1.
New Orleans
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New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue
2.
New Orleans metropolitan area
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As of the April 1,2012, estimate, the metropolitan statistical area had a population of 1,227,096. The New Orleans-Metairie-Hammond Combined Statistical Area, an area, had a population of 1,452,502. The metropolitan area was hit by Hurricane Katrina – once a Category 5 hurricane, within the city of New Orleans proper, multiple breaches and structural failures occurred in the system of levees and flood walls designed under Federal government auspices. The resulting decline in the population negatively impacted population numbers for the entire metro area. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area is made up of nine parishes, the CSA includes two metropolitan area and one micropolitan areas. The Census Bureaus CSA adds Washington and Tangipahoa Parishes, to make nine parishes, the New Orleans regions chamber of commerce, GNO, Inc. includes the nine parishes of the Census Bureaus CSA plus St. James Parish. This wider 10-parish region had a population of 1.32 million as of July 1,2008, the Louisiana state legislature created a commission, the Regional Planning Commission, to be responsible for the planning and development of the New Orleans metropolitan area. The five parishes covered by the commission are, Jefferson, Orleans, Plaquemines, St. Bernard, additionally, St. Charles and St. John the Baptist are associate members of the Regional Planning Commission. The New Orleans metropolitan area was first defined in 1950, then known as the New Orleans Standard Metropolitan Area, it consisted of three parishes – Orleans, Jefferson, and St. Bernard – and had a population of 685,405. Following a term change by the Bureau of the Budget, the New Orleans SMA was called the New Orleans Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area, by the census of 1960, the population had grown to 868,480, a 27% increase over the previous census. St. Tammany Parish was added the New Orleans SMSA in 1963, the four-parish area had a combined population of 899,123 in 1960 and 1,045,809 in 1970. By the 1980 census, the population had increased by 14% to 1,187,073, in 1983, the official name was shortened to the New Orleans Metropolitan Statistical Area. Two more parishes, St. Charles and St. John the Baptist, were added to the MSA the same year, making a six-parish MSA. The newly defined area had a total of 1,256,256 residents in 1980, the New Orleans MSA expanded to eight parishes in 1993 with the inclusion of Plaquemines and St. James. The eight-parish area had a population of 1,285,270 at the 1990 census and 1,337,726 in 2000. The MSA was renamed the New Orleans–Metairie–Kenner Metropolitan Statistical Area in 2003, St. James Parish was removed from the defined metropolitan area. A total of 1,316,510 people lived in the seven parishes of Greater New Orleans in 2000, the City of Kenner is the largest incorporated city located in Jefferson Parish, just west of the City of New Orleans. In the New Orleans metropolitan area, the following terms are used, Eastbank, Westbank, Northshore
3.
Southern American English
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Southern American English or Southern U. S. English is a collection of related American English dialects spoken throughout the Southern United States, though increasingly in more rural areas, commonly in the United States, the dialects are together simply referred to as Southern. Other, much more recent ethno-linguistic terms within American linguistics include Southern White Vernacular English, with this younger and more unified pronunciation system, Southern American English now comprises the largest American regional accent group by number of speakers. As of 2006, its Southern accent is strongly reported throughout the U. S. Louis in eastern Missouri, African American Vernacular English has many common points with Southern English dialects due to the strong historical ties of African Americans to the region. Southern American English dialects can also be found in southern parts of Missouri, Maryland, Delaware. Upheavals such as the Great Depression, the Dust Bowl and World War II caused mass migrations of those, the South proper as a present-day dialect region generally includes all of these pronunciation features below, which are popularly recognized in the United States as a Southern accent. However, there is still actually wide variation in Southern speech regarding potential differences based on factors like a speakers exact sub-region, age, ethnicity, Stage 1 is now complete for a majority of Southern dialects. Some traditional East Coast Southern accents do not exhibit this Stage 1 glide deletion, particularly in Charleston, SC and possibly Atlanta and Savannah, an example is that, to other English speakers, the Southern pronunciation of yap sounds something like yeah-up. At the same time, the pushing of /æ/ into the vicinity of /ɛ/, forces /ɛ/ itself into a higher and fronter position, /ɛ/ also often acquires an in-glide, thus. An example is that, to other English speakers, the Southern pronunciation of yep sounds something like yay-up, Stage 2 is most common in heavily stressed syllables. Southern accents originating from cities that formerly had the greatest influence, Stage 3, By the same pushing and pulling domino effects described above, /ɪ/ and /i/ follow suit by both possibly becoming diphthongs whose nuclei switch positions. /ɪ/ may be pushed into a diphthong with a raised beginning, an example is that, to other English speakers, the Southern pronunciation of fin sounds something like fee-in, while meal sounds something like mih-eel. Like the other stages of the Southern shift, Stage 3 is most common in stressed syllables. This short front vowel gliding phenomenon is recognized as the Southern drawl. This phenomenon is on the decline, being most typical of Southern speakers born before 1960, unstressed, word-final /ŋ/ →, The phoneme /ŋ/ in an unstressed syllable at the end of a word fronts to, so that singing /ˈsɪŋɪŋ/ is sometimes written phonetically as singin. This is common in vernacular English dialects around the world, lacking or transitioning cot–caught merger, The historical distinction between the two vowels sounds /ɔː/ and /ɒ/, in words like caught and cot or stalk and stock is mainly preserved. In much of the South during the 1900s, there was a trend to lower the vowel found in words like stalk and caught, often with an upglide, so that the most common result today is the gliding vowel. However, the merger is becoming increasingly common throughout the United States, thus affecting Southern dialects
4.
Acadiana
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Acadiana, or The Heart of Acadiana, is the official name given to the French Louisiana region that is home to a large Francophone population. Many are of Acadian descent and are now identified as Cajun, of the 64 parishes that make up the U. S. state of Louisiana,22 named parishes and other parishes of similar cultural environment make up this intrastate region. The word Acadiana reputedly has two origins and its first recorded appearance dates to the mid-1950s, when a Crowley, Louisiana, newspaper, the Crowley Daily Signal, coined the term in reference to Acadia Parish, Louisiana. However, KATC television in Lafayette independently coined Acadiana in the early 1960s, giving it a new, broader meaning, founded in 1962, KATC was owned by the Acadian Television Corporation. In early 1963, the ABC affiliate received an invoice erroneously addressed to the Acadiana Television Corp, someone had typed an extra a at the end of the word Acadian. The station started using it to describe the region covered by its broadcast signal, the public, however, prefers the one-word place name Acadiana to refer to the region. The official term appears on maps and highway markers. Today, numerous business, governmental and nonprofit organizations incorporate Acadiana in their names, notably KLFY-TV, the regional CBS affiliate, used the term in its very successful Hello News branding campaign as Hello Acadiana. In 1965, Thomas J. Arceneaux designed a flag for Acadiana, Arceneaux was a professor at University of Southwestern Louisiana, now University of Louisiana at Lafayette. He derived the flag from the university seal, in 1974, the Louisiana legislature officially adopted Arceneauxs design as the official Acadiana flag. The gold tower on the red field represents Spain, which was governing Louisiana when the Acadians arrived, the flag is used in a variety of ways in the Acadiana region. Some local governments fly the flag of Acadiana with their respective local colors, many residents of Acadiana fly the flag on their homes or businesses. Many consider it a symbol of the historic and present socio-economic ties that bind the region, cajuns are the descendants of 18th-century Acadian exiles from what are now Canadas Maritime Provinces, expelled by the British and New Englanders during and after the French and Indian War. They prevail among the regions visible cultures, but not everyone who lives in Acadiana is culturally Acadian or speaks Cajun French, similarly, not everyone who is culturally Acadian or Cajun is descended from the Acadian refugees. German settlers found their way to area as early as 1721. Since the late 20th century, political refugees from southeast Asia have brought their families, cultures, and languages to the area, Acadiana is home to several Native American tribes, including the Chitimacha, Houma, Tunica-Biloxi, Attakapas, and Coushatta. The region also boasts a population of Creoles, descendants of the regions original Old World settlers who arrived in Louisiana before. Acadiana also is home to ethnic groups, including Anglo-Americans
5.
Cajun English
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Cajun English, or Cajun Vernacular English, is the dialect of English spoken by Cajuns living in southern Louisiana and, to some extent, in eastern Texas. Cajun English is significantly influenced by Cajun French, the language of the Cajun people. It is derived from Acadian French and is on the List of dialects of the English language for North America, English is now spoken by the vast majority of the Cajun population, but French influence remains strong in terms of inflection and vocabulary. Their accent is distinct from the General American. Cajun French is considered by many to be an endangered language, but Cajun English is spoken by even the youngest Cajuns, and is considered to be part of the identity of the ethnic group. Cajun English is distinguished by some of the phonological features, The deletion of any words final consonant. Therefore, hand becomes, food becomes, rent becomes, New York becomes, the typical American gliding vowels, and have reduced glides or none at all, respectively, and. Many vowels which are distinct in General American English are pronounced the same way due to a merger, for example, stress is generally placed on the second or last syllable of a word, a feature inherited directly from French. The voiceless and voiced alveolar stops /t/ and /d/ often replace dental fricatives, examples include bath being pronounced as bat and they as day. Cajun English speakers generally do not aspirate the consonants /p/, /t/, as a result, the words par and bar can sound very similar to speakers of other English varieties. The inclusion of many loanwords, calques, and phrases from French, such as nonc, chèr and these are a few other examples. Kit, Dress, or Trap, Lot, Strut, Foot, Fleece, Face, Palm, Thought, Goat, Near, Square, or Start, or North, or. Force, or Cure, or Bath, Cloth, Nurse, or Goose, Price/Prize, or Choice, Mouth, or happY, or lettEr, horsEs, commA, Hand, Pin/Pen, Think/Length, Mirror/Nearer, or Orange, or Allons. Alors pas, Of course not Fais do-do, Refers to a dance party, there are several phrases used by Cajuns that are completely unknown to non-Cajun speakers. When outside of Acadiana, Cajuns tend to be made fun of for using these phrases, young Cajuns are often jokingly discouraged from marrying non-Cajuns for this simple fact. Some common phrases are listed below, Come see is the equivalent of saying come here regardless of whether or not there is something to see and this phrasing may have its roots in ici, the French word for here. The French viens voir, meaning see or please come, is often used in Cajun French to ask people to come. To save the dishes means to put away the dishes into cupboards where they belong after being washed, while dishes are the most common subject, it is not uncommon to save other things
6.
