number of smaller voluntary ambulance organisations, fulfilling specific purposes, such as Hatzola who provide emergency medical services to the orthodox Jewish community in some cities. These have however run into difficulties due to use of vehicles not legally recognised as ambulances, all emergency medical services in the UK are subject to a range of legal and regulatory requirements, and in many cases are also monitored for performance. This framework is largely statutory in nature, being mandated by government through a range of primary and secondary legislation and this requires all providers to register, to meet certain standards of quality, and to submit to inspection of those standards
14.
Scottish Ambulance Service
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The Scottish Ambulance Service is part of NHS Scotland, and serves all of Scotland. It is a health board funded directly by the Health. The service was known as the St Andrews and Red Cross Scottish Ambulance Service, the Red Cross withdrew from the service in 1967, the service was renamed the St Andrews Scottish Ambulance Service. In 1974 the service was taken over by the NHS, the title being shortened to the Scottish Ambulance Service, St. Andrews First Aid, which is the trading name of St. Andrews Ambulance Association, continues as a voluntary organisation. In 2003 there was a reorganisation of the control centres across Scotland. The original uniform for the service consisted of a blue shirt, black clip-on tie, navy blue sweater. These uniforms were an Irish green colour for Emergency staff and a blue shade for Patient Transport staff. In 2013/2014, the uniform was changed to mirror the NHS National Uniform standard. It is now supplied by Dimensions and is similar to all other Ambulance Services in the UK. All staff, including control centre staff, now wear the national uniform unless otherwise authorised, the national headquarters are in west side of Edinburgh and there are five divisions within the Service, namely, The Patient Transport Service carries almost 1.6 million patients every year. This service is provided to patients who are physically or medically unfit to travel to hospital out-patient appointments by any means can still make their appointments. The service also handles non-emergency admissions, discharges, transport of palliative care patients, Patient Transport Vehicles come in a variety of forms and are staffed by Ambulance Care Assistants, whom work either double or single crewed. They are trained to look after patients during the journey, the service has the only government-funded air ambulance service in the UK, operated under contract by Gama Aviation. In 2015/16, the air crews flew 3,849 missions. One helicopter and one King Air are based at a Gama Aviation facility at Glasgow Airport, the other operating bases are Inverness Airport and Aberdeen Airport. The aircraft based in Glasgow are regularly used by the UKs only Emergency Medical Retrieval Service, the air ambulance service was occasionally featured as part of the popular Channel 5 television documentary series Highland Emergency. In late 2012 a charity was founded to provide an air ambulance, based at Perth Airport. Scotlands Charity Air Ambulance commenced operations in May 2013 with a Bolkow 105 airframe, since November 2015, SCAA operates a Eurocopter EC-135 helicopter
15.
Scotland (European Parliament constituency)
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Scotland constitutes a single constituency of the European Parliament. In 2014 it elected six MEPs, using the method of party-list proportional representation. The constituencys boundaries are the same as those of Scotland, one of the four countries of the United Kingdom, the constituency was formed as a result of the European Parliamentary Elections Act 1999, replacing a number of single-member constituencies. These were Glasgow, Highlands and Islands, Lothians, Mid Scotland and Fife, North East Scotland, South of Scotland, Strathclyde East, the number of MEPs returned by the constituency was eight in 1999, seven in 2004, and six in 2009 and 2014. Elected candidates are listed in bold, brackets indicate the number of votes per seat won. Elections in Scotland Scottish Elections Between 1997 and present
16.
Scottish Parliament
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The Scottish Parliament, is the devolved national, unicameral legislature of Scotland. Located in the Holyrood area of the city, Edinburgh. The most recent general election to the Parliament was held on 5 May 2016, as a consequence, both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England ceased to exist, and the Parliament of Great Britain, which sat at Westminster in London was formed. The Act delineates the legislative competence of the Parliament – the areas in which it can make laws – by explicitly specifying powers that are reserved to the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The Scottish Parliament has the power to legislate in all areas that are not explicitly reserved to Westminster, the British Parliament retains the ability to amend the terms of reference of the Scottish Parliament, and can extend or reduce the areas in which it can make laws. The first meeting of the new Parliament took place on 12 May 1999, initial Scottish proposals in the negotiation over the Union suggested a devolved Parliament be retained in Scotland, but this was not accepted by the English negotiators. Suggestions for a devolved Parliament were made before 1914, but were shelved due to the outbreak of the First World War, one of the principal objectives of the commission was to examine ways of enabling more self-government for Scotland, within the unitary state of the United Kingdom. Kilbrandon published his report in 1973 recommending the establishment of a directly elected Scottish Assembly to legislate for the majority of domestic Scottish affairs, the party argued that the revenues from the oil were not benefitting Scotland as much as they should. The combined effect of events led to Prime Minister Wilson committing his government to some form of devolved legislature in 1974. However, it was not until 1978 that final legislative proposals for a Scottish Assembly were passed by the United Kingdom Parliament, publishing its blueprint for devolution in 1995, the Convention provided much of the basis for the structure of the Parliament. Devolution continued to be part of the platform of the Labour Party which, in May 1997, an election was held on 6 May 1999, and on 1 July of that year power was transferred from Westminster to the new Parliament. Since September 2004, the home of the Scottish Parliament has been a new Scottish Parliament Building. The Scottish Parliament building was designed by Spanish architect Enric Miralles in partnership with local Edinburgh Architecture firm RMJM which was led by Design Principal Tony Kettle. Some of the features of the complex include leaf-shaped buildings. Throughout the building there are many repeated motifs, such as based on Raeburns Skating Minister. Crow-stepped gables and the upturned boat skylights of the Garden Lobby, Queen Elizabeth II opened the new building on 9 October 2004. In March 2006, one of the Holyrood buildings roof beams slipped out of its support and was left dangling above the back benches during a debate, the debating chamber was subsequently closed, and MSPs moved to The Hub for one week, whilst inspections were carried out. During repairs, all business was conducted in the Parliaments committee room two
17.
Clydesdale (Scottish Parliament constituency)
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Clydesdale is a constituency of the Scottish Parliament. It elects one Member of the Scottish Parliament by the plurality method of election, the Clydesdale constituency was created at the same time as the Scottish Parliament, in 1999, with the name and boundaries of an existing Westminster constituency. In 2005, however, Scottish Westminster constituencies were replaced with new constituencies. The Holyrood constituency is one of five covering the South Lanarkshire council area, the others are the East Kilbride, Hamilton, Larkhall and Stonehouse, Rutherglen and the Uddingston and Bellshill constituencies, all in other electoral regions. The electoral wards used in the creation of Clydesdale are, In full, Clydesdale West, Clydesdale North, Clydesdale East, Clydesdale South In part, Avondale and Stonehouse
18.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
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Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
20.
