1.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
2.
Line infantry
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Line infantry is the type of infantry that composed the basis of European land armies from the middle of the 17th century to the middle of the 19th century. For both battle and parade drill it consisted of 2 to 4 ranks of soldiers drawn up side by side in rigid alignment. By extension, the term came to be applied to the regiments of the line as opposed to skirmishers, foot guards, militia. Line infantry mainly used three formations in its battles, the line, the square and the column, a line consisted of 2,3 or 4 ranks of soldiers. During the time period that line infantry were prevalent, the object was to cause the formation to rout, which was done by breaking it. The line was considered as the battle formation as it allowed for the largest deployment of firepower. Troops in skirmish formation, though able to cover and use initiative, were highly vulnerable to cavalry. Line infantry provided an anchor for skirmishers and cavalry to retreat to if threatened, against surrounding enemy cavalry, line infantry could swiftly adopt square formations to provide protection. Such squares were hollow, unlike the pikemen and old-style musketeers square, movement in line formation was very slow, and unless the battalion was superbly trained, a breakdown in cohesion was virtually assured, especially in any kind of uneven or wooded terrain. As a result, line was used as a stationary formation, with troops moving in column formations. Usually, columns would be adopted for movement and melee attacks, line infantry was trained in the manual of arms evolutions, the main objectives of which were fast deployment of a line, rapid shooting and manoeuvre. Line tactics required a strict discipline and simple movements, practiced to the point where they became second-nature, during training, the drill and corporal punishments were widely used. Line infantry quickly became the most common type of infantry in European countries, musketeers and grenadiers, formerly elite troops, gradually became part of the line infantry, switching to linear tactics. In the middle of the 17th century, the muskets of some line infantry were equipped with bayonets. Bayonets were attached to the muzzles of muskets and were used when line troops entered melee combat and they also helped to defend against cavalry. In many countries, the new fusils retained the name musket, both muskets and fusils were smoothbore, which lessened their accuracy and range, but made for faster loading, lesser amount of bore fouling and more robust, less complicated firearms. The bulk of the infantry had no protective equipment, as armor that could provide protection from musket fire were considered too expensive. Only the former elite troops could keep by tradition some elements of protection, for example, initially, soldiers equipped with firearms formed only a small part of the infantry branch of most armies, because of their vulnerability to hostile cavalry
3.
Battalion
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A battalion is a military unit. The use of the term varies by nationality and branch of service. Typically a battalion consists of 300 to 800 soldiers and is divided into a number of companies, a battalion is typically commanded by a lieutenant colonel. In some countries the word battalion is associated with the infantry, the term was first used in Italian as battaglione no later than the 16th century. It derived from the Italian word for battle, battaglia, the first use of battalion in English was in the 1580s, and the first use to mean part of a regiment is from 1708. The battalion must, of course, have a source of re-supply to enable it to sustain operations for more than a few days, the battalion is usually part of a regiment, brigade, or group, depending on the organizational model used by that service. The bulk of a battalions companies are often homogeneous with respect to type, a battalion includes a headquarters company and some sort of combat service support, typically organized within a combat support company. The term battalion is used in the British Army Infantry and some including the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. It was formerly used in the Royal Engineers, and was used in the now defunct Royal Army Ordnance Corps. Other corps usually use the term regiment instead, an infantry battalion is numbered ordinarily within its regiment. It normally has a company, support company, and three rifle companies. Each company is commanded by a major, the officer commanding, the HQ company contains signals, quartermaster, catering, intelligence, administration, pay, training, operations and medical elements. The support company usually contains anti-tank, machine gun, mortar, pioneer, mechanised units usually have an attached light aid detachment of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers to perform field repairs on vehicles and equipment. A British battalion in theatre during World War II had around 845 men in it, and, as of 2012, with successive rounds of cutbacks after the war, many infantry regiments were reduced to a single battalion. A battalion group or battlegroup consists of a battalion or armoured regiment with sub-units detached from other military units acting under the command of the battalion commander. In the Canadian Forces, most battalions are reserve units of between 100–200 soldiers that include an operationally ready, field-deployable component of approximately a half-company apiece, the nine regular force infantry battalions each contain three or four rifle companies and one or two support companies. Canadian battalions are generally commanded by lieutenant-colonels, though smaller reserve battalions may be commanded by majors, with the Dutch artillery units, the equivalent of a battalion is called an afdeling. Combat companies consist of infantry, combat engineers, or tanks, in the latter case, the unit is called an eskadron, which translates roughly to squadron
4.
Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars
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The Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars were a series of wars between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Indigenous clans of the Hawkesbury and Nepean rivers in New South Wales, Australia. The conflict consisted of Pemulwuys War and the Nepean War as well as the violence of the 1804–05 conflict. It was fought using mostly guerrilla-warfare tactics, however, several conventional battles also took place, the wars resulted in the defeat of the Hawkesbury and Nepean Indigenous clans who were subsequently dispossessed of their lands. The Sydney region comprised a variety of nations that were united by a common language and these nations were the Eora who lived along the coast, the Tharawal to the south, the Dharug to the northwest and the Gandagara to the southwest. Within the language groups there were several clans. The Eora people generally comprised three main clans known as the Cadigal, Wanegal, and the Cammeraygal, and several smaller ones, a clan typically numbered between 50–100 people. Following Britains loss of its American colonies during the American Revolutionary War, the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788 at Port Jackson marked the beginning of the colonization of Australia. At the time it was used as a colony to which criminals and political dissidents were sent as punishment, however. The penal colony had established at Port Jackson which was the traditional land of the Cadigal people. The penal colony had a population of one thousand and for the first few years struggled to adapt to the Australian climate. The origins of the Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars are complex and controversial, with the expansion of European settlement large amounts of land was cleared for farming, which resulted in the destruction of Aboriginal food sources. Whether Pemulwuy was actively resisting European settlement, or was attempting to uphold Aboriginal law. Regardless, the British believed the attacks made against them were acts of war, in March 1789, sixteen convicts marched to Botany Bay with the intention of plundering the natives of their fishing-tackle and spears. They had armed themselves with whatever tools they could find such as hatchets, shovels, as they arrived near the bay a body of natives ambushed them, and in the skirmish most of the convicts fled. Those who fled back to the camp alerted the military to the attack, an officer with a detachment of marines quickly rushed to their aid, however they were too late to repel the natives which left one convict dead and seven severely wounded. Arthur Phillip sought no vengeance against the natives for this event as the convicts had hostile intentions, in 1789, a disastrous smallpox epidemic broke out which killed up to 70% of the Indigenous people of the Sydney region. Unable to understand or counter the sickness they often fled, leaving the sick with some food, as the clans fled the epidemic it consequently spread further along the coast and into the hinterland. This had an effect on Aboriginal society, with many of the productive hunters and gathers dead. The British had not seen smallpox in anyone among themselves before the outbreak, on 7 September 1790, upon hearing news of a gathering of natives at South-head near Broken Bay, Governor Phillip and three others made their way towards the reported happenings
5.