Uptown New Orleans
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It remains an area of mixed residential and small commercial properties, with a wealth of 19th-century architecture. It includes part or all of Uptown New Orleans Historic District, historically, uptown was a direction, meaning movement in the direction against the flow of the Mississippi. After the Louisiana Purchase, many settlers from parts of the United States developed their homes and businesses in the area upriver from the older Creole city. The very broadest definition of Uptown, historically, included everything upriver from Canal Street, in the narrowest usage, as a New Orleans City Planning neighborhood, Uptown refers to an area of only some dozen blocks centering on the intersection of Jefferson and St. Charles Avenues. Neither of these is what most New Orleanians of recent generations usually mean by uptown, the boundaries of the federal Uptown New Orleans Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places, are the River to S. Claiborne Avenue and Jackson Avenue to Broadway. Uptown was developed during the 19th century, mostly from land that had plantations in the Colonial era. Several sections were developed as separate towns, like Lafayette, Jefferson City, Greenville. For a time in the early 19th century most of Uptown was part of Jefferson Parish until the City of New Orleans annexed them, in 1874, New Orleans added the towns of Lafayette, and Carrollton. Uptown has always had a sizable African American population, census data shows that ethnically and racially mixed blocks were common in the 19th and early 20th centuries, which continues to be the case with much of Uptown. Several small settlements grew up at steamboat landings a few miles upstream of New Orleans, the original Lafayette began as one of these. It was subdivided and incorporated in April 1833 as the City of Lafayette, the center of town was around Jackson Avenue. Lafayette was also the site of the original Jefferson Parish court house, the New Orleans and Carrollton Railroad, also incorporated in 1833, constructed a spur from the main line along Nyades Street down Jackson Avenue. Lafayette annexed Faubourg Delassize in 1844, bringing that citys boundary with New Orleans to Toledano Street, in 1852, New Orleans annexed Lafayette, moving the New Orleans city limit upriver to Toledano Street. The seat of Jefferson Parish moved to the City of Carrollton, however, the boundary between Jefferson Parish and Orleans Parish remained at Felicity Street until 1870, when it was moved to Lowerline Street. Cornelius Hurst, developer of Faubourg Hurstville, sold a block to the City of Lafayette for a cemetery in 1833. Now known as Lafayette Cemetery No,1, the land is bounded by Washington Avenue, 6th Street, Coliseum Street and Prytania Street. In 1972, this cemetery was added to the National Register of Historical Places, the Fund helped in the creation of a preservation plan with assistance from American Express. In 2010, the Louisiana Landmarks Society rated Lafayette Cemetery No.1 as one of the nine most endangered New Orleans landmarks and it said that two large oak trees threatened to destroy 30 tombs
7.
Garden District, New Orleans
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The Garden District is a neighborhood of the city of New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. The National Historic Landmark district extends a little farther, the area was originally developed between 1832 and 1900 and is considered one of the best-preserved collections of historic mansions in the Southern United States. The 19th-century origins of the Garden District illustrate wealthy newcomers building opulent structures based upon the prosperity of New Orleans in that era, the Garden District is located at 29°55′40″N 90°05′05″W and has an elevation of 3 feet. According to the United States Census Bureau, the district has an area of 0.21 square miles. 0.21 square miles of which is land and 0.00 square miles of which is water, the Garden District Association defines the boundaries as both sides of Carondelet Street, Josephine Street, both sides of Louisiana Avenue, and Magazine Street. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,970 people,1,117 households, the population density was 9,381 /mi². As of the census of 2010, there were 1,926 people,1,063 households and this whole area was once a number of plantations, including the Livaudais Plantation. It was sold off in parcels to mainly wealthy Americans who did not want to live in the French Quarter with the Creoles and it became a part of the city of Lafayette in 1833, and was annexed by New Orleans in 1852. The district was out by New Orleans architect, planner. Originally the area was developed only a couple of houses per block, each surrounded by a large garden. In the late 19th century, some of large lots were subdivided. This has produced a pattern for much of the neighborhood, of any given block having a couple of early 19th-century mansions surrounded by gingerbread-decorated late Victorian period houses, thus, the Garden District is now known for its architecture more than for its gardens per se. A slightly larger district was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1974, Gilmour – Parker House,1520 Prytania Street, erected in 1853 for Thomas Corse Gilmour, English Cotton Merchant, Isaac Thayer, architect-builder. Sold by Gilmour heirs in 1882 to John M. Parker, whose son, John M. Parker, Jr. lived here and later served as Governor of Louisiana. The dining room extension with bay window was added by Mrs. Sarah Roberta Buckner, widow of John M. Parker, residence of Walter Denegre 1892-1929, Louise S. McGehee School since 1929. Adam-Jones House,2423 Prytania Street, erected for John I, adams, merchant, who in 1860 purchased the Garden District part of the former plantation of Jacques Francois de Livaudais, built the Adam-Jones House and made it his residence until 1896. Subsequent family ownerships were Ferdinand Reusch, Mrs. William Preston Johnston, restored in 1961-1962 by Mrs. Hamilton Polk Jones. Womens Guild of the New Orleans Opera Association,2500 Prytania Street, Dr. and Mrs. Herman de Bachelle Seebold purchased the home in 1944 and donated the mansion, furnishings and art in 1965 to the Womens Guild of the New Orleans Opera Association
8.
Eastern New Orleans
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Eastern New Orleans is a large section of the city of New Orleans, Louisiana. Developed extensively from the 1960s onwards, its numerous residential subdivisions offered suburban-style living within the city limits, starting in the mid-1980s, Eastern New Orleans increasingly suffered from disinvestment and urban decay. As a result, the Pre-Katrina trend of few, if any. Approximately 65,000 to 75,000 residents presently inhabit Eastern New Orleans, Eastern New Orleans is the portion of the city to the east of the Industrial Canal and north of the Intracoastal Waterway. It is often called New Orleans East as well, or simply Da East, Eastern New Orleans is a portion of the Ninth Ward of New Orleans. Originally named Lake Forest, as development first centered along the easternmost segment of Lake Forest Boulevard, eastover is a gated community containing palatial homes and a Joe Lee-designed golf course. The far eastern portion of Eastern New Orleans has little urban development, Village de LEst is known for its Vietnamese community. The Vietnamese community is known as Versailles, as the earliest migrants to the area, arriving in the years after 1975. The commercial hub for this community extends along Alcee Fortier Boulevard, sometimes known as Little Vietnam, the area hosts a number of Vietnamese restaurants, including Dong Phuong Restaurant & Bakery. Eastern New Orleans is the extensive suburban or suburban-style region of Greater New Orleans where, since the late 1960s. Until the late 19th century, this area was outside of the city limits of New Orleans, there was little development other than in two areas. The first hugged the long, narrow ridge of ground along Gentilly Road. Various farms, plantations, and small villages such as Michoud were sited along this ridge, in the early 20th century some residential development of the area began, at first as an extension of Gentilly. Construction of the Industrial Canal began in 1918 and was completed in 1923, from the 1930s to the 1960s, Lincoln Beach, on the shore of Lake Pontchartrain, was the citys amusement park for the African-American community. However other than light flooding near the Morrison Canal, damage from Betsy was much more modest than had been feared, tragically, some of those who evacuated Eastern New Orleans in advance of Betsys arrival went to the Lower 9th Ward, which flooded disastrously. Rapid growth east of the Industrial Canal commenced in the 1960s, many new subdivisions were developed in the 1960s and 1970s, to cater to those who preferred a more suburban lifestyle but were open to remaining within the city limits of New Orleans. Eastern New Orleans grew in a comparatively well-planned and neatly zoned fashion, some care was taken to avoid placing major thoroughfares along the rights-of-way of unsightly drainage canals, as had frequently occurred in suburban Jefferson Parish. Instead, major roads were located equidistant from parallel canals and were outfitted with landscaped medians, numerous subdivisions were developed with large lakes at their centers, providing both an assist to neighborhood drainage and a scenic backdrop for the backyards of homes
9.
9th Ward of New Orleans
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The Ninth Ward or 9th Ward is a distinctive region of New Orleans, Louisiana, which is located in the easternmost downriver portion of the city. It is geographically the largest of the seventeen Wards of New Orleans, on the south, the Ninth Ward is bounded by the Mississippi River. On the western or upriver side, the Ninth Ward is bounded by Franklin Avenue, then Almonaster Avenue, then Peoples Avenue. From the north end of Peoples Avenue the boundary continues on a line north to Lake Pontchartrain. The Lake forms the north and northeastern end of the ward, saint Bernard Parish is the boundary to the southeast, Lake Borgne farther southeast and east, and the end of Orleans Parish to the east at the Rigolets. While there is overlap, the 9th Ward should not be confused with city planning designation of the ninth planning district of New Orleans. Brite, actor John Larroquette, trumpeter Kermit Ruffins, and the prominent Batiste musical family, from 2012 to 2016, the 9th Ward was represented in the Louisiana House of Representatives by Democrat Wesley T. Bishop. When Bishop was elected in 2015 to the Louisiana State Senate, another Democrat, Jimmy Harris, St. Claude St. Roch Bywater Florida Desire The smallest of these pieces is the area south and east of these canals. The portion of the Ninth Ward along the river down-river from the Industrial Canal stretching to the St. Bernard line is called the Lower 9th Ward or Lower Ninth and it includes the Holy Cross neighborhood, the twin Doullut Steamboat Houses and the Jackson Barracks. Until Hurricane Katrina, the Lower Ninth Ward had the highest percentage of home ownership in the city. The area west or above the Canal has sometimes called the Upper Ninth Ward. Such distinctions arose when the Industrial Canal bisected the neighborhood in the 1920s, the portion of the Ninth Ward along the riverfront between Faubourg Marigny and the Industrial Canal is known as Bywater. Further back are the Infamous St. Claude and Florida area and this part of the Ward contained two of the Housing Projects of New Orleans. The Desire neighborhood was home to the notorious Desire Projects, until they were demolished concurrent with HOPE VI policy, just across Florida Avenue from that are the Florida Projects once stood. Nearby was the Agriculture Street Landfill, an old city dump that was covered over and made into a neighborhood of low-income housing, the area along the river front was developed first, at the start of the 19th century, followed by the natural high land along Gentilly Ridge. Along the lakefront were various fishing camps built on piers, the most famous collection being Little Woods, the Industrial Canal was dredged through the neighborhood at the start of the 1920s. Most of the area between Gentilly Ridge and Lake Pontchartrain was swamp, not drained and developed until the mid, lincoln Beach was an amusement park along the lakefront for African-Americans during the era of racial segregation. The nearby Pontchartrain Beach was the amusement area for whites
10.