River Clyde
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The River Clyde is a river, that flows into the Firth of Clyde in Scotland. It is the eighth-longest river in the United Kingdom, and the second-longest in Scotland, flowing through the major city of Glasgow, it was an important river for shipbuilding and trade in the British Empire. In the early medieval Cumbric language it was known as Clud or Clut, the Clyde is formed by the confluence of two streams, the Daer Water and the Potrail Water. The Southern Upland Way crosses both streams before they meet at Watermeetings to form the River Clyde proper. At this point the Clyde is only 10 kilometres from Tweeds Well, the source of the River Tweed, and 13 kilometres from the Devils Beef Tub, the source of the River Annan. From there it meanders northeastward before turning to the west, its flood plain used for major roads in the area. On the banks of the Clyde, the industrialists David Dale and Robert Owen, built their mills, the mills harness the power of the Falls of Clyde, the most spectacular of which is Cora Linn. A hydroelectric power station generates electricity here, although the mills are now a museum. Between the towns of Motherwell and Hamilton the course of the river has altered to create an artificial loch within Strathclyde Park. Part of the course can still be seen, and lies between the island and the east shore of the loch. The river then flows through Blantyre and Bothwell, where the ruined Bothwell Castle stands on a defensible promontory, past Uddingston and into the southeast of Glasgow the river begins to widen, meandering a course through Rutherglen and Dalmarnock. From there, it flows past the shipbuilding heartlands, through Govan, Partick, Whiteinch, Scotstoun and Clydebank, all of which housed major shipyards, of which only two remain. The river flows out west of Glasgow, past Renfrew, opposite, on the south shore, the river continues past the last Lower Clyde shipyard at Port Glasgow to Greenock where it reaches the Tail of the Bank as the river merges into the Firth of Clyde. At the mouth of the River Clyde there has been a significant issue of oxygen depletion in the water column, the valley of the Clyde was the focus for the G-BASE project from the British Geological Survey in the summer of 2010. The success of the Clyde at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution was driven by the location of Glasgow, tobacco and cotton trade began the drive in the early 18th century. However, the shallow Clyde was not navigable for the largest ocean-going ships, in 1768 John Golborne advised the narrowing of the river and the increasing of the scour by the construction of rubble jetties and the dredging of sandbanks and shoals. A particular problem was the division of the river into two channels by the Dumbuck shoal near Dumbarton. After James Watts report on this in 1769, a jetty was constructed at Longhaugh Point to block off the southern channel and this being insufficient, a training wall called the Lang Dyke was built in 1773 on the Dumbuck shoal to stop water flowing over into the southern channel
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Lanark
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Lanark is a small town in the central belt of Scotland. The name is believed to come from the Cumbric Lanerc meaning clear space, Lanark is traditionally the county town of Lanarkshire, though there are several larger towns in the county. Lanark railway station and coach station have frequent services to Glasgow, there is little industry in Lanark and some residents commute to work in Glasgow and Edinburgh. Its shops serve the agricultural community and surrounding villages. There is a modern livestock auction market on the outskirts of the town. Lanark has served as an important market town since medieval times, King David I realised that greater prosperity could result from encouraging trade. He decided to create a chain of new towns across Scotland and these would be centres of Norman civilisation in a largely Celtic country, and would be established in such a way as to encourage the development of trade within their area. These new towns were to be known as Burghs, bastides were established in France for much the same reason. When a site had been selected for a new town the King’s surveyors would lay out an area for the town’s market, each merchant who came to the town was granted a plot of land bordering on the marketplace. These plots were known as feus or rigs, each feu in a burgh was the same size, though the size varied between burghs. In Forres in the north of Scotland each feu was 24 feet 10 inches wide and 429 feet deep, the layout of the feus in Lanark can still be easily seen between the north side of Lanark High Street and North Vennel, a lane which runs behind the feus. A motte and bailey castle was constructed at the bottom of Castlegate. Lanark had four gates, West Port, East port. West Port gate was demolished in the 1770s, the first aviation meeting to be held in Scotland was held at Lanark Racecourse between 6 and 13 August 1910. The aeroplanes were transported to the meeting by rail, as aviation technology at the time was not advanced enough to fly there. The Lanark meeting took place shortly after an event in Bournemouth at which Charles Rolls lost his life. Influenced by this, it was decided that no aircraft would fly closer than 300 yards away from the spectators, for the first time, aeroplanes were accurately timed over a straight measured distance, allowing the first world records to be set, covering flights over 1 mile. The meeting was described by The Aero magazine as the most successful yet held in Britain, a permanent military presence was established in the town with the completion of Winston Barracks in 1930
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Glasgow
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Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland, and third largest in the United Kingdom. Historically part of Lanarkshire, it is now one of the 32 council areas of Scotland and it is situated on the River Clyde in the countrys West Central Lowlands. Inhabitants of the city are referred to as Glaswegians, Glasgow grew from a small rural settlement on the River Clyde to become the largest seaport in Britain. From the 18th century the city grew as one of Great Britains main hubs of transatlantic trade with North America. Glasgow was the Second City of the British Empire for much of the Victorian era and Edwardian period, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries Glasgow grew in population, reaching a peak of 1,128,473 in 1939. The entire region surrounding the conurbation covers about 2.3 million people, at the 2011 census, Glasgow had a population density of 8, 790/sq mi, the highest of any Scottish city. Glasgow hosted the 2014 Commonwealth Games and is well known in the sporting world for the football rivalry of the Old Firm between Celtic and Rangers. Glasgow is also known for Glasgow patter, a dialect that is noted for being difficult to understand by those from outside the city. Glasgow is the form of the ancient Cumbric name Glas Cau. Possibly referring to the area of Molendinar Burn where Glasgow Cathedral now stands, the later Gaelic name Baile Glas Chu, town of the grey dog, is purely a folk-etymology. The present site of Glasgow has been settled since prehistoric times, it is for settlement, being the furthest downstream fording point of the River Clyde, the origins of Glasgow as an established city derive ultimately from its medieval position as Scotlands second largest bishopric. Glasgow increased in importance during the 10th and 11th centuries as the site of this bishopric, reorganised by King David I of Scotland and John, there had been an earlier religious site established by Saint Mungo in the 6th century. The bishopric became one of the largest and wealthiest in the Kingdom of Scotland, bringing wealth, sometime between 1189 and 1195 this status was supplemented by an annual fair, which survives as the Glasgow Fair. Glasgow grew over the following centuries, the first bridge over the River Clyde at Glasgow was recorded from around 1285, giving its name to the Briggait area of the city, forming the main North-South route over the river via Glasgow Cross. The founding of the University of Glasgow in 1451 and elevation of the bishopric to become the Archdiocese of Glasgow in 1492 increased the towns religious and educational status and landed wealth. Its early trade was in agriculture, brewing and fishing, with cured salmon and herring being exported to Europe, Glasgow was subsequently raised to the status of Royal Burgh in 1611. The citys Tobacco Lords created a water port at Port Glasgow on the Firth of Clyde. By the late 18th century more than half of the British tobacco trade was concentrated on Glasgows River Clyde, at the time, Glasgow held a commercial importance as the city participated in the trade of sugar, tobacco and later cotton
23.