Castle Hill convict rebellion
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The Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804 was a rebellion by convicts against colonial authority in the Castle Hill area of the British colony of New South Wales. It was the first and only major convict uprising in Australian history suppressed under martial law, on 4 March 1804, according to the official accounts 233 convicts led by Philip Cunningham escaped from a prison farm intent on capturing ships to sail to Ireland. In response, martial law was declared in the Colony of New South Wales. The mostly Irish rebels, having gathered reinforcements, were hunted by the forces until they were sequestered on 5 March 1804 on a hillock nicknamed Vinegar Hill. Under a flag of truce, Cunningham was arrested and troops charged, nine of the rebel leaders were executed and hundreds were punished before martial law was finally revoked a week after the battle. Many convicts in the Castle Hill area had involved in the 1798 rebellions in Ireland. According to Helen Mackay, their goal was to establish Irish rule in the colony, on the evening of 4 March 1804, John Cavenah set fire to his hut at Castle Hill at 8,00 as the signal for the rebellion to begin. With Cunningham leading, about 200 to 300 rebels broke into the Government Farms buildings, taking firearms, ammunition and their move had been informed from the intelligence gathered a year previous when 12 convicts de-camped from Castle Hill scouring the surrounding districts seeking out friends and sympathisers. On capture each and every one had the same story – they were heading to China by crossing over the Blue Mountains, meanwhile, the provost marshal, Thomas Smyth, was sent ahead to contact Major George Johnston at Annandale. The troops from Sydney arrived at 1,30 am, Johnston arrived at Government House in Parramatta about four hours later not long after King had declared martial law under the Mansfield doctrine of posse comitatus. A curfew had also been enacted and an amnesty declared, which gave those who were involved 24 hours to surrender, on Johnstons arrival at Parramatta, King delivered his orders, in writing, to Johnston and then verbally to his small detachment. Johnston was to proceed to the gate of the park around Government House. If they were not there, he was ordered to exploit towards Toongabbie and Castle Hill to locate them and he was also empowered to fire upon anyone who did not obey his directions. Shortly after 5,00 am, Johnston set out to locate the rebel force. Over 50 enrolled in a reserve militia combined with the NSW Corps to march out, Johnston decided to advance in two columns, one which he led himself towards Toongabbie, and another under a subaltern, Davies, which was sent along the Castle Hill Road. Meanwhile, the rebels at Constitution Hill were having difficulties co-ordinating their force as several parties, Cunningham, being involved in two previous rebellions and the mutiny on the Anne, knew from experience that the most important element of a rebellion or uprising would be secrecy. During this phase they obtained around third of the entire colonys armaments had dwindled to several hundred, during the short period of the rebellion, Cunningham was elected King of the Australian Empire, and his followers declared the area New Ireland. Initially, it was believed that the rebels were at Toongabbie, as the morning progressed, the heat of the day threatened to stymie the efforts of the marching troops who were poorly equipped for the pursuit
6.
Rum Rebellion
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The Rum Rebellion of 1808 was the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history. During the 19th century, it was referred to as the Great Rebellion. William Bligh, well known for his overthrow in the mutiny on the Bounty, was a naval officer and he succeeded Governor Philip Gidley King in 1805, having been offered the position by Sir Joseph Banks. It is likely that he was selected by the British Government as governor because of his reputation as a hard man and he stood a good chance of reining in the maverick New South Wales Corps, something that his predecessors had not been able to do. Bligh left for Sydney with his daughter, Mary Putland, even before his arrival, Blighs style of governance led to problems with his subordinates. The Admiralty gave command of the storeship Porpoise and the convoy to the lower ranked Captain Joseph Short and this led to quarrels which eventually resulted in Captain Short firing across Blighs bow in order to force Bligh to obey his signals. When this failed, Short tried to give an order to Lieutenant Putland, Blighs son-in-law, Bligh boarded the Porpoise and seized control of the convoy. The president of the court, Sir Isaac Coffin, wrote to the Admiralty and made several accusations against Bligh. Blighs wife obtained a statement from one of the officers denying this and Banks, supplies were divided up according to those most in need and provisions were made for loans to be drawn from the store based on capacity to repay. This earned Bligh the gratitude of the farmers but the enmity of traders in the Corps who had been profiting greatly from the situation. Bligh, under instructions from the Colonial Office, attempted to normalise trading conditions in the colony by prohibiting the use of spirits as payment for commodities, Bligh communicated his policy to the Colonial Office in 1807, with the advice that his policy would be met with resistance. Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, Secretary of State for War, the instructions were to stop the barter of spirits and H. V. Evatt concludes in his history of the Rebellion that, Evatt argues that the enmity of the monopolists within the colony stemmed from this and other policies which counteracted the power of the rich and promoted the welfare of the poor settlers. Bligh also dismissed Thomas Jamison from the magistracy, describing him in 1807 as being inimical to good government, Jamison was the highly capable Surgeon-General of New South Wales. He had accumulated significant personal wealth as a trader and was a friend. Jamison never forgave Bligh for sacking him as a magistrate and interfering with his business activities. It is clear that Bligh had made enemies of some of the most influential people in the colony and he also antagonised some of the less wealthy when he ordered those who had leases on government land within Sydney to remove their houses. Macarthur had arrived with the New South Wales Corps in 1790 as a lieutenant and he had quarrelled with Blighs predecessor governors and had fought three duels
7.