New York City English
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New York City English, or Metropolitan New York English, is a regional dialect of American English spoken by many people in New York City and much of its surrounding metropolitan area. The origins of New York City English are diverse, and the sources of many features are not recoverable. New York City English, largely with the major pronunciation system popularly recognized today, was first reproduced in literature. It was then, and still mostly is, associated with ethnically diverse European-American native-English speakers and this non-rhotic aristocratic pronunciation can be heard, for instance, in recordings of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Today, most New York City English is variably rhotic, a remnant of the older non-rhotic pronunciation, grammatical structures, such as the lack of inversion in indirect questions, have the flavor of contact with an immigrant language. As stated above, many words common in the city are of immigrant roots, the Philadelphia dialect is now retreating away from many of the traditional features it once shared in common with New York City. Due to an influx of immigrants from New York City and neighboring New Jersey to Florida, unsurprisingly, some New York City dialect features also appear in New York Latino English. Documented loss of New York City accent features includes the loss of, the merger, non-rhoticity. The pronunciation system of New York City English, popularly known as a New York accent, is heard in New York City, western Long Island, see the article International Phonetic Alphabet for explanations of the phonetic symbols used, as indicated between square brackets. These sounds are kept distinct from the /ɑː/ in words like father, palm, wash. Labov concludes that speakers tend to display more accent features in a relaxed conversation. Father–bother variability, Conservative speakers retain three separate low back vowels, lot, palm, and thought, thus with no father-bother merger, in addition, the palm class contains a number of words that are lot in most US varieties. These include descendants of Middle English short O with final voiced consonants, /dʒ/, or /m/, however, Labov et al do report that which words fall into the lot class and which words fall into the palm class may vary from speaker to speaker. In the former set of words, historical /æ/ is raised and tensed to a gliding vowel of the type or even. The latter set of words, meanwhile, retains a lax, low-front, a strongly related split has occurred in the Philadelphia and Baltimore dialects. Although the lax and the reflexes of /æ/ are separate phonemes in these dialects. Click show below for details of this short-a system. Conservative /oʊ/ and /u/, /oʊ/ as in goat does not undergo fronting, instead, it remains and this groups New York with the North class of dialects rather than the Midland, in which /oʊ/ is fronted
11.
Diphthong
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A diphthong, also known as a gliding vowel, is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets, that is, the tongue moves during the pronunciation of the vowel, in many dialects of English, the phrase no highway cowboys /ˌnoʊ ˈhaɪweɪ ˈkaʊbɔɪz/ has five distinct diphthongs, one in every syllable. Diphthongs contrast with monophthongs, where the tongue or other organs do not move. For instance, in English, the word ah is spoken as a monophthong, where two adjacent vowel sounds occur in different syllables—for example, in the English word re-elect—the result is described as hiatus, not as a diphthong. Diphthongs often form when separate vowels are run together in rapid speech during a conversation, however, there are also unitary diphthongs, as in the English examples above, which are heard by listeners as single-vowel sounds. Diphthongs use two vowel sounds in one syllable to make a speech sound, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, monophthongs are transcribed with one symbol, as in English sun, in which ⟨ʌ⟩ represents a monophthong. Diphthongs are transcribed with two symbols, as in English high or cow, in which ⟨aɪ⟩ and ⟨aʊ⟩ represent diphthongs, diphthongs may be transcribed with two vowel symbols or with a vowel symbol and a semivowel symbol. Transcribing the diphthongs as ⟨aɪ̯ aʊ̯⟩ is a precise or narrower transcription. The non-syllabic diacritic, the inverted breve below ⟨◌̯⟩, is placed under the prominent part of a diphthong to show that it is part of a diphthong rather than a vowel in a separate syllable. When there is no contrastive vowel sequence in the language, the diacritic may be omitted, other common indications that the two letters are not separate vowels are a superscript, ⟨aᶦ aᶷ⟩, or a tie bar, ⟨a͡ɪ a͡ʊ⟩ or ⟨a͜ɪ a͜ʊ⟩. The tie bar can be useful when its not clear which letter represents the syllable nucleus, superscripts are especially used when an on- or off-glide is particularly fleeting. The period ⟨. ⟩ is the opposite of the non-syllabic diacritic, if two vowels next to each other belong to two different syllables, meaning that they do not form a diphthong, they can be transcribed with two vowel symbols with a period in between. Thus, lower can be transcribed ⟨ˈloʊ. ər⟩, with a period separating the first syllable, /loʊ/, from the second syllable, the non-syllabic diacritic is only used when necessary. It is typically omitted when there is no ambiguity, as in ⟨haɪ kaʊ⟩, no words in English have the vowel sequences *, so the non-syllabic diacritic is unnecessary. The less prominent component in the diphthong may also be transcribed as an approximant, thus in eye, however, when the diphthong is analysed as a single phoneme, both elements are often transcribed with vowel letters. There are many languages that contrast one or more rising diphthongs with similar sequences of a glide, in closing diphthongs, the second element is more close than the first, in opening diphthongs, the second element is more open. Closing diphthongs tend to be falling, and opening diphthongs are rising, as open vowels are more sonorous. However, exceptions to this rule are not rare in the worlds languages, in Finnish, for instance, the opening diphthongs /ie̯/ and /uo̯/ are true falling diphthongs, since they begin louder and with higher pitch and fall in prominence during the diphthong
12.
Rhoticity in English
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The English dialects of Scotland, Ireland, and most of the United States and Canada preserve historical /r/, and are thus termed the rhotic varieties. In non-rhotic varieties, speakers no longer pronounce /r/ in postvocalic environments – that is, a non-rhotic speaker usually still pronounces the /r/ in the continuously spoken phrase butter and jam, since in this case the /r/ is followed by a vowel. Loss of postvocalic /r/ began sporadically in informal speech in the 15th century, in the mid-18th century it was still pronounced in most environments, but may occasionally have been deleted entirely, especially after low vowels. By the 1790s, postvocalic /r/-less pronunciation had become common in London and surrounding areas, by the early 19th century, the southern British standard was fully transformed into a non-rhotic variety, though some variation persisted as late as the 1870s. Other terms for rhotic dialects include /r/–pronouncing or r–ful, and for non-rhotic include /r/-deleting, r-dropping, r-vocalized, the earliest traces of a loss of /r/ in English appear in the early 15th century and occur before coronal consonants, especially /s/, giving modern ass, and bass. A second phase of /r/-loss began during the 15th century, and was characterized by sporadic and lexically variable deletion, such as monyng morning and cadenall cardinal. These /r/-less spellings appear throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, but are uncommon and are restricted to private documents, no English authorities describe loss of /r/ in the standard language prior to the mid-18th century, and many do not fully accept it until the 1790s. During the mid-17th century, a number of sources describe /r/ as being weakened, the English playwright Ben Jonsons English Grammar, published posthumously in 1640, records that /r/ was sounded firme in the beginning of words, and more liquid in the middle, and ends. By the 1770s, postvocalic /r/-less pronunciation was becoming common around London even in more formal, the English actor and linguist John Walker uses the spelling ar to indicate the long vowel of aunt in his 1775 rhyming dictionary. Americans returning to England after the end of the American Revolutionary War in 1783 reported surprise at the significant changes in fashionable pronunciation. By the early 19th century, the southern British standard was fully transformed into a non-rhotic variety, like regional dialects in England, the accents of other areas in America remained rhotic in a display of linguistic lag that preserved the original pronunciation of /r/. In most non-rhotic accents, if a word ending in r is followed closely by a word beginning with a vowel. This phenomenon is referred to as linking R, many non-rhotic speakers also insert an epenthetic /r/ between vowels when the first vowel is one that can occur before syllable-final r. The typical alternative used by RP speakers is to insert a glottal stop where an intrusive R would otherwise be placed, for non-rhotic speakers, what was historically a vowel plus /r/ is now usually realized as a long vowel. This is called compensatory lengthening, lengthening that occurs after the elision of a sound, so in RP and many other non-rhotic accents card, fern, born are pronounced, or similar. This length may be retained in phrases, so while car pronounced in isolation is, but a final schwa usually remains short, so water in isolation is. For some speakers, some long vowels alternate with an ending in schwa, so wear may be. Even General American speakers commonly drop the /r/ in non-final unstressed syllables when another syllable in the word also contains /r/
13.
Th-stopping
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Th-stopping is the realization of the dental fricatives as stops—either dental or alveolar—which occurs in several dialects of English. Thus pairs like tin/thin and den/then are not homophonous, in other accents, such as Caribbean English, Nigerian English, and Liberian English, such pairs are indeed merged. Th-stopping occurred in all continental Germanic languages, resulting in such as German die, the. For the working class of New York City and its surrounding region, usually they remain dental, so that the oppositions /t-θ/ and are not lost. Thus thanks may be pronounced, or in decreasing order of occurrence, the variant has a weakish articulation. The opposition seems to be lost more readily, though not as readily as the Brooklynese stereotype might lead one to believe. This option extends to one or two words in which the /ð/ is not initial, e. g. other, which can become a homonym of utter-udder. But it would not be usual for southern to be pronounced identically with sudden or breathe with breed, th-stopping is also reported for some other non-initial s, apparently particularly when preceded by a nasal and followed by a plosive, as keep your mouth closed. In initial position, occurs in AAVE just as in standard accents, thin is, stopping of initial, however, is frequent making then homophonous with den. Many speakers of Philippine English and some speakers of other variants in Asia also have th-stopping
14.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
15.
Boroughs of New York City
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New York City, in the U. S. state of New York, is composed of five county-level administrative entities called boroughs. They are Manhattan, the Bronx, Queens, Brooklyn, each borough is coextensive with a county of New York State. The county governments were dissolved when New York City consolidated in 1898, along all city, town. The term borough was adopted to describe a form of administration for each of the five fundamental constituent parts of the newly consolidated city in 1898. Under the 1898 City Charter adopted by the New York State Legislature, the term is also used by politicians to counter a frequent focus on Manhattan and thereby to place all five boroughs on equal footing. In the same vein, the outer boroughs refers to all of the boroughs excluding Manhattan. All of the boroughs were created in 1898 during consolidation, when the current boundaries were established. Ultimately in 1914, the present-day separate Bronx County became the last county to be created in the State of New York, the borough of Queens consists of what formerly was only the western part of a then-larger Queens County. The borough of Staten Island was officially the borough of Richmond until the name was changed in 1975 to reflect its common appellation, there are hundreds of distinct neighborhoods throughout the five boroughs of New York City, many with a definable history and character to call their own. Manhattan is the geographically smallest and most densely populated borough and is home to Central Park and most of the citys skyscrapers. Manhattans population density of 72,033 people per mile in 2015 makes it the highest of any county in the United States. Manhattan is often described as the financial and cultural center of the world, most of the borough is situated on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the Hudson River. Manhattan Island is loosely divided into Lower, Midtown, and Uptown regions, Uptown Manhattan is divided by Central Park into the Upper East Side and the Upper West Side, and above the park is Harlem. The borough also includes a neighborhood on the United States mainland. New York Citys remaining four boroughs are collectively referred to as the outer boroughs, Brooklyn, on the western tip of Long Island, is the citys most populous borough. Brooklyn is known for its cultural, social, and ethnic diversity, an independent art scene, distinct neighborhoods, downtown Brooklyn is the only central core neighborhood in the outer boroughs. The borough has a long beachfront shoreline including Coney Island, established in the 1870s as one of the earliest amusement grounds in the country, marine Park and Prospect Park are the two largest parks in Brooklyn. Historically a collection of towns and villages founded by the Dutch
16.