David Dale
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For the Australian journalist and author, see David Dale. For the English industrialist, see Sir David Dale, 1st Baronet, for the New South Wales colonial politician, see David Dale. David Dale was a leading Scottish industrialist, merchant and philanthropist during the Scottish Enlightenment period at the end of the 18th century, scotland’s leading historian, Professor Sir Tom Devine, described Dale as ‘the greatest cotton magnate of his time in Scotland’. New Lanark attracted visitors from all over the world, Dale’s daughter married Robert Owen in 1799 and by 1800, Dale had sold the mills to a group of businessmen led by Robert Owen. Owen saw New Lanark as a ground for what he called his New Social System – an experiment in communitarian living. He managed New Lanark for nearly 25 years, and the community continued to attract visitors from across the globe and his date of birth is normally given as 6 January but there is no officially recorded date of birth. However, parish records show that he was baptised on 14 January 1739, as a child, he worked with the cattle as a ‘herd laddie’ in very basic conditions. This was the period of runrigs and impoverished tenant farmers – all before the so-called Age of Improvement, Dale’s family was not wealthy, but he did not experience the absolute poverty and near starvation of many of those involved in tenant farming. His father apprenticed him to a weaver in Paisley & then he became an agent in Hamilton and, later, Cambuslang – putting out yarn to be woven. He arrived in Glasgow c1763 as a clerk to a merchant and began his own small business in the High Street, importing linen yarns from France. The business grew rapidly and Dale became a merchant in the city. In 1777, at the age of 38, he married 24 year old Anne Caroline Campbell, a wealthy merchant needed a suitable house and in 1783 Dale had a grand mansion built in Glasgow’s fashionable Charlotte Street. The couple were together for 14 years until the death of Carolina. During that period, she bore him no less than nine children, four of whom, including their only son and their first born – also named Anne Caroline – later became Mrs Robert Owen. The period 1783-1785 saw Dale’s career take off in a number of directions, by 1785 he was no longer a city merchant but a budding entrepreneur, banker and industrialist. Within a few years, the Glasgow branch was doing business worth a staggering one million pounds, america was no longer a British colony and Glasgow merchants no longer depended on tobacco for their fortunes. Textiles, sugar and rum were the new tobacco, in 1783, there was an opportunity for Dale to extend his reputation and influence with the establishment of the Glasgow Chamber of Commerce, the first of its type in Britain. Dale became an important figure in the life of Glasgow
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Cotton mill
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Although some were driven by animal power, most early mills were built in rural locations near to fast-flowing rivers and streams and had water wheels to power them. The mechanisation of the process in the early factories was instrumental in the growth of the machine tool industry. Limited companies were developed to construct mills, and the floors of the cotton exchange in Manchester. Mills generated employment, drawing workers from rural areas and expanding urban populations. They provided incomes for girls and women, child labour was used in the mills, and the factory system led to organised labour. Poor conditions became the subject of exposés, and in England, the cotton mill, originally a Lancashire phenomenon, was copied in New England and later in the southern states of America. In the 20th century, North West England lost its supremacy to the United States, then to India, in the mid-16th century Manchester was an important manufacturing centre for woollens and linen and market for textiles made elsewhere. The fustian district of Lancashire, from Blackburn to Bolton, west to Wigan and Leigh and south towards Manchester, used flax and raw cotton imported along the Mersey and Irwell Navigation. During the Industrial Revolution cotton manufacture changed from a domestic to an industry, made possible by inventions. The weaving process was the first to be mechanised by the invention of John Kays flying shuttle in 1733, the manually-operated spinning jenny was developed by James Hargreaves in about 1764 speeded up the spinning process. The roller spinning principle of Paul and Bourne became the basis of Richard Arkwrights spinning frame and water frame, the principles of the spinning jenny and water frame were combined by Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule of 1779, but water power was not applied to it until 1792. Many mills were built after Arkwrights patent expired in 1783 and by 1788, the development of cotton mills was linked to the development of the machinery they contained. By 1774,30,000 people in Manchester were employed using the system in cotton manufacture. The first cotton mills were established in the 1740s to house roller spinning machinery invented by Lewis Paul, the machines were the first to spin cotton mechanically without the intervention of human fingers. They were driven by a single power source which allowed the use of larger machinery. The Paul-Wyatt mills spun cotton for several decades but were not very profitable, Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for his water frame spinning machinery in 1769. Arkwrights first mill – powered by horses in Nottingham in 1768 – was similar to Paul and Wyatts first Birmingham mill although by 1772 it had expanded to four storeys and employed 300 workers. Arkwright recruited large, highly disciplined workforces for his mills, managed credit and supplies, by 1782 his annual profits exceeded £40,000, and by 1784 he had opened 10 more mills
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Richard Arkwright
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Sir Richard Arkwright was an English inventor and a leading entrepreneur during the early Industrial Revolution. Although his patents were overturned, he is credited with inventing the spinning frame. He also patented a rotary carding engine that transformed raw cotton into cotton lap, Arkwrights achievement was to combine power, machinery, semi-skilled labour and the new raw material of cotton to create mass-produced yarn. Later in his life Arkwright was known as the father of the industrial factory system. Richard Arkwright, the youngest of seven surviving children, was born in Preston, Lancashire and his father, Thomas, was a tailor and a Preston Guild burgess. The family is recorded in the Preston Guild Rolls now held by Lancashire Record Office, Richards parents, Sarah and Thomas, could not afford to send him to school and instead arranged for him to be taught to read and write by his cousin Ellen. Richard was apprenticed to a Mr Nicholson, a barber at nearby Kirkham and it was here that he invented a waterproof dye for use on the fashionable periwigs of the time, the income from which later funded his prototype cotton machinery. Arkwright married his first wife, Patience Holt, in 1755 and they had a son, Richard Arkwright Junior, who was born the same year. In 1756, Patience died of unspecified causes, Arkwright later married Margaret Biggins in 1761 at the age of 29 years. They had three children, of whom only Susanna survived to adulthood and it was only after the death of his first wife that he became an entrepreneur. He became interested in spinning and carding machinery that turned raw cotton into thread, in 1768, he and John Kay, a clockmaker, briefly returned to Preston renting rooms in a house on Stoneygate, now known as Arkwright House, where they worked on a spinning machine. In 1769 Arkwright patented the spinning frame, which known as the water-frame. Lewis Paul had invented a machine for carding in 1748, Arkwright and John Smalley set up a small horse-driven factory at Nottingham. Needing more capital to expand, Arkwright partnered with Jedediah Strutt and Samuel Need, wealthy hosiery manufacturers, in 1771, the partners built the worlds first water-powered mill at Cromford, employing 200 people mainly women and children. Arkwright spent £12,000 perfecting his machine, which contained the crank and he had mechanised all the preparatory and spinning processes, and he began to set up water-powered cotton mills as far away as Scotland. His success encouraged others to copy him, so he had great difficulty in enforcing the patent he was granted in 1775. Samuel Crompton was later to combine the two to form the spinning mule, in 1776 Arkwright built a second, larger mill at Cromford and, soon after, mills at Bakewell and Wirksworth. He was invited to Scotland where he helped David Dale establish the cotton mills at New Lanark, a large new mill at Birkacre, Lancashire, was destroyed, however, in the anti-machinery riots in 1779
26.