Regiment
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A regiment is a military unit. Their role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, in Medieval Europe, the term regiment denoted any large body of front-line soldiers, recruited or conscripted in one geographical area, by a leader who was often also the feudal lord of the soldiers. By the 17th century, a regiment was usually about a thousand personnel. In many armies, the first role has been assumed by independent battalions, battlegroups, task forces, brigades and other, similarly-sized operational units. By the beginning of the 18th century, regiments in most European continental armies had evolved into permanent units with distinctive titles and uniforms, when at full strength, an infantry regiment normally comprised two field battalions of about 800 men each or 8–10 companies. In some armies, an independent regiment with fewer companies was labelled a demi-regiment, a cavalry regiment numbered 600 to 900 troopers, making up a single entity. With the widespread adoption of conscription in European armies during the nineteenth century, the regimental system underwent modification. Prior to World War I, a regiment in the French, German, Russian. As far as possible, the battalions would be garrisoned in the same military district, so that the regiment could be mobilized. A cavalry regiment by contrast made up an entity of up to 1,000 troopers. Usually, the regiment is responsible for recruiting and administering all of a military career. Depending upon the country, regiments can be either combat units or administrative units or both and this is often contrasted to the continental system adopted by many armies. Generally, divisions are garrisoned together and share the same installations, thus, in divisional administration, soldiers and officers are transferred in and out of divisions as required. Some regiments recruited from specific areas, and usually incorporated the place name into the regimental name. In other cases, regiments would recruit from an age group within a nation. In other cases, new regiments were raised for new functions within an army, e. g. the Fusiliers, the Parachute Regiment, a key aspect of the regimental system is that the regiment or battalion is the fundamental tactical building block. This flows historically from the period, when battalions were widely dispersed and virtually autonomous. For example, a regiment might include different types of battalions of different origins, within the regimental system, soldiers, and usually officers, are always posted to a tactical unit of their own regiment whenever posted to field duty
8.
New South Wales Marine Corps
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Established in 1786, the Corps saw active service in New South Wales from 1788 to 1791 and was instrumental in establishing the colonys rule of law. In 1791 the Admiralty disbanded the New South Wales Marines and replaced it with a new regular Army unit, on 18 December 1791 HMS Gorgon left Port Jackson taking home the last company of the New South Wales Marines. Those leaving included Robert Ross, Watkin Tench, William Dawes, of the departure, Tench said, “we hailed it with rapture and exhilaration”. Volunteers for the NSW Marine Corps were required to have had a prior record of service in the British Marines, to be at least 5 feet 6 inches tall. Recruits were offered an incentive payment if they volunteered for the Corps. With an eye to the likelihood of delays in setting out, Marines who chose this option had no automatic right of return to military service after discharge, but in practice few were refused re-entry when their service expired. Rates of pay were in accordance with those of the British Marines, New South Wales Marine Corps uniforms consisted of a red long-tailed doublet, white trousers, black headdress, and shoes and gaiters. Officers were authorised to carry swords and sidearms, other ranks were issued Brown Bess muskets, in 1787–88 four companies of marines, numbering some 213 men under Major Robert Ross, accompanied the First Fleet to Botany Bay. The error was kept a secret from the convicts in order to avoid an uprising, security was strictly maintained during the voyage. Bulkheads filled with nails were constructed across each deck to separate the convict quarters from those of the Marines, Marines were routinely stationed at loopholes in these bulkheads in order to fire upon the convicts if necessary. Marines were located behind barricades constructed across the deck and at each of the hatches leading below. A further Marine detachment was permanently stationed on the quarterdeck. A marine caught in the convict womens tent was drummed out of the Corps on 9 February 1788, the music played for the occasion was the Rogues March, the first record of a named piece of music being played in Australia. The New South Wales Corps helped establish a precedent for the creation of ad hoc units for service under the aegis of the Royal Marines. One example, from the Americas and the War of 1812, was the Corps of Colonial Marines, list of Officers of the New South Wales Marine Corps Citations References Bladen, F. M. ed. Historical records of New South Wales, historical records of New South Wales. Lansdown Slattery & Co. p.56
9.