Choctaw
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The Choctaw are Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States. The Choctaw language belongs to the Muskogean language family group, the Choctaw are descendants of the peoples of the Hopewell and Mississippian cultures, who lived throughout the east of the Mississippi River valley and its tributaries. About 1,700 years ago, the Hopewell people built Nanih Waiya, an earthwork mound. The early Spanish explorers of the mid-16th century encountered Mississippian-culture villages, the anthropologist John Swanton suggested that the Choctaw derived their name from an early leader. Henry Halbert, a historian, suggests that their name is derived from the Choctaw phrase Hacha hatak and these included the French, based on the Gulf Coast and in Louisiana, the English of the Southeast, and the Spanish of Florida and Louisiana during the colonial era. During the American Revolution, most Choctaw supported the Thirteen Colonies bid for independence from the British Crown and they never went to war against the United States prior to Indian Removal. In the 19th century, the Choctaw became known as one of the Five Civilized Tribes because they adopted numerous practices of their United States neighbors. The Choctaw and the United States agreed to nine treaties and and they were the first Native Americans forced under the Indian Removal Act. The Choctaw were exiled because the U. S. wanted to expand territory available for settlement by European Americans, to save the tribe from extinction, the Choctaw negotiated the largest area and most desirable lands in Indian Territory. Their early government had three districts, each with its own chief, who together with the town chiefs sat on the National Council and they appointed a Choctaw Delegate to represent them with the US government in Washington, DC. By the 1831 Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, those Choctaw who chose to stay in the formed state of Mississippi were one of the first major non-European ethnic groups to become U. S. citizens. During the American Civil War, the Choctaw in both Oklahoma and Mississippi mostly sided with the Confederate States of America, the Confederacy suggested it would support a state under Indian control if it won the war. After the Civil War, the Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana Choctaw fell into obscurity for some time, in 1978, the United Supreme Court of the United states held that all remnants of the Choctaw Nation are entitled to all rights of the Nation. The Choctaw in Oklahoma struggled to build a nation, transferring the Choctaw Academy there, in the aftermath of the Dawes Act, the US dissolved tribal governments and appointed chiefs. During World War I, Choctaw soldiers served in the U. S. military as the first Native American codetalkers, after the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, the Choctaw reconstituted their government, and the Choctaw Nation had kept their culture alive despite years of pressure for assimilation. The third largest federally recognized tribe, since the century, they have created new institutions, such as a tribal college, housing authority. Federal Court of Appeals was upheld by the United States Supreme Court in 2002, many thousands of years ago groups classified by anthropologists as Paleo-Indians lived in what today is referred to as the American South. These groups were hunter-gatherers who hunted a wide range of animals, including a variety of megafauna, cushman wrote, the ancient Choctaw through their tradition they saw the mighty beasts of the forests, whose tread shook the earth
17.
A. J. Liebling
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Abbott Joseph A. J. Liebling was an American journalist who was closely associated with The New Yorker from 1935 until his death. Liebling was born into a family on the Upper East Side of Manhattan. His mother, Anna Adelson Slone, was from San Francisco, after early schooling in New York, Liebling was admitted to Dartmouth College in the fall of 1920. His primary activity during his career was as a contributor to the Jack-O-Lantern. He left Dartmouth without graduating, later claiming he was out for missing compulsory chapel attendance. He then enrolled in the School of Journalism at Columbia University, after finishing there, he began his career as a journalist at the Evening Bulletin of Providence, Rhode Island. He worked briefly in the department of the New York Times. In 1926, Lieblings father asked if he would like to suspend his career as a journalist to study in Paris for a year. I sensed my fathers generous intention and, fearing that he change his mind, I told him that I didnt feel I should go. The girl is ten years older than I am, I said, and Mother might think she is kind of fast, because she is being kept by a broker from Memphis, Tennessee. But you are a man of the world, and you understand that a woman cant always help herself. Within the week, I had a letter of credit on the Irving Trust for two dollars, and a reservation on the old Caronia for late in the summer. Liebling later wrote that the proposed marriage was a fiction intended less to swindle his father than to cover his own pride at being the recipient of such generosity. Thus in summer 1926, Liebling sailed to Europe where he studied French medieval literature at the Sorbonne in Paris, by his own admission his devotion to his studies was purely nominal, he seeing the year as a chance to absorb French life and appreciate French food. Although he stayed for more than a year, this interval inspired a lifelong love for France. He returned to Providence in autumn 1927 to write for the Journal and it turned out that Barrett habitually used a different entrance on another street, and never saw the sign. He wrote for the World and the World-Telegram, Liebling joined The New Yorker in 1935. His best pieces from the thirties are collected in Back Where I Came From
18.
A Confederacy of Dunces
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A Confederacy of Dunces is a picaresque novel by American novelist John Kennedy Toole which reached publication in 1980, eleven years after Tooles suicide. Its central character, Ignatius J. Toole wrote the novel in 1963 during his last few months in Puerto Rico, Ignatius Jacques Reilly is something of a modern Don Quixote—eccentric, idealistic, and creative, sometimes to the point of delusion. In his foreword to the book, Walker Percy describes Ignatius as an extraordinary, a mad Oliver Hardy, a fat Don Quixote. He disdains modernity, particularly pop culture, the disdain becomes his obsession, he goes to movies in order to mock their perversity and express his outrage with the contemporary worlds lack of theology and geometry. He prefers the scholastic philosophy of the Middle Ages, and the Early Medieval philosopher Boethius in particular, however, he also enjoys many modern comforts and conveniences and is given to claiming that the rednecks of rural Louisiana hate all modern technology which they associate with progress. The workings of his pyloric valve play an important role in his life, Ignatius is of the mindset that he does not belong in the world and that his numerous failings are the work of some higher power. He continually refers to the goddess Fortuna as having spun him downwards on her wheel of fortune, Ignatius loves to eat, and his masturbatory fantasies lead in strange directions. His mockery of obscene images is portrayed as a posture to hide their titillating effect on him. Myrna Minkoff, referred to by Ignatius as that minx, is a Jewish beatnik from New York City, though their political, social, religious, and personal orientations could hardly be more different, Myrna and Ignatius fascinate one another. The novel repeatedly refers to Myrna and Ignatius having engaged in attacks on the teachings of their college professors. Officially, they both deplore everything the other stands for, though neither of them will admit it, their correspondence indicates that, separated though they are by half a continent, many of their actions are meant to impress one another. Mrs. Irene Reilly is the mother of Ignatius and she has been widowed for 21 years. At first, she allows Ignatius his space and drives him where he needs to go and she also has a drinking problem, most frequently indulging in muscatel, although Ignatius exaggerates that she is a raving, abusive drunk. She falls for Claude Robichaux, a fairly well-off man with a railroad pension, at the end of the novel, she decides she will marry Claude. But first, she agrees with Santa Battaglia that Ignatius is insane, in another passage, Ignatius declines to see another film, a widely praised Swedish drama about a man who was losing his soul. This is most likely Ingmar Bergmans Winter Light, also released in 1962, in another passage, Irene Reilly recalls the night Ignatius was conceived, after she and her husband viewed Red Dust, released in October 1932. The book is famous for its depiction of New Orleans. Many locals and writers think that it is the best and most accurate depiction of the city in a work of fiction, the city described in the novel differs in some ways from the actual New Orleans
19.
John Kennedy Toole
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John Kennedy Toole was an American novelist from New Orleans, Louisiana, whose posthumously published novel A Confederacy of Dunces won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. He also wrote The Neon Bible, although several people in the literary world felt his writing skills were praiseworthy, Tooles novels were rejected during his lifetime. After suffering from paranoia and depression due in part to these failures, Toole was born to a middle-class family in New Orleans. From a young age, his mother taught him an appreciation of culture and she was thoroughly involved in his affairs for most of his life, and at times they had a difficult relationship. With his mothers encouragement, Toole became a performer at the age of 10 doing comic impressions. At 16 he wrote his first novel, The Neon Bible, Toole received an academic scholarship to Tulane University. After graduating from Tulane, he studied English at Columbia University in New York while teaching simultaneously at Hunter College. He also taught at various Louisiana colleges, and during his career as an academic he was valued on the faculty party circuit for his wit. His studies were interrupted when he was drafted into the army, after receiving a promotion, he used his private office to begin writing A Confederacy of Dunces, which he finished at his parents home after his discharge. Dunces is a novel featuring the misadventures of protagonist Ignatius J. Reilly. It is hailed for its depictions of New Orleans dialects. Toole based Reilly in part on his college professor friend Bob Byrne, byrnes slovenly, eccentric behavior was anything but professorial, and Reilly mirrored him in these respects. The character was based on Toole himself, and several personal experiences served as inspiration for passages in the novel. While at Tulane, Toole filled in for a friend at a job as a hot tamale cart vendor, both of these experiences were later adopted into his fiction. Toole submitted Dunces to publisher Simon & Schuster, where it reached noted editor Robert Gottlieb, Gottlieb considered Toole talented but felt his comic novel was essentially pointless. Despite several revisions, Gottlieb remained unsatisfied, and after the book was rejected by another literary figure, suffering from depression and feelings of persecution, Toole left home on a journey around the country. He stopped in Biloxi, Mississippi, to end his life by running a garden hose in from the exhaust of his car to the cabin. Some years later, his mother brought the manuscript of Dunces to the attention of novelist Walker Percy, in 1981, Toole was posthumously awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction
20.
Downtown New Orleans
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Contrary to the common usage of the term downtown in other cities, this historic application of the term excluded the New Orleans Central Business District. In the 19th century, much of New Orleans downtown was still predominantly Francophone, Downtown hosted the citys French-speaking Creole communities. There was a rivalry with the predominantly Anglophone uptown New Orleans on the other side of Canal Street. The broad median of Canal Street became known as the neutral ground, the city was for years divided into Downtown and Uptown. Development of the low-lying Back of Town only began after 1900, the growth of New Orleans East, as well as suburban Jefferson Parish, further complicated the picture. By the 1990s, the terms had largely fallen out of use, New Orleans Public Schools and various charter schools serve Downtown neighborhoods. New Orleans Downtown Development District New Orleans Central Business District Uptown New Orleans
21.