Robert Owen
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Robert Owen was a Welsh social reformer and one of the founders of utopian socialism and the cooperative movement. He worked in the industry in Manchester before setting up a large mill at New Lanark in Scotland. In 1824, Owen travelled to America to invest the bulk of his fortune in an experimental 1, 000-member colony on the banks of Indianas Wabash River, New Harmony was intended to be a Utopian society. Robert Owen was born in Newtown a small town in Montgomeryshire, Mid Wales. He was the sixth of seven children and his father, also named Robert Owen, had a small business as a saddler and ironmonger. Owens mother came from a farming family called Williams. There Owen received almost all his education, which ended at the age of ten. In 1787, after serving in a shop for some years. He moved to Manchester, and was employed at Satterfields Drapery in St Anns Square, with money borrowed from his brother he set up a workshop making spinning mules but exchanged the business for 6 spinning mules, which he operated in a rented space. His entrepreneurial spirit, management skill and progressive moral views were emerging by the early 1790s, in 1793, he was elected as a member of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, where the ideas of reformers and philosophers of the Enlightenment were discussed. During a visit to Scotland, Owen fell in love with Caroline Dale, Owen convinced his partners to buy New Lanark, and after his marriage to Caroline in September 1799, he made his home there. He was a manager and part-owner of the mills, encouraged by his success in the management of cotton mills in Manchester, he hoped to conduct New Lanark on higher principles than purely commercial ones. The mill of New Lanark had been started in 1785 by David Dale, the water power provided by the falls of the River Clyde made it a great attraction. About 2,000 people had associations with the mills,500 of whom were brought at the age of five or six from the poorhouses and charities of Edinburgh. The children were treated by Dale, but the general condition of the people was unsatisfactory. Many of the workers were in the lowest levels of the population, theft, drunkenness, and other vices were common, education and sanitation were neglected, the respectable country people refused to submit to the long hours and demoralising drudgery of the mills. Many employers operated the system, and paid workers in part or totally by tokens. These tokens had no value outside the mill owners truck shop, the owners could supply shoddy goods to the truck shop and charge top prices
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Philanthropy
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Philanthropy means etymologically, the love of humanity, in the sense of caring, nourishing, developing, and enhancing what it means to be human. In this meaning, it both the benefactor in their identifying and exercising their values, and the beneficiary in their receipt. A person who practices philanthropy is called a philanthropist, Philanthropy has distinguishing features from charity, not all charity is philanthropy, or vice versa, though there is a recognized degree of overlap in practice. The literal, classical definitions and understandings of the term philanthropy derive from its origins in the Greek φιλανθρωπία, the most conventional modern definition is private initiatives, for public good, focusing on quality of life. This combines the social scientific aspect developed in the century with the humanistic tradition. These distinctions have been analyzed by Olivier Zunz, and others, instances of philanthropy commonly overlap with instances of charity, though not all charity is philanthropy, or vice versa. The difference commonly cited is that charity relieves the pains of social problems, the first use of the noun form philanthrôpía came shortly thereafter, in the early Platonic dialogue Euthyphro. Socrates is reported to have said that his out of his thoughts freely to his listeners was his philanthrôpía. In the second century CE, Plutarch used the concept of philanthrôpía to describe superior human beings and this Classically synonymous troika, of philanthropy, the humanities, and liberal education, declined with the replacement of the classical world by Christianity. During the Middle Ages, philanthrôpía was superseded by Caritas charity, selfless love, Philanthropy was modernized by Sir Francis Bacon in the 1600s, who is largely credited with preventing the word from being owned by horticulture. Bacon considered philanthrôpía to be synonymous with goodness, which correlated with the Aristotelian conception of virtue, then in the 1700s, an influential lexical figurehead by the name of Samuel Johnson simply defined philanthropy as love of mankind, good nature. This definition still survives today and is cited more gender-neutrally as the love of humanity. However, it was Noah Webster who would more accurately reflect the usage in American English. The precise meaning of philanthropy is still a matter of some contention, nevertheless, there are some working definitions to which the community associated with the field of philanthropic studies most commonly subscribes. The Greeks adopted the love of humanity as an ideal, whose goal was excellence —the fullest self-development, of a body, mind, and spirit. The Platonic Academys philosophical dictionary defined Philanthropy as a state of well-educated habits stemming from love of humanity, just as Prometheus human-empowering gifts rebelled against the tyranny of Zeus, philanthropic was also associated with freedom and democracy. Both Socrates and the laws of Athens were described as philanthropic and democratic, gradually there emerged a non-religious agricultural infrastructure based on peasant farming organized into manors, which were, in turn, organized for law and order by feudalism. Francis Bacon in 1592 wrote in a letter that his vast contemplative ends expressed his philanthropic, Henry Cockeram, in his English dictionary, cited philanthropy as a synonym for humanity—thus reaffirming the Classical formulation
28.