First Fleet
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The First Fleet is the name given to the 11 ships that left England on 13 May 1787 to found the penal colony that became the first European settlement in Australia. The First Fleet was commanded by Commodore Arthur Phillip, who was given instructions authorising him to make regulations, the cost to Britain of outfitting and despatching the Fleet was £84,000. Ropes, crockery, agricultural equipment and a miscellany of other stores were needed, the party had to rely on its own provisions to survive until it could make use of local materials, assuming suitable supplies existed, and grow its own food and raise livestock. Scale models of all the ships are on display at the Museum of Sydney, the models were built by ship makers Lynne and Laurie Hadley, after researching the original plans, drawings and British archives. The replicas of the Supply, Charlotte, Scarborough, Friendship, Prince of Wales, Lady Penrhyn, Borrowdale, Alexander, Sirius, Fishburn, nine Sydney harbour ferries built in the mid-1980s are named after First Fleet vessels. The unused names are Lady Penrhyn and Prince of Wales, the people of the fleet included seamen, marines and their families, government officials, and a large number of convicts, including women and children. The majority were British, but there were also African, American, the six convict transports each had a detachment of marines on board. Most of the families of the marines travelled aboard the Prince of Wales, a number of people on the First Fleet kept diaries and journals of their experiences, including the surgeons. There are twelve known journals in existence as well as some letters, the exact number of people directly associated with the First Fleet will likely never be established, as all accounts of the event vary slightly. A total of 1,420 people have identified as embarking on the First Fleet in 1787. The total number of persons embarking on the First Fleet would, therefore, be approximately 1,530 with about 1,483 reaching Sydney Cove. The Scarborough, of 418 tons, had on board 205 male convicts,1 captain,2 lieutenants,2 sergeants,2 corporals,1 drummer, and 26 privates, with 1 assistant surgeon to the colony. The Charlotte, of 346 tons, had on board 89 male and 20 female convicts,1 captain,2 lieutenants,2 sergeants,3 corporals,1 drummer, and 35 privates, with the principal surgeon of the colony. The Lady Penrhyn, of 338 tons, had on board 101 female convicts,1 captain,2 lieutenants, and 3 privates, with a person acting as a surgeons mate. The Prince of Wales, of 334 tons, had on board 2 male and 50 female convicts,2 lieutenants,3 sergeants,2 corporals,1 drummer, and 24 privates, with the surveyor-general of the colony. The Friendship, … of 228 tons, had on board 76 male and 21 female convicts,1 captain,2 lieutenants,2 sergeants,3 corporals,1 drummer, and 36 privates, with 1 assistant surgeon to the colony. There were on board, beside these,28 women,8 male and 6 female children, belonging to the soldiers of the detachment, the Fishburn store-ship was of 378 tons, the Borrowdale of 272 tons, and the Golden Grove of 331 tons. Golden Grove carried the chaplain for the colony, with his wife, not only these store-ships, but the men of war and transports were laden with provisions, implements of agriculture, camp equipage, clothing for the convicts, baggage, etc
10.