3rd Ward of New Orleans
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The 3rd Ward or Third Ward is one of the 17 Wards of New Orleans, a division of the city of New Orleans, Louisiana. The Ward touches the Mississippi River as its front, the down-river boundary is Canal Street, below which is the citys 4th Ward. The upper boundary is Julia Street, originally the New Basin Canal, the former canal route in this area is now I-10. For most of route from the river back is the 2nd Ward. From Carrollton Avenue up it borders the 17th Ward, the back boundary is City Park Avenue, across which is another portion of the 4th Ward. The 3rd Ward encompasses the majority of the Central Business District near the River, the Ward includes the citys seat of government, both the old 19th century City Hall on Lafayette Square and the new City Hall Complex on Loyola Avenue. Farther back from the Central Business District is the Tulane/Gravier neighborhood, at Tulane and Broad are the Courthouse and Orleans Parish Prison. Continuing back, the Ward includes a section of the Mid City neighborhood. Due to the devastation of Hurricane Katrina in 2005, much of the 3rd ward area was damaged. Louis Armstrong, Dr. John, Master P, C-Murder, Silkk The Shocker, Juvenile, Mr. Marcelo, Turk, Mac, Soulja Slim, Big Freedia and Birdman were all born in the Third Ward
22.
Astoria, Queens
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Astoria is a middle-class and commercial neighborhood with a population of 78,793 in the northwestern corner of the New York City borough of Queens. Located in Community Board 1, Astoria is bounded by the East River and is adjacent to three other Queens neighborhoods, Long Island City, Sunnyside, and Woodside, Astoria is patrolled by the New York City Police Departments 114th Precinct. The area now known as Astoria was originally called Halletts Cove, after its first landowner William Hallett, beginning in the early 19th century, affluent New Yorkers constructed large residences around 12th and 14th streets, an area that later became known as Astoria Village. Halletts Cove, incorporated on April 12,1839 and previously founded by fur merchant Stephen A. Halsey, was a recreational destination. The area was renamed for John Jacob Astor, then the wealthiest man in America with a net worth of over $40 million and he only invested $500, but the name stayed nonetheless, as a bitter battle over naming the village finally was won by Astors supporters and friends. From Astors summer home in Hell Gate, Manhattan—on what is now East 87th Street near York Avenue—he could see across the East River the new Long Island village named in his honor, Astor, however, never actually set foot in Astoria. During the second half of the 19th century, economic and commercial growth brought increased immigration from German settlers, mostly furniture and cabinet makers. One such settler was Heinrich Engelhard Steinweg, patriarch of the Steinway family who founded the piano company Steinway & Sons in 1853, later on the Steinways built a sawmill and foundry, as well as a streetcar line. The family eventually established Steinway Village for their workers, a town that provided school instruction in German as well as English. Astoria and several surrounding villages, including Steinway, were incorporated into Long Island City in 1870. Long Island City remained an independent municipality until it was incorporated into New York City in 1898, the areas farms were turned into housing tracts and street grids to accommodate the growing number of residents. Astoria also figured prominently in early American filmmaking as one of its initial centers and that heritage is preserved today by the Museum of the Moving Image and Kaufman Astoria Studios. Today, much of the Astoria waterfront is being redeveloped and underutilized industrial sites in historic neighborhoods are being revived. The development will include new waterfront parks, a supermarket, retail shops and restaurants. These waterfront projects were designed by a New York architectural firm, in conjunction with private developers, city agencies and landscape architects. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Astoria was 78,793, covering an area of 902.94 acres, the neighborhood had a population density of 87.3 inhabitants per acre. The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 49. 2% White,4. 5% African American,0. 2% Native American,16. 2% Asian,0. 0% Pacific Islander,1. 2% from other races, and 2. 2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 26. 5% of the population, Astoria was first settled by the Dutch and Germans in the 17th century
23.
Long Island
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Long Island is an island located just off the northeast coast of the United States and a region within the U. S. state of New York. Stretching east-northeast from New York Harbor into the Atlantic Ocean, the island comprises four counties, Kings and Queens to the west, then Nassau, more generally, Long Island may also refer collectively both to the main Island as well as its nearby, surrounding outer barrier islands. North of the island is the Long Island Sound, across from which lie the states of Connecticut, across the Sound, to the northwest, lies Westchester County on mainland New York. To the west, Long Island is separated from the Bronx and the island of Manhattan by the East River. To the extreme southwest, it is separated from the New York City borough of Staten Island and the U. S. state of New Jersey by Upper New York Bay, the Narrows, to the east lie Block Island and numerous smaller islands. Its population density is 5,595.1 inhabitants per square mile, Long Island is culturally and ethnically diverse. Some of the wealthiest and most expensive neighborhoods in the Western Hemisphere are located on Long Island, nine bridges and 13 tunnels connect Brooklyn and Queens to the three other boroughs of New York City. Ferries connect Suffolk County northward across Long Island Sound to the state of Connecticut, the Long Island Rail Road is the busiest commuter railroad in North America and operates 24/7. At the time of European contact, the Lenape people inhabited the western end of Long Island, giovanni da Verrazzano was the first European to record an encounter with the Lenapes, after entering what is now New York Bay in 1524. In 1609, the English navigator Henry Hudson explored the harbor, adriaen Block followed in 1615 and is credited as the first European to determine that both Manhattan and Long Island are islands. Native American land deeds recorded by the Dutch from 1636 state that the Indians referred to Long Island as Sewanhaka, sewan was one of the terms for wampum, and is also translated as loose or scattered, which may refer either to the wampum or to Long Island. The name t Lange Eylandt alias Matouwacs appears in Dutch maps from the 1650s, later, the English referred to the land as Nassau Island, after the Dutch Prince William of Nassau, Prince of Orange. It is unclear when the name Nassau Island was discontinued, the very first settlements on Long Island were by settlers from England and its colonies in present-day New England. Lion Gardiner settled nearby Gardiners Island, the first settlement on the geographic Long Island itself was on October 21,1640, when Southold was established by the Rev. John Youngs and settlers from New Haven, Connecticut. Peter Hallock, one of the settlers, drew the long straw and was granted the honor to step ashore first and he is considered the first New World settler on Long Island. Southampton was settled in the same year, Hempstead followed in 1644, East Hampton in 1648, Huntington in 1653, and Brookhaven in 1655. While the eastern region of Long Island was first settled by the English, until 1664, the jurisdiction of Long Island was split, roughly at the present border between Nassau County and Suffolk County. The Dutch founded six towns in present-day Brooklyn beginning in 1645 and these included, Brooklyn, Gravesend, Flatlands, Flatbush, New Utrecht, and Bushwick
24.
Inflection
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An inflection expresses one or more grammatical categories with a prefix, suffix or infix, or another internal modification such as a vowel change. For example, the Latin verb ducam, meaning I will lead, includes the suffix -am, expressing person, number, the use of this suffix is an inflection. In contrast, in the English clause I will lead, the lead is not inflected for any of person, number, or tense. The inflected form of a word contains both one or more free morphemes, and one or more bound morphemes. These two morphemes together form the inflected word cars and its categories can be determined only from its context. Requiring the forms or inflections of more than one word in a sentence to be compatible with each other according to the rules of the language is known as concord or agreement. For example, in the choir sings, choir is a singular noun, languages that have some degree of inflection are synthetic languages. These can be inflected, or weakly inflected. Languages that are so inflected that a sentence can consist of a highly inflected word are called polysynthetic languages. Languages such as Mandarin Chinese that never use inflections are called analytic or isolating, in English most nouns are inflected for number with the inflectional plural affix -s, and most English verbs are inflected for tense with the inflectional past tense affix -ed. English also inflects verbs by affixation to mark the person singular in the present tense. English short adjectives are inflected to mark comparative and superlative forms, in addition, English also shows inflection by ablaut and umlaut, as well as long-short vowel alternation. For example, Write, wrote, written Sing, sang, sung Foot, feet Mouse, mice Child, children For details, see English plural, English verbs, and English irregular verbs. When a given word class is subject to inflection in a particular language, words which follow such a standard pattern are said to be regular, those that inflect differently are called irregular. For instance, many languages that feature verb inflection have both regular verbs and irregular verbs, in English, regular verbs form their past tense and past participle with the ending -d, thus verbs like play, arrive and enter are regular. However, there are a few hundred verbs which follow different patterns, such as sing–sang–sung and keep–kept–kept, irregular verbs often preserve patterns which were regular in past forms of the language, but which have now become anomalous. Example, Latin dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictum > Spanish digo, decir, dije, strong vs. weak inflection—Sometimes two inflection systems exist, conventionally classified as strong and weak. Ancient Greek verbs are likewise said to have had a first aorist, suppletion—The irregular form was originally derived from a different root
25.
Louisiana Creole
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Louisiana Creole is a French-based creole language spoken by some of the Louisiana Creole people of the state of Louisiana. The language largely consists of elements of French, Native American, Louisiana Creole French is a contact language that arose from interactions between speakers of French and various African languages in the 18th century. For this reason, prior to its establishment, the precursor to LCF was considered a pidgin language, in its historical backdrop, this pidgin was born to facilitate communication between African slaves and francophone land owners. Once the pidgin tongue was transmitted to the generation, it could effectively be considered a creole language. The latter was associated with plantation owners, plantation overseers, small landowners, military officers/soldiers and bilingual. Over the centuries, LCF’s negative associations with slavery have stigmatized the language to the point where many speakers are reluctant to use it for fear of ridicule, in this way, the assignment of “high” variety was allotted to PSF and that of “low” variety was given to LCF. As a result of Louisiana becoming one of the United States of America, additionally, the geographical position of Louisiana in unison with technological advances has made the entire region accessible to other areas. Moreover, efforts to revitalize francophone languages have placed emphasis on the varieties such as Cajun French. An example of this is linked to the structure of questions which may be wrongfully interpreted, speakers of Louisiana Creole are mainly concentrated in south and southwest Louisiana, where the population of Creolophones is distributed across the region. There are also numbers of Creolophones in Natchitoches Parish on Cane River and sizable communities of Louisiana Creole-speakers in adjacent Southeast Texas, Louisiana Creole speakers in California reside in Los Angeles, San Diego and San Bernardino counties and in Northern California. There are some creoles in Mississippi and Alabama too, St. Martin Parish forms the heart of the Creole-speaking region. Other sizeable communities exist along Bayou Têche in St. Landry, Avoyelles, Iberia, definite articles in Louisiana Creole vary between the le, la and les used in standard French and a and la for the singular, and yé for the plural. In St. Martin Parish, the definite article, whether le or -a, is often omitted altogether. In theory, Creole places its definite articles after the noun, given Louisiana Creoles complex linguistic relationship with Colonial French and Cajun French, however, this is often no longer the case. Since there is no system of gender, articles only vary on phonetic criteria. The article a is placed after words ending in a vowel, another aspect of Louisiana Creole which is unlike French is the lack of verb conjugation. Verbs do not vary based on person or number, verbs vary based on verbal markers which are placed between the personal pronouns and conjugated verbs. Frequently in the past tense, the marker is omitted
26.