Reform movement
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A reform movement is the kind of social movement that aims to make gradual change, or change in certain aspects of society, rather than rapid or fundamental changes. A reform movement is distinguished from more radical movements such as revolutionary movements. Reformists ideas are often grounded in liberalism, although they may be rooted in socialist or religious concepts, some rely on personal transformation, others rely on small collectives, such as Mahatma Gandhis spinning wheel and the self-sustaining village economy, as a mode of social change. Reactionary movements, which can arise against any of these, attempt to put back the way they were before any successes the new reform movement enjoyed. The Radical movement campaigned for reform, a reform of the Poor Laws, free trade, educational reform, postal reform, prison reform. Originally this movement sought to replace the political power of the aristocracy with a more democratic system empowering urban areas. Following the Enlightenments ideas, the Reformers looked to the Scientific Revolution, applied to public life, this approach yielded several successful campaigns for changes in social policy. Eventually, in 1859, this movement led to the formation of the Liberal Party. Soon, the gentry, prosperous business men, and high-ranking officials created the Conservative Party to counter the rising strength of liberalism in Parliament. Having achieved the Reform Act of 1832, the Radical alliance was broken until the Liberal-Labour alliance of the Edwardian period, the Chartist movement sought universal suffrage. A historian of the Chartist movement observed that The Chartist movement was essentially a movement with a purely political programme. A period of bad trade and high food prices set in, the London Working Mens Association, under the guidance of Francis Place, found itself in the midst of a great unrest. In the northern textile districts the Chartists, led by Feargus OConnor and this was basically a hunger revolt, springing from unemployment and despair. In Birmingham, the older Birmingham Political Union sprang to life under the leadership of Thomas Attwood, the Chartist movement demanded basic economic reforms, higher wages and better conditions of work, and a repeal of the obnoxious Poor Law Act. The idea of male suffrage, an initial goal of the Chartist movement, was to include all males as voters regardless of their social standing. This later evolved into a campaign for universal suffrage, many consider Mary Wollstonecrafts Vindication of the Rights of Woman to be the source of the reformers long-running campaign for feminist inclusion and the origin of the Womens Suffrage movement. Harriet Taylor was a significant influence on John Stuart Mills work and ideas, mill cites Taylors influence in his final revision of On Liberty, which was published shortly after her death, and she appears to be obliquely referenced in Mills The Subjection of Women. A militant campaign to include women in the electorate originated in Victorian times, emmeline Pankhursts husband, Richard Pankhurst, was a supporter of the womens suffrage movement, and had been the author of the Married Womens Property Acts of 1870 and 1882
29.
Urban planning
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Urban planning is also referred to as urban and regional planning, regional planning, town planning, city planning, rural planning or some combination in various areas worldwide. It takes many forms and it can share perspectives and practices with urban design, urban planning guides orderly development in urban, suburban and rural areas. Practitioners of urban planning are concerned with research and analysis, strategic thinking, architecture, urban design, public consultation, policy recommendations, implementation and management. Urban planners work with the fields of architecture, landscape architecture, civil engineering. Early urban planners were often members of these cognate fields, today urban planning is a separate, independent professional discipline. The discipline is the category that includes different sub-fields such as land-use planning, zoning, economic development, environmental planning. There is evidence of planning and designed communities dating back to the Mesopotamian, Indus Valley, Minoan. Archeologists studying the ruins of cities in these areas find paved streets that were out at right angles in a grid pattern. The idea of a planned out urban area evolved as different civilizations adopted it, beginning in the 8th century BCE, Greek city states were primarily centered on orthogonal plans. The ancient Romans, inspired by the Greeks, also used orthogonal plans for their cities, city planning in the Roman world was developed for military defense and public convenience. The spread of the Roman Empire subsequently spread the ideas of urban planning, as the Roman Empire declined, these ideas slowly disappeared. However, many cities in Europe still held onto the planned Roman city center, cities in Europe from the 9th to 14th centuries, often grew organically and sometimes chaotically. But many hundreds of new towns were built according to preconceived plans. Most of these were realized from the 12th to 14th centuries, from the 15th century on, much more is recorded of urban design and the people that were involved. In this period, theoretical treatises on architecture and urban planning start to appear in which questions are addressed and designs of towns. During the Enlightenment period, several European rulers ambitiously attempted to redesign capital cities, during the Second French Republic, Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann, under the direction of Napoleon III, redesigned the city of Paris into a more modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards. Planning and architecture went through a shift at the turn of the 20th century. The industrialized cities of the 19th century grew at a tremendous rate, the pace and style of this industrial construction was largely dictated by the concerns of private business
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Tourism in Scotland
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Scotland is a well-developed tourist destination, with tourism generally being responsible for sustaining 200,000 jobs mainly in the service sector, with tourist spending averaging at £4bn per year. In 2002, for example, UK visitors made 18.5 million visits to Scotland, staying 64.5 million nights, in contrast, overseas residents made 1.58 million visits to Scotland, staying 15 million nights and spending £806m. Scotland is generally seen as a clean, unspoilt destination with beautiful scenery which has a long and complex history, combined with thousands of historic sites and these include prehistoric stone circles, standing stones and burial chambers, and various Bronze Age, Iron Age and Stone Age remains. There are also many castles, houses, and battlegrounds, ruins. Many people are drawn by the culture of Scotland, most visitors to Scotland in 2014 came from the following countries, Scotland is connected to England by a road, rail and air network. The airports Glasgow, Glasgow-Prestwick, Edinburgh and Aberdeen serve as the international gateways to Scotland. The expanding budget airline network from Scotlands airports is making a significant contribution to bringing more visitors to the country, the country is also connected to mainland Europe by a car ferry service operating daily from Rosyth in Fife to the Belgian port of Zeebrugge. Ferry services also connect Scotland with Northern Ireland, operating between Stranraer and Belfast and Cairnryan and Larne, the company cited high fuel prices and new competition from low-cost air services, especially Ryanair, as being the cause. It is unclear if the Newcastle-Kristiansand, Norway, route, the Old and New Towns of the city constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Edinburgh is the largest tourist destination in Scotland, and the second largest in the United Kingdom after London, the cities major tourist attractions include Edinburgh Castle, Edinburgh Zoo, the Palace of Holyroodhouse, Our Dynamic Earth and the Royal Mile. It has four universities including the University of Edinburgh founded in 1583, Glasgow is the largest city in the country, and the second largest tourist destination after Edinburgh. Its attractions include the Burrell Collection, Glasgow Cathedral, the Glasgow Science Centre, in addition to this many tourists come to Glasgow for its renowned Victorian architecture and Gothic architecture as well as its shopping. The city has three universities, including the University of Glasgow founded in 1451, amongst its attractions are Stirling Castle, the Wallace National Monument and the Thieves Pot/Thistles Centre. Aberdeen is known as the Granite City and is renowned for its gothic architecture and it is a city of approximately 210,000 people and serves as the main administrative centre for the north-east of Scotland. With its large port and harbour, Aberdeen serves as the point for the many ferries that connect the Scottish mainland with the Northern Isles of Orkney. Aberdeen also has two universities, and a student population. St Andrews is a small, but busy town in north-east Fife, the royal burghs economy is centred on the golf industry, with St Andrews being regarded as the home of the modern game. The University of St Andrews has colleges located throughout the town, dundee is known as the City of Discovery and is the home of Scott of the Antarctics ship the RRS Discovery