Francis Grose (British Army officer)
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Lieutenant-General Francis Grose was a British soldier who commanded the New South Wales Corps. As Governor of New South Wales 1792-1794, he established military rule, abolished civil courts and he failed to stamp out the practice of paying wages in alcoholic spirits, with consequent public drunkenness and corruption. Although he helped to improve living conditions to some degree, he was not viewed as a successful administrator, Grose was born in Greenland, Middlesex, England around 1758. He was the eldest son of Francis Grose and Catherine Jordan, Grose received a commission as an ensign in 1775, in the 52nd Foot and was promoted to lieutenant later that year. Grose served during the American Revolutionary War, where he was twice wounded, returning to England in 1779 as captain of the 85th Regiment of Foot, he acted as recruiting officer. He attained the rank of major in 1783, in the 96th Foot and in November 1789 was placed in command of the New South Wales Corps, Grose did not leave England until late in 1791, arriving in Sydney on 14 February 1792 on board the convict transport Pitt. The voyage was not a one as fever killed a large number of people on board, seaman, soldiers, convicts, wives. Grose became colonial administrator when Governor Arthur Phillip, whose health had been poor for some time, the European population of New South Wales when Grose took over was 4,221, of whom 3,099 were convicts. Grose immediately abandoned Phillips plans for governing the colony, a staunch military man, he established military rule and set out to secure the authority of the Corps. He abolished the civilian courts and transferred the magistrates to the authority of Captain Joseph Foveaux, after the poor crops of 1793 he cut the rations of the convicts but not those of the Corps, overturning Phillip’s policy of equal rations for all. In a connived attempt to improve production and make the colony more self-sufficient, Grose turned away from collective farming. They were also provided with government-fed and clothed convicts as farm labour, the custom of officers trading in spirits was almost universal and in the interregnum before the arrival of Captain Hunter, the colony was rife with drunkenness, gambling, licentiousness and crime. How far Grose was responsible for state of affairs it is now impossible to say. There is, however, no reason to doubt the statements of the chaplain, the Rev. Richard Johnson, that he could get no support from the lieutenant-governor and no assistance in building a church. In spite of the low state of morality and the habits of the people. However, most of the credit for this cannot be given to Grose and his substitution of military for civil power was not for the good of the state and he showed no foresight or real strength in his government. The improvement probably came from better farming methods, for which credit can largely be given to the two chaplains, Johnson and Samuel Marsden, Grose did, however, increase the rations and improve the housing conditions of his troops. After leaving Australia Grose filled various posts in the army, in 1798, he was on the staff in Ireland
11.
Second Fleet (Australia)
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The Second Fleet is the name of the second fleet of ships sent with settlers, convicts and supplies to the colony at Sydney Cove in Port Jackson, Australia. The fleet comprised six ships, one Royal Navy escort, four ships. The ships were intended to sail to Australia together, arriving at Sydney Cove in 1789, however the escort was disabled en route and failed to make the destination, and one convict ship which was delayed arrived two months after the other ships. Upon arrival the sickly convicts were a drain on the struggling colony. Lady Juliana sailed before the convict ships and is not always counted as a member of the Second Fleet. The storeship Justinian did not sail with the ships and arrived before them. HMS Guardian set out before the ships but struck ice after leaving the Cape of Good Hope, returned to southern Africa. Surprize, Neptune, and Scarborough were contracted from the firm Camden, Calvert & King, 6d per head, whether they landed alive or not. This firm had previously involved in transporting slaves to North America. The only agents of the Crown in the crew were the agent, Lieutenant John Shapcote. The three vessels left England on 19 January 1790, with 1,006 convicts on board and they made only one stop on the way, at the Cape of Good Hope. Here 20 male convicts, survivors from HMS Guardian, were taken on board. The three vessels made a faster trip than the First Fleet, arriving at Port Jackson in the last week of June 1790, the passage was relatively fast, but the mortality rate was the highest in the history of transportation to Australia. Of the 1,026 convicts embarked,267 died during the voyage, on Neptune the convicts were deliberately starved, kept chained, and frequently refused access to the deck. On Scarborough, rations were not deliberately withheld, but a reported mutiny attempt led to the convicts being closely confined below decks, on arrival at Port Jackson, half-naked convicts were lying without bedding, too ill to move. Those unable to walk were slung over the side, at least 486 sick were landed. Of these,124 died shortly after they had landed, of the rest the Rev. Johnson, who went among them as soon as the ships reached port, wrote, The misery I saw amongst them is indescribable. Their heads, bodies, clothes, blankets, were all full of lice and they were wretched, naked, filthy, dirty, lousy, and many of them utterly unable to stand, to creep, or even to stir hand or foot
12.