Louisiana Purchase
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The Louisiana Purchase was the acquisition of the Louisiana territory by the United States from France in 1803. The U. S. paid fifty million francs and a cancellation of debts worth eighteen million francs for a total of sixty-eight million francs, the Louisiana territory included land from fifteen present U. S. states and two Canadian provinces. Its non-native population was around 60,000 inhabitants, of whom half were African slaves, the Kingdom of France controlled the Louisiana territory from 1699 until it was ceded to Spain in 1762. Napoleon in 1800, hoping to re-establish an empire in North America, however, Frances failure to put down the revolt in Saint-Domingue, coupled with the prospect of renewed warfare with the United Kingdom, prompted Napoleon to sell Louisiana to the United States. The Americans originally sought to purchase only the city of New Orleans and its adjacent coastal lands. The Louisiana Purchase occurred during the term of the third President of the United States, before the purchase was finalized, the decision faced Federalist Party opposition, they argued that it was unconstitutional to acquire any territory. Constitution did not contain provisions for acquiring territory, but he asserted that his constitutional power to negotiate treaties was sufficient. Throughout the second half of the 18th century, Louisiana was a pawn on the chessboard of European politics and it was controlled by the French, who had a few small settlements along the Mississippi and other main rivers. Following French defeat in the Seven Years War, Spain gained control of the territory west of the Mississippi, the United States controlled the area east of the Mississippi and north of New Orleans. The main issue for the Americans was free transit of the Mississippi to the sea, as the lands were being gradually settled by a few American migrants, many Americans, including Jefferson, assumed that the territory would be acquired piece by piece. The risk of power taking it from a weakened Spain made a profound reconsideration of this policy necessary. New Orleans was already important for shipping goods to and from the areas of the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains. Pinckneys Treaty, signed with Spain on October 27,1795, gave American merchants right of deposit in New Orleans, Americans used this right to transport products such as flour, tobacco, pork, bacon, lard, feathers, cider, butter, and cheese. The treaty also recognized American rights to navigate the entire Mississippi, in 1798 Spain revoked this treaty, prohibiting American use of New Orleans, and greatly upsetting the Americans. In 1801, Spanish Governor Don Juan Manuel de Salcedo took over from the Marquess of Casa Calvo, Napoleon Bonaparte had gained Louisiana for French ownership from Spain in 1800 under the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso, but the treaty was kept secret. Louisiana remained nominally under Spanish control, until a transfer of power to France on November 30,1803, another ceremony was held in St. Louis a few months later, in part because during winter conditions the news of the New Orleans formalities did not reach Upper Louisiana. The March 9–10,1804, event is remembered as Three Flags Day, James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston had traveled to Paris to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans in January 1803. Their instructions were to negotiate or purchase control of New Orleans and its environs, the Louisiana Purchase was by far the largest territorial gain in U. S. history
27.
Cajuns
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Cajuns are an ethnic group mainly living in the U. S. state of Louisiana, consisting of the descendants of Acadian exiles. Today, the Cajuns make up a significant portion of south Louisianas population and have exerted an impact on the states culture. The Acadia region to which modern Cajuns trace their origin consisted largely of what are now Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island plus parts of eastern Quebec and northern Maine. Since their establishment in Louisiana, the Cajuns have developed their own dialect, Cajun French, and developed a vibrant culture including folkways, music, the Acadiana region is heavily associated with them. Arcadia derives from the Arcadia district in Greece which since classical antiquity had the extended meanings of refuge or idyllic place, samuel de Champlain fixed the orthography with the r omitted in the 17th century. The term eventually came to only to the northern part of the coast in what is now Canada. The Cajuns retain a unique dialect of the French language and numerous other cultural traits that distinguish them as an ethnic group, Cajuns were officially recognized by the U. S. government as a national ethnic group in 1980 per a discrimination lawsuit filed in federal district court. The Louisiana Acadian is alive and well and he is up front and mainstream. He is not asking for any special treatment, by affording coverage under the national origin clause of Title VII he is afforded no special privilege. He is given only the protection as those with English, Spanish, French, Iranian, Portuguese, Mexican, Italian, Irish. The British Conquest of French Acadia happened in 1710, over the next 45 years, the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. During this period, Acadians participated in militia operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to the French fortress of Louisbourg. During the French and Indian War, the British sought to neutralize the Acadian military threat, during 1755-1763 Acadia consisted of parts of present-day Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and the Gaspe Peninsula in the province of Quebec. The deportation of the Acadians from these areas has become known as the Great Upheaval or Le Grand Dérangement, the Acadians migration from Canada was spurred by the Treaty of Paris which ended the war. The treaty terms provided 18 months for unrestrained emigration, many Acadians moved to the region of the Atakapa in present-day Louisiana, often travelling via the French colony of Saint-Domingue. Joseph Broussard led the first group of 200 Acadians to arrive in Louisiana on February 27,1765, on April 8,1765, he was appointed militia captain and commander of the Acadians of the Atakapas region in St. Martinville. Some of the settlers wrote to their family scattered around the Atlantic to encourage them to them at New Orleans. For example, Jean-Baptiste Semer, wrote to his father in France, My dear father you can come here boldly with my dear mother and they will always be better off than in France
28.
White flight
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The term has also been used for large-scale post-colonial emigration of whites from Africa, or parts of that continent, driven by levels of violent crime and anti-colonial state policies. In the 1970s, attempts to achieve effective desegregation by means of forced busing in some areas led to families moving out of former areas. However, some historians have challenged the white flight as a misnomer whose use should be reconsidered. Such conditions are considered to have contributed to the emigration of other populations, according to the environmental geographer Laura Pulido, the historical processes of suburbanization and urban decentralization contribute to contemporary environmental racism. The result was severe urban decay that, by the 1960s, prior to national data available in the 1950 US census, a migration pattern of disproportionate numbers of whites moving from cities to suburban communities was easily dismissed as merely anecdotal. Because American urban populations were still growing, a relative decrease in one racial or ethnic component eluded scientific proof to the satisfaction of policy makers. In essence, data on urban population change had not been separated into what are now familiarly identified its components, the first data set potentially capable of proving white flight was the 1950 census. But original processing of data, on older-style tabulation machines by the US Census Bureau. It was not simply a more powerful calculating instrument that placed the reality of white flight beyond a high hurdle of proof required for policy makers to consider taking action. In other words, central cities had been bringing back their new suburbs, real estate prices often fall in areas of economic erosion, allowing persons with lower income to establish homes in such areas. Since the 1960s and changed immigration laws, the United States has received immigrants from Mexico, Central and South America, Asia, immigration has changed the demographics of both cities and suburbs, and the US has become a largely suburban nation, with the suburbs becoming more diverse. In addition, Latinos, the fastest growing minority group in the US, began to migrate away from traditional entry cities and to cities in the Southwest, such as Phoenix, in 2006, the increased number of Latinos had made whites a minority group in some western cities. Blacks were effectively barred from pursuing homeownership, even when they were able to afford it, after World War II, aided by the construction of the Interstate Highway System, many White Americans began leaving industrial cities for new housing in suburbs. The roads served to transport suburbanites to their city jobs, facilitating the development of suburbs and this may have exacerbated urban decay. In Birmingham, Alabama, the government used the highway system to perpetuate the racial residence-boundaries the city established with a 1926 racial zoning law. Constructing interstate highways through majority-black neighborhoods eventually reduced the populations to the poorest proportion of people unable to leave their destroyed community. The real estate business practice of blockbusting was a for-profit catalyst for white flight, the remaining white inhabitants, fearing devalued residential property, would quickly sell, usually at a loss. Losses happened when they sold en masse, and would sell the properties to the black families, profiting from price arbitrage
29.
Brooklynese
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New York City English, or Metropolitan New York English, is a regional dialect of American English spoken by many people in New York City and much of its surrounding metropolitan area. The origins of New York City English are diverse, and the sources of many features are not recoverable. New York City English, largely with the major pronunciation system popularly recognized today, was first reproduced in literature. It was then, and still mostly is, associated with ethnically diverse European-American native-English speakers and this non-rhotic aristocratic pronunciation can be heard, for instance, in recordings of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Today, most New York City English is variably rhotic, a remnant of the older non-rhotic pronunciation, grammatical structures, such as the lack of inversion in indirect questions, have the flavor of contact with an immigrant language. As stated above, many words common in the city are of immigrant roots, the Philadelphia dialect is now retreating away from many of the traditional features it once shared in common with New York City. Due to an influx of immigrants from New York City and neighboring New Jersey to Florida, unsurprisingly, some New York City dialect features also appear in New York Latino English. Documented loss of New York City accent features includes the loss of, the merger, non-rhoticity. The pronunciation system of New York City English, popularly known as a New York accent, is heard in New York City, western Long Island, see the article International Phonetic Alphabet for explanations of the phonetic symbols used, as indicated between square brackets. These sounds are kept distinct from the /ɑː/ in words like father, palm, wash. Labov concludes that speakers tend to display more accent features in a relaxed conversation. Father–bother variability, Conservative speakers retain three separate low back vowels, lot, palm, and thought, thus with no father-bother merger, in addition, the palm class contains a number of words that are lot in most US varieties. These include descendants of Middle English short O with final voiced consonants, /dʒ/, or /m/, however, Labov et al do report that which words fall into the lot class and which words fall into the palm class may vary from speaker to speaker. In the former set of words, historical /æ/ is raised and tensed to a gliding vowel of the type or even. The latter set of words, meanwhile, retains a lax, low-front, a strongly related split has occurred in the Philadelphia and Baltimore dialects. Although the lax and the reflexes of /æ/ are separate phonemes in these dialects. Click show below for details of this short-a system. Conservative /oʊ/ and /u/, /oʊ/ as in goat does not undergo fronting, instead, it remains and this groups New York with the North class of dialects rather than the Midland, in which /oʊ/ is fronted
30.