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UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
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World Heritage Sites in Scotland
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Historic Scotland is responsible for cultural sites as part of their wider responsibility towards the historic environment. The Environment Directorate is responsible for natural sites, there are currently 6 sites in the country, with a further 2 undergoing a process of formal evaluation. Informal discussion of a site for Þings has taken place, the six existing sites are mapped to the right and described in detail below. In 2004, the site was extended to include a large amount of the surrounding marine features as well as the islands themselves, in July 2005 it became one of the few World Heritage Sites to hold joint status for its natural and cultural qualities. The islands were bequeathed to the National Trust for Scotland in 1957 and they are also a Biosphere Reserve and a National Scenic Area. Edinburgh Old and New Towns were together inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 1996 and it is managed by the Edinburgh World Heritage Trust. The Heart of Neolithic Orkney includes Maeshowe, the Ring of Brodgar, Skara Brae and it was inscribed in 1999 and is managed by Historic Scotland. New Lanark was inscribed in 2001 and it is a restored 18th century industrial cotton mill village in South Lanarkshire constructed by Robert Owen as an experiment in utopian socialism. Restoration was organised by the New Lanark Conservation Trust, which was formed in 1974, the Antonine Wall was inscribed in July 2008. It is an extension to a series of sites in Austria, Germany. The Wall is the remains of a line made of turf c.20 feet high. It was constructed after 139 AD and extended for 37 miles between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde, the wall was overrun and abandoned soon after 160 AD, then occupied again for a brief period after 197 AD. The Forth Bridge was inscribed as a World Heritage Site on 5 July 2015, network Rail, the current owners of the bridge, made their initial opposition to a nomination clear, being concerned this could impose additional burdens on their ability to operate it. Nonetheless, the bridge was nominated for inclusion in early 2014, the listing recognised it as an extraordinary and impressive milestone in bridge design and construction during the period when railways came to dominate long-distance land travel. Commenting on World Heritage Day in 2008, Linda Fabiani the then Scottish Minister for Europe, External Affairs and Culture stated, take the opportunity to reflect upon the contribution of our own World Heritage sites and their place in the global story of humanity. We can celebrate, with justified pride, Scotlands contribution, a year later the then Culture Minister Mike Russell MSP announced at Mount Rushmore in the United States that Historic Scotland had launched a project called the Scottish Ten. This was to use laser scanners to create models of Scotland’s five World Heritage Sites and for another five sites elsewhere. The aim is to use the imagery to aid in the conservation, maintenance
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Cambuslang
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Cambuslang /ˈkæmbəsˈlæŋ/ is a suburban town on the south-eastern outskirts of Glasgow, Scotland. It is within the authority area of South Lanarkshire and directly borders the town of Rutherglen to the west. Historically, it was a civil parish incorporating the nearby hamlets of Newton, Flemington. The town is located just south of the River Clyde and about 6 miles south-east of the centre of Glasgow and it has a long history of coal mining, iron and steel making, and ancillary engineering works, most recently Hoover. The Clydebridge Steelworks and other manufacturing businesses continue but most employment in the area comes from the distribution or service industries. Cambuslang is an ancient part of Scotland where Iron Age remains loom over 21st century housing developments, the local geography explains a great deal of its history. It has been very prosperous time, depending first upon its agricultural land. These were jealously guarded by the medieval Church, and later by the local aristocracy, because of its relative prosperity, Cambuslang has been intimately concerned in the politics of the country and of the local Church. Bishop John Cameron of Glasgow, the Scottish King James Is first minister, and Cardinal Beaton and this importance continued following the Protestant Reformation. The religious movements of the 18th century, including the Cambuslang Wark, were linked to similar movements in North America. The Scottish Enlightenment was well represented in the person of Rev Dr James Meek and his troubles with his parishioners foreshadowed the split in the Church of Scotland during the 19th century. The manufacturing industries grew up from the agricultural and mineral resources attracted immigrants from all over Scotland and Ireland. Cambuslang benefited at all times from its closeness to the city of Glasgow, brought closer in the 18th century by a turnpike road then, in the 19th century. In the 21st century, it continues to benefit from its proximity to Glasgow and to wider communication networks. Its increasing population posed problems, over the centuries, of employment and housing as well as of schooling and health, in this regard, it is fairly typical of most Scottish towns. In sport, Cambuslang F. C. were founder members of the Scottish Football League whose most notable achievement was being the runners-up of the Scottish Cup in 1888. They folded, as did Scottish Junior Cup winners Cambuslang Hibernian, Cambuslang is in the Rutherglen and Hamilton West Constituency for elections to the House of Commons at Westminster. Margaret Ferrier won the seat for the Scottish National Party in 2015, replacing Tom Greatrex, Cambuslang was originally in the Glasgow Rutherglen Constituency for the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood
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Falls of Clyde (waterfalls)
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The Falls of Clyde is the collective name of four linn on the River Clyde near New Lanark, South Lanarkshire, Scotland. The Falls of Clyde comprise the upper falls of Bonnington Linn, Corra Linn, Dundaff Linn, Corra Linn is the highest, with a fall of 84 feet. Bonnington Linn, Corra Linn and Dundaff Linn are above New Lanark and located within the Falls of Clyde Reserve managed by the Scottish Wildlife Trust, Stonebyres Linn is located several miles downstream from the reserve and New Lanark. The area has long been a destination for visitors. The Wordsworths, Coleridge and Sir Walter Scott all visited the Falls, in 1802, William Wordsworth immortalised Corra Linn, the largest of the waterfalls, in verse. Corra Linn has also painted by a number of artists. The name comes from the Gaelic currach, a marshy place, a legend gives Cora as a daughter of King Malcolm II, who leapt to her death here whilst trying to escape imagined danger. Near Corra Linn is the Pavilion, built by Sir John Carmichael of Bonnington, the Pavilion had mirrors on its back wall, and when the doors were opened visitors had the illusion of standing beneath the falls. The 15th-century Corra Castle is next to Corra Linn and it is now home to a family of rare bats. Corehouse, built in 1844, the home of the Cranstoun family, is nearby, at Stonebyres Linn the ruins of 15th-century Stonebyres Castle may be seen. It provides suitable habitat for badgers, roe deer, and over 100 species of bird, on 22 October 2011 at 1500 GMT a very rare pine marten was spotted within the reserve and was photographed. Within the reserve the Clyde River is suitable habitat for otters and kingfishers as well as the brook lamprey. The Falls of Clyde Visitor Centre, operated by the Scottish Wildlife Trust, features exhibits about the waterfalls, the woodland, the Lanark Hydro Electric Scheme is situated between Corra Linn and Dundaff Linn, with a water inlet at Bonnington Linn. This plant was built in 1927 and was the first hydro-electric power station in Scotland and it generates approximately eleven megawatts of power. Another hydro-electric power station is situated near Stonebyres Linn, about three miles south of Corra Linn and this generates approximately six megawatts of power. Both stations are owned and operated by Scottish Power, the Clyde walkway long distance path passes all four falls and ends at Bonnington Linn. Lanark Bonnington pavilion, Falls of Clyde Annotated map of Lanark, New Lanark, published by the Clyde Valley Tourist Association and the Lanark & District Archaeological Association. Printed by Robert MacLehose and Company Limited, Renfrew, Scotland, Falls of Clyde Wildlife Reserve Visitor Center Lanark Hydro-electric Scheme
35.