Irish Channel, New Orleans
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Irish Channel is a neighborhood of the city of New Orleans. Irish Channel is located at 29°55′23″N 90°04′55″W and has an elevation of 7 feet, according to the United States Census Bureau, the district has a total area of 0.83 square miles. 0.50 square miles of which is land and 0.33 square miles of which is water, east Riverside Garden District Lower Garden District St. The Historic District Landmarks Commission defines the boundaries of the Irish Channel as these streets, as of the census of 2000, there were 4,270 people,1,750 households, and 904 families residing in the neighborhood. The population density was 8,540 /mi², as of the census of 2010, there were 3,373 people,1,665 households, and 649 families residing in the neighborhood. The mostly working-class neighborhood was, as the name implies, originally settled largely by immigrants from Ireland in the early 19th century, however early on the area also had people of other ethnicities, including German, Italian, and African American, living nearby each other. The origin of the name is obscure, however, one school of thought says that the Irish channeled into the area, while another says that rain would settle into the streets of this predominately Irish neighborhood at the time. Significant emigration from Ireland to the United States occurred during the period 1810 -1850, the point of debarkation was Adele Street, where many immigrants, penniless, took up residence in simple cottages, providing the beginnings of todays shotgun houses. These Irish immigrants arrived primarily to dig the New Basin Canal, New Orleans subsequently had the largest Irish population in the American South. These Irish immigrants were predominantly Roman Catholic, in contrast to the Protestant Irish that were common as immigrants to most of the rest of the Southeastern United States. In addition to the Irish Channel, many Irish immigrants also settled at Irish Bayou, Irish ethnicity dominated despite the multi-ethnicity of the area. Adele Street was the center of activity in the days of the Irish Channel. St. Alphonsus Church, constructed in 1855 by the Redemptorist Fathers, served the religious, in 1874, a painting of Our Lady of Perpetual Help was brought to St. Alphonsus and a National Shrine established. For generations Irish school children as well as parishioners and visitors would participate in novenas to Our Lady at St. Alphonsus church and these services were so well attended that the city placed additional street cars in service to carry the large number of attendees. In these early years, churches were built to various other ethnic groups. St. Marys Assumption Church served the German immigrant population of the Irish Channel, the Irish Channel developed a reputation for ruffians early in its history, a reputation that slowly eroded. The river front area was home to petty thieves and prostitutes, although much of the activity of the time centered on the corner of St. Mary Street. Through the early 20th century much of the worked in the port of New Orleans before modern shipping innovations greatly reduced the need for stevedores
31.
Mid-City New Orleans
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Mid-City is a neighborhood of the city of New Orleans. It is a district on the National Register of Historic Places. In common usage, a larger area surrounding these borders is often also referred to as part of Mid-City. Mid-City is located at 29°58′19″N 90°05′49″W and has an elevation of 0 feet, according to the United States Census Bureau, the district has a total area of 1.66 square miles. 1.66 square miles of which is land and 0.00 square miles of which is water. As such, it was not settled as early as adjacent neighborhoods and was called the back of town—the city ended at the swamp, unlike today, navarre City Park Bayou St. John, St. Louis Street, North Broad Street and the Pontchartrain Expressway. As of the census of 2000, there were 19,909 people,5,830 households, the population density was 11,993 /mi². As of the census of 2010, there were 14,633 people,5,258 households, Mid-City is the home of a number of city landmarks. Tulane Avenue, which is the terminus of U. S. Route 61, also runs just upriver from Canal Street, before the highway system. An important cross-street is Jefferson Davis Parkway, named for the president of the Confederate States of America, tulane Avenue in particular shows some remnants of the areas industrial past. However, more characteristic of Mid-City today are the many shotgun houses, Mid-City is a generally local, middle-class neighborhood in that it contains fewer tourist destinations than other parts of the city. Restaurants and bars rely heavily on local clientele, giving the area a local flavor. In the period before Hurricane Katrina on New Years Eve, residents of Mid-City placed their Christmas trees in an area in Orleans Avenue and they then threw fireworks into the bonfire. Joanna Weiss of the Boston Globe said A fire truck waited down the street, Mid-City experienced extensive flooding in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina and has been involved in an ongoing rebuilding effort. Repopulation and reconstruction are concentrated along major thoroughfares, March 2007 estimates were that 55% of the residents were living in the area. New Orleans Public Schools and Recovery School District operate the school system. Warren Easton Senior High School is in Mid-City, New Orleans Public Library operates the Mid-City Branch. Neighborhoods in New Orleans Mid-City New Orleans Neighborhood Organization Neighborhood snapshot
32.
Sociolinguistic
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Sociolinguistics overlaps to a considerable degree with pragmatics. It is historically related to linguistic anthropology and the distinction between the two fields has even been questioned. As the usage of a language varies from place to place, language usage also varies among social classes, the study of the social motivation of language change, on the other hand, has its foundation in the wave model of the late 19th century. The first attested use of the term sociolinguistics was by Thomas Callan Hodson in the title of his 1939 article Sociolinguistics in India published in Man in India. Sociolinguistics in the West first appeared in the 1960s and was pioneered by such as William Labov in the US. For example, a sociolinguist might determine through study of attitudes that a particular vernacular would not be considered appropriate language use in a business or professional setting. Sociolinguists might also study the grammar, phonetics, vocabulary, the study of language variation is concerned with social constraints determining language in its contextual environment. Code-switching is the given to the use of different varieties of language in different social situations. William Labov is often regarded as the founder of the study of sociolinguistics and he is especially noted for introducing the quantitative study of language variation and change, making the sociology of language into a scientific discipline. Also, sociolinguistics can study a gradual transition of individual values of a word in the context its semantics which occur in some ethnic, altyntsev studied the semantics of the word love among the Ashkenazi Jews from Udmurtia and Tatarstan. Sociolinguistic interviews are a part of collecting data for sociolinguistic studies. There is an interviewer, who is conducting the study, and a subject, or informant, who is the interviewee. In order to get a grasp on a linguistic form and how it is used in the dialect of the subject. There are five different styles, ranging from formal to casual, the most formal style would be elicited by having the subject read a list of minimal pairs. Minimal pairs are pairs of words differ in only one phoneme. Having the subject read a word list will elicit a formal register, the reading passage style is next down on the formal register, and the interview style is when an interviewer can finally get into eliciting a more casual speech from the subject. Of course, the most sought after type of speech is the casual style and this type of speech is difficult if not impossible to elicit because of the Observers Paradox. The closest one might come to CS in an interview is when the subject is interrupted by a friend or family member
33.
Chalmette, Louisiana
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Chalmette is a census-designated place in and the parish seat of St. Bernard Parish, in southeast Louisiana, United States. The 2010 census reported that Chalmette had 16,751 people, the 2011 population is listed as 17,119, however, the pre-Katrina population was 32,069 at the 2000 census. The population hence declined by 46% between 2000 and 2010, Chalmette is part of the New Orleans–Metairie–Kenner Metropolitan Statistical Area. Chalmette is located east of downtown New Orleans and south of Arabi, Louisiana, the community was named for Louis-Xavier Martin de Lino de Chalmette, whose surname is, in turn, derived from the French word chalmette and has been traced to the Proto-Celtic word kalm. Chalmette was founded by plantation owner Louis-Xavier Martin de Lino de Chalmette and his eldest son, Louis Xavier Martin de Lino de Chalmette was born there and married the sister of Antoine Philippe de Marigny, grandfather of Bernard de Marigny. The American forces under Major General Andrew Jackson defeated the British forces, the battlefield is preserved as a national monument complete with visitor center, and the Chalmette National Cemetery is adjacent. The Greek Revival-style plantation house next to the Chalmette battlefield, named the Malus-Beauregard House, was built in 1830 and is open to the public, from 1951 to 1983, Chalmette was the location of a major Kaiser Aluminum plant. As a result, Chalmette was extensively swamped and destroyed, a majority of the population evacuated shortly before the storm hit, but there was still significant loss of life. As of 25 October 2005, most of the buildings were deemed unsalvageable, despite findings published by the U. S. EPA, the toxic chemicals in the water from local oil refineries have been postulated to be an ongoing health hazard by several civilian ecological groups. Especially notable was the oil spill originating in Chalmettes Murphy Oil facility. The parish administrative headquarters served as the site for a Federal Emergency Management Agency trailer park for numerous civil servants who were laboring in the rebuilding effort, a year later, parish employees were still working shifts around the clock to bring the community back to life. It also served as the place to hold funerals for the first 12 months after Katrina. Deputies working for the St. Bernard Parish Sheriff stated in early December 2005 that the oil tank floated in the flood, when the water receded, the tank settled on uneven ground. Its structural integrity was compromised, and then the oil spill occurred, by late November, the Murphy facility was functional, as was a small cluster of businesses around the intersection of Paris Road and St. Bernard Highway, on the least damaged River side of Chalmette. The devastated residential areas away from the River were open during daylight hours. Camp Premier, renamed Camp Hope, was established as a camp for the communitys rebuilding efforts, facilitating the work of relief organizations, the National Guard. As of August 2007, the camp is located at P. G. T, beauregard Middle School and operated by Habitat for Humanity, to provide for relief volunteers in St. Bernard Parish. Other organizations, such as the St. Bernard Project, have participated in the rebuilding of Chalmette, from distributing supplies, to clearing debris
34.
Phonology
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Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. Phonology also includes the study of equivalent organizational systems in sign languages, the word phonology can also refer to the phonological system of a given language. This is one of the systems which a language is considered to comprise, like its syntax. Phonology is often distinguished from phonetics, note that this distinction was not always made, particularly before the development of the modern concept of the phoneme in the mid 20th century. The word phonology comes from Ancient Greek φωνή, phōnḗ, voice, sound, according to Clark et al. it means the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use. The history of phonology may be traced back to the Ashtadhyayi, Baudouin de Courtenays work, though often unacknowledged, is considered to be the starting point of modern phonology. He also worked on the theory of alternations, and may have had an influence on the work of Saussure according to E. F. K. Koerner. An influential school of phonology in the period was the Prague school. One of its members was Prince Nikolai Trubetzkoy, whose Grundzüge der Phonologie. Directly influenced by Baudouin de Courtenay, Trubetzkoy is considered the founder of morphophonology, Trubetzkoy also developed the concept of the archiphoneme. Another important figure in the Prague school was Roman Jakobson, who was one of the most prominent linguists of the 20th century, in 1968 Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle published The Sound Pattern of English, the basis for generative phonology. In this view, phonological representations are sequences of segments made up of distinctive features and these features were an expansion of earlier work by Roman Jakobson, Gunnar Fant, and Morris Halle. The features describe aspects of articulation and perception, are from a fixed set. There are at least two levels of representation, underlying representation and surface phonetic representation, ordered phonological rules govern how underlying representation is transformed into the actual pronunciation. An important consequence of the influence SPE had on phonological theory was the downplaying of the syllable, furthermore, the generativists folded morphophonology into phonology, which both solved and created problems. Natural phonology is a based on the publications of its proponent David Stampe in 1969. In this view, phonology is based on a set of phonological processes that interact with one another, which ones are active. Rather than acting on segments, phonological processes act on distinctive features within prosodic groups, prosodic groups can be as small as a part of a syllable or as large as an entire utterance
35.
Phoneme
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A phoneme is one of the units of sound that distinguish one word from another in a particular language. The difference in meaning between the English words kill and kiss is a result of the exchange of the phoneme /l/ for the phoneme /s/, two words that differ in meaning through a contrast of a single phoneme form a minimal pair. In linguistics, phonemes are written between slashes like this, /p/, whereas when it is desired to show the exact pronunciation of any sound, linguists use square brackets. Within linguistics there are differing views as to exactly what phonemes are, however, a phoneme is generally regarded as an abstraction of a set of speech sounds which are perceived as equivalent to each other in a given language. For example, in English, the k sounds in the kit and skill are not identical. Different speech sounds that are realizations of the same phoneme are known as allophones, phonemes are conventionally placed between slashes in transcription, whereas speech sounds are placed between square brackets. Thus /pʊʃ/ represents a sequence of three phonemes /p/, /ʊ/, /ʃ/, while represents the sequence of sounds. The symbols used for particular phonemes are often taken from the International Phonetic Alphabet, however, descriptions of particular languages may use different conventional symbols to represent the phonemes of those languages. A phoneme is a sound or a group of different sounds perceived to have the function by speakers of the language or dialect in question. An example is the English phoneme /k/, which occurs in such as cat, kit, scat. Although most native speakers do not notice this, in most English dialects the c/k sounds in words are not identical, in kit the sound is aspirated. The words therefore contain different speech sounds, or phones, transcribed for the aspirated form, the above shows that in English, and are allophones of a single phoneme /k/. For example, in Icelandic, is the first sound of kátur meaning cheerful, Icelandic therefore has two separate phonemes /kʰ/ and /k/. A pair of words like kátur and gátur that differ only in one phone is called a pair for the two alternative phones in question. The existence of pairs is a common test to decide whether two phones represent different phonemes or are allophones of the same phoneme. In other languages, though, including Korean, even though both sounds and occur, no minimal pair exists. The lack of minimal pairs distinguishing and in Korean provides evidence that in this language they are allophones of a single phoneme /t/, the word /tata/ is pronounced, for example. Signed languages, such as American Sign Language also have minimal pairs, Sign language minimal pairs refer to one of the signs parameters, handshape, movement, location, palm orientation, and non-manual signal/marker
36.
Louisiana
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Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Louisiana is the 31st most extensive and the 25th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the state in the U. S. with political subdivisions termed parishes. The largest parish by population is East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana is bordered by Arkansas to the north, Mississippi to the east, Texas to the west, and the Gulf of Mexico to the south. Much of the lands were formed from sediment washed down the Mississippi River, leaving enormous deltas and vast areas of coastal marsh. These contain a rich southern biota, typical examples include birds such as ibis, there are also many species of tree frogs, and fish such as sturgeon and paddlefish. In more elevated areas, fire is a process in the landscape. These support a large number of plant species, including many species of orchids. Louisiana has more Native American tribes than any other state, including four that are federally recognized, ten that are state recognized. Before the American purchase of the territory in 1803, the current Louisiana State had been both a French colony and for a period, a Spanish one. In addition, colonists imported numerous African people as slaves in the 18th century, many came from peoples of the same region of West Africa, thus concentrating their culture. Louisiana was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643 to 1715, when René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, he named it La Louisiane. The suffix -ana is a Latin suffix that can refer to information relating to an individual, subject. Thus, roughly, Louis + ana carries the idea of related to Louis, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist 250 million years ago when there was but one supercontinent, Pangea. As Pangea split apart, the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico opened, Louisiana slowly developed, over millions of years, from water into land, and from north to south. The oldest rocks are exposed in the north, in such as the Kisatchie National Forest. The oldest rocks date back to the early Tertiary Era, some 60 million years ago, the history of the formation of these rocks can be found in D. Spearings Roadside Geology of Louisiana. The sediments were carried north to south by the Mississippi River
37.
Bunny Matthews
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Bunny Matthews is a cartoonist from the Greater New Orleans Area. In light of these characters sometimes unfavorable reception, it bears noting that Matthews has often, Matthews cartooning style has been called post-psychedelic baroque. Vic and Natly first appeared in 1982 in Dixie, a weekly supplement of The Times-Picayune. His monumental painting, NintWardica, based on Pablo Picassos Guernica, was displayed at the Ogden Museum of Southern Art, smith, Marilyn Chambers, Cab Calloway, Black Flag, Jonathan Richman, Suzi Quatro, Al Green, and 1978 Playmate of the Year Debra Jo Fondren. He composed album liner notes for artists including Smiley Lewis, The Meters, Earl King and James Booker, on February 15,2012, Matthews band, Bunny and the Playboys, performed for the first time at Tipitinas. The band includes guitarist/vocalist Christopher Stoudt, guitarist Anton Gussoni and bassist Colby Kiefer, Matthews and his wife Debbie reside in Abita Springs, Louisiana, across Lake Pontchartrain north of the city. In 2015 he underwent multiple surgeries for a malignant brain tumor, Bunny Drum Solo on YouTube Bunny and the Playboys at Siberia, New Orleans on YouTube
38.
Comic strip
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A comic strip is a sequence of drawings arranged in interrelated panels to display brief humor or form a narrative, often serialized, with text in balloons and captions. With the development of the internet, they began to online as web comics. There were more than 200 different comic strips and daily cartoon panels in American newspapers alone each day for most of the 20th century, Strips are written and drawn by a comics artist or cartoonist. As the name implies, comic strips can be humorous, starting in the late 1920s, comic strips expanded from their mirthful origins to feature adventure stories, as seen in Popeye, Captain Easy, Buck Rogers, Tarzan, and The Adventures of Tintin. Soap-opera continuity strips such as Judge Parker and Mary Worth gained popularity in the 1940s, all are called, generically, comic strips, though cartoonist Will Eisner has suggested that sequential art would be a better genre-neutral name. In the UK and the rest of Europe, comic strips are also serialized in comic book magazines, storytelling using a sequence of pictures has existed through history. One medieval European example in textile form is the Bayeux Tapestry, printed examples emerged in 19th-century Germany and in 18th-century England, where some of the first satirical or humorous sequential narrative drawings were produced. William Hogarths 18th century English cartoons include both narrative sequences, such as A Rakes Progress, and single panels, in China, with its traditions of block printing and of the incorporation of text with image, experiments with what became lianhuanhua date back to 1884. The first newspaper comic strips appeared in North America in the late 19th century, the Yellow Kid is usually credited as one of the first newspaper strips. However, the art form combining words and pictures developed gradually, swiss author and caricature artist Rodolphe Töpffer is considered the father of the modern comic strips. In 1865, German painter, author, and caricaturist Wilhelm Busch created the strip Max and Moritz, Max and Moritz provided an inspiration for German immigrant Rudolph Dirks, who created the Katzenjammer Kids in 1897. Familiar comic-strip iconography such as stars for pain, sawing logs for snoring, speech balloons, hugely popular, Katzenjammer Kids occasioned one of the first comic-strip copyright ownership suits in the history of the medium. When Dirks left William Randolph Hearst for the promise of a better salary under Joseph Pulitzer, it was an unusual move, in a highly unusual court decision, Hearst retained the rights to the name Katzenjammer Kids, while creator Dirks retained the rights to the characters. Hearst promptly hired Harold Knerr to draw his own version of the strip, Dirks renamed his version Hans and Fritz. Thus, two versions distributed by rival syndicates graced the pages for decades. Dirks version, eventually distributed by United Feature Syndicate, ran until 1979, in the United States, the great popularity of comics sprang from the newspaper war between Pulitzer and Hearst. On January 31,1912, Hearst introduced the nations first full daily comic page in his New York Evening Journal, the history of this newspaper rivalry and the rapid appearance of comic strips in most major American newspapers is discussed by Ian Gordon. The longest running American comic strips are,1, barney Google and Snuffy Smith 5
39.
Krazy Kat
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Krazy Kat is an American newspaper comic strip by cartoonist George Herriman, which ran from 1913 to 1944. It first appeared in the New York Evening Journal, whose owner, the characters had been introduced previously in a side strip with Herrimans earlier creation, The Dingbat Family. The phrase Krazy Kat originated there, said by the mouse by way of describing the cat, the strip focuses on the curious relationship between a guileless, carefree, simple-minded cat named Krazy of indeterminate gender and a short-tempered mouse named Ignatz. Krazy nurses a love for the mouse. A third principal character, Offisa Bull Pupp, often appears and tries to protect Krazy by thwarting Ignatz attempts, later on, Offisa Pupp falls in love with Krazy. Art critic Gilbert Seldes wrote a panegyric to the strip in 1924, calling it the most amusing and fantastic. Poet E. E. Cummings, another Herriman admirer, wrote the introduction to the first collection of the strip in book form. Though Krazy Kat was only a modest success during its run, in more recent years. These backgrounds tend to change dramatically between panels, even while the characters remain stationary, while the local geography is fluid, certain sites were stable—and featured so often in the strip as to become iconic. These latter included Offissa Pupps jailhouse and Kolin Kellys brickyard, a Southwestern visual style is evident throughout, with clay-shingled rooftops, trees planted in pots with designs imitating Navajo art, along with references to Mexican-American culture. The strip also occasionally features incongruous trappings borrowed from the stage, with curtains, backdrops, theatrical placards, the descriptive passages mix whimsical, often alliterative language with phonetically-spelled dialogue and a strong poetic sensibility. Though the basic concept of the strip is simple, Herriman always found ways to tweak the formula, Ignatzs plans to surreptitiously lob a brick at Krazys head sometimes succeed, other times Offissa Pupp outsmarts Ignatz and imprisons him. The interventions of Coconino Countys other anthropomorphic animal residents, and even forces of nature, Other strips have Krazys imbecilic or gnomic pronouncements irritating the mouse so much that he goes to seek out a brick in the final panel. Even self-referential humor is evident—in one strip, Offissa Pupp, having arrested Ignatz, public reaction at the time was mixed, many were puzzled by its iconoclastic refusal to conform to linear comic strip conventions and straightforward gags. But publishing magnate William Randolph Hearst loved Krazy Kat, and it continued to appear in his papers throughout its run, simple-minded, curious, mindlessly happy and perpetually innocent, the strips title character drifts through life in Coconino County without a care. Often singing and dancing to express the Kats eternal joy, Krazy is hopelessly in love with Ignatz, Krazy is also completely unaware of the bitter rivalry between Ignatz and Officer Pupp and mistakes the dogs frequent imprisonment of the mouse for an innocent game of tag. On those occasions when Ignatz is caught before he can launch his brick, Krazy is left pining for the lil ainjil, Krazys own gender is never made clear and appears to be fluid, varying from strip to strip. Most authors post-Herriman have mistakenly referred to Krazy only as female, when filmmaker Frank Capra, a fan of the strip, asked Herriman to straightforwardly define the characters sex, the cartoonist admitted that Krazy was something like a sprite, an elf