J. M. W. Turner
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Joseph Mallord William Turner, RA was an English Romanticist landscape painter. Turner was considered a figure in his day, but is now regarded as the artist who elevated landscape painting to an eminence rivalling history painting. Although renowned for his oil paintings, Turner is also one of the greatest masters of British watercolour landscape painting and he is commonly known as the painter of light. Joseph Mallord William Turner was baptised on 14 May 1775, and it is generally believed he was born between late April and early May. Turner himself claimed he was born on 23 April, but there is no proof and he was born in Maiden Lane, Covent Garden, in London, England. His father, William Turner, was a barber and wig maker and his mother, Mary Marshall, came from a family of butchers. A younger sister, Mary Ann, was born in September 1778, the earliest known artistic exercise by Turner is from this period—a series of simple colourings of engraved plates from Henry Boswells Picturesque View of the Antiquities of England and Wales. Around 1786, Turner was sent to Margate on the north-east Kent coast, here he produced a series of drawings of the town and surrounding area foreshadowing his later work. Turner returned to Margate many times in later life, by this time, Turners drawings were being exhibited in his fathers shop window and sold for a few shillings. His father boasted to the artist Thomas Stothard that, My son, in 1789, Turner again stayed with his uncle who had retired to Sunningwell in Berkshire. A whole sketchbook of work from time in Berkshire survives as well as a watercolour of Oxford. The use of sketches on location, as the foundation for later finished paintings. By the end of 1789, he had begun to study under the topographical draughtsman Thomas Malton. Turner learned from him the tricks of the trade, copying and colouring outline prints of British castles. He would later call Malton My real master, topography was a thriving industry by which a young artist could pay for his studies. In the same year of 1789 he entered the Royal Academy of Art schools, when he was 14 years old, Sir Joshua Reynolds, president of the Royal Academy, chaired the panel that admitted him. At first Turner showed a keen interest in architecture, but was advised by the architect Thomas Hardwick to continue painting and his first watercolour painting A View of the Archbishops Palace, Lambeth was accepted for the Royal Academy summer exhibition of 1790 when Turner was 15. As a probationer in the academy, he was drawing from plaster casts of antique sculptures
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Utopian socialism
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Utopian socialism is a label used to define the first currents of modern socialist thought as exemplified by the work of Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Étienne Cabet, and Robert Owen. Later socialists and critics of utopian socialism viewed utopian socialism as not being grounded in actual material conditions of existing society and these visions of ideal societies competed with Marxist-inspired revolutionary social democratic movements. A similar school of thought emerged in the early 20th century is ethical socialism. Utopians believe that people of all classes can voluntarily adopt their plan for society if it is presented convincingly, the thinkers identified as utopian socialist did not use the term utopian to refer to their ideas. This distinction was made clear in Engels work Socialism, Utopian, Utopian socialists were seen as wanting to expand the principles of the French revolution in order to create a more rational society. Marx accused Proudhon of wanting to rise above the bourgeoisie, in the history of Marxs thought and Marxism, this work is pivotal in the distinction between the concepts of utopian socialism and what Marx and the Marxists claimed as scientific socialism. Although utopian socialists shared few political, social, or economic perspectives, Marx and they want to improve the condition of every member of society, even that of the most favored. Hence, they appeal to society at large, without distinction of class, nay, by preference. For how can people, when once they understand their system, Marx and Engels used the term scientific socialism to describe the type of socialism they saw themselves developing. Since the mid-19th century, Marxism and Marxism-Leninism overtook utopian socialism in terms of intellectual development, at one time, almost half of the worlds population was governed by self-proclaimed Marxists. It has been noted that they exerted a significant influence on the emergence of new movements such as Spiritualism and Occultism. Perhaps the first utopian socialist was Thomas More, who wrote about an imaginary socialist society in his book Utopia, the contemporary definition of the English word utopia derives from this work. Many aspects of Mores description of Utopia was influenced by life in monasteries, saint-Simonianism was a French political and social movement of the first half of the 19th century, inspired by the ideas of Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon. His ideas influenced Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, Robert Owen was a successful Welsh businessman who devoted much of his profits to improving the lives of his employees. He wrote about his ideas in his book A New View of Society, which was published in 1813 and he also set up an Owenite commune called New Harmony in Indiana, USA. This collapsed when one of his business partners ran off all the profits. Charles Fourier was by far the most utopian of socialists, rejecting the industrial revolution altogether and thus the problems that arose with it, he made various fanciful claims about the ideal world he envisioned. Despite some clearly non-socialist inclinations, he contributed significantly - if indirectly - to the socialist movement and his writings about turning work into play influenced the young Karl Marx and helped him devise his theory of alienation
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Owenism
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Owenism is the utopian socialist philosophy of 19th-century social reformer Robert Owen and his followers and successors, who are known as Owenites. Owenism aimed for radical reform of society and is considered a forerunner of the cooperative movement, the Owenite movement undertook several experiments in establishment of utopian communities organized according to communitarian and cooperative principles. One of the best known of these efforts, which were unsuccessful, was the project at New Harmony, Indiana. Owenism is also associated with the development of the British trade union movement. Owen’s economic thought grew out of poverty in Britain in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars. His thought was rooted in seventeenth century English moral economy ideals of “fair exchange, just price, claeys notes that Owen’s ‘Plan’ began as grandiose but otherwise not exceptionally unusual workhouse scheme to place the unemployed poor in newly built rural communities. Owen’s “plan” was itself derivative a number of Irish and English trade unionists such as William Thompson and Thomas Hodgskin, Owens villages thus needed to be compared with the Dickensian Houses of Industry that were created after the passage of the 1834 Poor Law amendment act. Owen’s report was to spark a widespread “socialist” movement that established co-operatives, labour exchanges, and experimental communities in the United Kingdom, the United States, Owen was to disseminate his ideas in North America beginning in 1824. His ideas were most widely received in New York and Philadelphia and these men rooted their thought in Ricardian socialism and the labour theory of value. George Mudie, a printer, formed an Owenite community at Spa Fields, Mudie published a weekly journal, the Economist, which ran from 27 January 1821 to 9 March 1822. The printer Henry Hetherington was a member, Mudie moved to Orbiston after this community failed. Archibald James Hamilton, the laird of Dalzell and Orbiston. He was one of the gentlemen who commissioned Robert Owens’ “Report to the County of Lanark”, in 1821, he and several other Owenite sympathizers such as Abram Combe formed the Edinburgh Practical Society that operated a co-operative store, and a school. In addition, Hamilton provided his 290-acre estate, Orbiston, for the first Owenite co-operative community in the United Kingdom, the community collapsed in 1827 on the death of its founder. Ralahine Community, County Clare, Ireland was organized on the estate of John Vandeleur by Edward T. Craig, unlike other Owenite communities, workers were paid “labour notes” which they could spend in the co-operative store. By this time, Owenism had moved on to its Labour Exchange phase, the experiment ended when Vandeleur lost his estate through gambling. Harmony Hall Community at Queenwood Farm, Hampshire and this is the only other colony than New Harmony in Indiana founded by Robert Owen himself. In 1839 his Association of Classes of All Nations acquired five hundred acres at Queenwood farm and he purchased the community of New Harmony from the religious communists known as the Rappites
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Industrial Revolution
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The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British, aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made able to accumulate more human capital during their youth. The Industrial Revolution marks a turning point in history, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth, mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world, the precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. The term Industrial Revolution applied to change was becoming more common by the late 1830s. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an industrial revolution, however, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians, the commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies, Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker, the power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50, large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel, the adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a power to weight ratio. Steam power underwent an expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron, using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 and it was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures
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Dam
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A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. Reservoirs created by not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity, a dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions. The word dam can be traced back to Middle English, and before that, from Middle Dutch, the first known appearance of dam occurs in 1165. However, there is one village, Obdam, that is mentioned in 1120. The word seems to be related to the Greek word taphos, so the word should be understood as dike from dug out earth. The names of more than 40 places from the Middle Dutch era such as Amsterdam and Rotterdam, early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control the level, for Mesopotamias weather affected the Tigris. The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan,100 kilometres northeast of the capital Amman and this gravity dam featured an originally 9-metre-high and 1 m-wide stone wall, supported by a 50 m-wide earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC, the Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, located about 25 km south of Cairo, was 102 m long at its base and 87 m wide. The structure was built around 2800 or 2600 BC as a dam for flood control. During the Twelfth Dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III, Amenemhat III, two dams called Ha-Uar running east-west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands. The lake called Mer-wer or Lake Moeris covered 1,700 km2 and is today as Berkat Qaroun. One of the wonders of the ancient world was the Great Dam of Marib in Yemen. Repairs were carried out during various periods, most important around 750 BC and these extensive works were not actually finalized until 325 AD and allowed the irrigation of 25,000 acres. By the mid-late 3rd century BC, an intricate water-management system within Dholavira in modern-day India was built, the system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it. Eflatun Pınar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya and it is thought to be from the time of the Hittite empire between the 15th and 13th century BC
40.
Edinburgh
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Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
41.
Jeremy Bentham
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Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher, jurist, and social reformer. He is regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism, Bentham defined as the fundamental axiom of his philosophy the principle that it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong. He became a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law, and he advocated individual and economic freedom, the separation of church and state, freedom of expression, equal rights for women, the right to divorce, and the decriminalising of homosexual acts. He called for the abolition of slavery, the abolition of the penalty. He has also known in recent years as an early advocate of animal rights. Though strongly in favour of the extension of legal rights, he opposed the idea of natural law and natural rights. On his death in 1832, Bentham left instructions for his body to be first dissected, and then to be preserved as an auto-icon. This was done, and the auto-icon is now on display at University College London. Because of his arguments in favour of the availability of education. However, he played only a direct part in its foundation. Bentham was born in Houndsditch, London, to a family that supported the Tory party. He was reportedly a child prodigy, he was found as a sitting at his fathers desk reading a multi-volume history of England. He had one surviving sibling, Samuel Bentham, with whom he was close. He attended Westminster School and, in 1760, at age 12, was sent by his father to The Queens College, Oxford and he trained as a lawyer and, though he never practised, was called to the bar in 1769. He became deeply frustrated with the complexity of the English legal code, among his many proposals for legal and social reform was a design for a prison building he called the Panopticon. Although the prison was never built, the concept had an important influence on generations of thinkers. Twentieth-century French philosopher Michel Foucault argued that the Panopticon was paradigmatic of several 19th-century disciplinary institutions, Bentham became convinced that his plans for the Panopticon had been thwarted by the King and an aristocratic elite acting in their own interests. More successful was his cooperation with Patrick Colquhoun in tackling the corruption in the Pool of London and this resulted in the Thames Police Bill of 1798, which was passed in 1800
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New Harmony, Indiana
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New Harmony is a historic town on the Wabash River in Harmony Township, Posey County, in the U. S. state of Indiana. It lies 15 miles north of Mount Vernon, the county seat, the population was 789 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Evansville metropolitan area, established by the Harmony Society in 1814, the town was originally known as Harmony. Bought at two dollars an acre, the 20, 000-acre settlement was the brainchild of George Rapp and was home exclusively to German Lutherans in its early years. Here, the Harmonists built a new town in the wilderness, Robert Owen, a Welsh industrialist and social reformer, purchased the town in 1825 with the intention of creating a new utopian community and renamed it New Harmony. While the Owenite social experiment was a failure just two years after it began, the community made some important contributions to American society. New Harmony became known as a center for advances in education, New Harmonys residents established the first free library, a civic drama club, and a public school system open to men and women. The town served as the headquarters of the U. S. Many of the towns old Harmonist buildings still stand and have been restored and these structures, along with others related to the Owenite community, are included in the New Harmony Historic District. Contemporary additions to the include the Roofless Church and Atheneum. The New Harmony State Memorial is located there, just to the south of town on State Road 69 is Harmonie State Park. In April 1814 Anna Mayrisch, John L. Baker, and Ludwick Shirver traveled west in search of a new location for their congregation, one that would have fertile soil and access to a navigable waterway. By May 10 the men had found suitable land along the Wabash River in the Indiana Territory, Rapp wrote on May 10, The place is 25 miles from the Ohio mouth of the Wabash, and 12 miles from where the Ohio makes its curve first before the mouth. The town will be located about 1/4 mile from the river above on the channel on a plane as level as the floor of a room, the first Harmonists left Pennsylvania in June 1814 and traveled by flatboat to their new land in the Indiana Territory. In May 1815 the last of the Harmonists who had remained behind until the sale of their town in Pennsylvania was completed departed for their new town along the Wabash River. By 1816, the year that Indiana became a state, the Harmonists had acquired 20,000 acres of land, built 160 homes and other buildings. However, the new arrivals were more of a liability than an asset, Visitors to Harmony commented on the commercial and industrial work being done in this religious settlement along the Wabash River. It seemed as though I found myself in the midst of Germany, in 1819 the town had a steam-operated wool carding and spinning factory, a horse-drawn and human-powered threshing machine, a brewery, distillery, vineyards, and a winery