Company (military unit)
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A company is a military unit, typically consisting of 80–250 soldiers and usually commanded by a major or a captain. Most companies are formed of three to six platoons, although the number may vary by country, unit type. Usually several companies are grouped as a battalion or regiment, the latter of which is formed by several battalions. Occasionally, independent or separate companies are organized for special purposes and these companies are not organic to a battalion or regiment, but rather report directly to a higher level organization such as a Marine Expeditionary Force headquarters. The modern military company became popularized during the reorganization of the Swedish Army in 1631 under King Gustav II Adolph, for administrative purposes, the infantry was divided into companies consisting of 150 men, grouped into regiments of eight companies. Tactically, the companies were organized into battalions and grouped with cavalry troops. From ancient times, some armies have used a base administrative. Furthermore, recent studies have indicated that humans are best able to maintain stable relationships in a group numbering between 100-250 members, with 150 members being the common number. The advent of accurate, long-range rifle fire, repeating rifles and this, coupled with the advent of radio communication, permitted relatively small numbers of men to have much greater firepower and combat effectiveness than previously possible. Companies, however, continue to remain within the range of 100-250 members, perhaps validating the premise that men fight best in organizations of around 150 members. These companies were not organic to any intermediate headquarters, but rather reported directly to the division headquarters, rifle companies consist of three platoons and a company headquarters. Until after the Second World War, the Royal Engineers and Royal Signals had both squadrons and companies depending on whether the units were supporting mounted or foot formations. The British Army infantry normally identifies its rifle companies by letter within a battalion, usually with the addition of a headquarters company and a support/heavy weapons company. Some units name their companies after regimental battle honours, this is commonly the case for composite units, for example the London Regiment with its Somme, Messines and Cambrai companies. The foot guards regiments use traditional names for some of their companies, for example Queens Company, Left Flank, Royal Marines companies are designated by a letter that is unique across the corps, not just within their command. The Intelligence Corps, Royal Army Medical Corps, Royal Military Police, the defunct Royal Army Service Corps, Royal Pioneer Corps and Royal Army Ordnance Corps had companies, the Royal Corps of Transport had squadrons. British companies are commanded by a major, the officer commanding. The Honourable Artillery Company is in fact a regiment, not a company, in terms of organisation, canadian Army organisation is modelled after the British
13.
George Johnston (British Marines officer)
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Lieutenant-Colonel George Johnston was briefly Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales, Australia after leading the rebellion later known as the Rum Rebellion. In his later life, he returned to New South Wales as a citizen, raising a family in the colony. Johnston was born on 19 January 1764 at Annan, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, Percy obtained a commission for the 12-year-old Johnston as second lieutenant of marines on 6 March 1776. During the fight, his father received a chest wound, from which he subsequently died, the Duke of Northumberland, who had held Johnstons father in high regard, became Johnstons guardian. Returned to garrison duty in Portsmouth, he volunteered to join the New South Wales Marine Corps and he sailed for Australia aboard the convict transport Lady Penrhyn in 1788. On arrival in New South Wales, Johnston served as adjutant to Governor Arthur Phillip and he transferred from the New South Wales Marine Corps to the locally raised New South Wales Corps in 1791 with the rank of captain. Johnston received extensive grants in areas of modern Petersham, Bankstown. Johnstons other grants included land which is now the suburb of Annandale and he and Esther Abrahams farmed and lived on Annandale with their children. In September 1796, Johnston was appointed aide-de-camp to Governor John Hunter, in the same year Johnston was put under arrest by Lieutenant Governor William Paterson on charges of paying spirits to a sergeant as part of his pay—and disobedience of orders. Johnston objected to trial by court-martial in the colony, and Hunter sent him to England, there the difficulties of conducting a trial with witnesses in Australia led to the proceedings being dropped, and Johnston returned to New South Wales in 1802. In 1803 Johnston took temporary command of the New South Wales Corps during the illness of Paterson, in March 1804 he acted with decision when in command of the military sent against some convicts who had rebelled at Castle Hill. When Paterson was sent to Port Dalrymple, Johnston became commander of the New South Wales Corps, on 26 January 1808, Johnston played a key role in the only successful armed takeover of a government in Australias recorded history, the Rum Rebellion, working closely with John Macarthur. Johnston led the troops that deposed Governor William Bligh, assumed the title of lieutenant-governor, the administration of justice became farcical, and there were signs of strong discontent among the settlers. Johnston was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel on 25 April 1808, and was superseded by his senior officer Joseph Foveaux, Johnston sailed for England with John Macarthur in March 1809 and was tried by court-martial in May 1811. Found guilty of mutiny he was sentenced to be cashiered and this lenience of the sentence imposed in the circumstances presumably indicates that the court was convinced that he had been the tool of other people. Johnston returned to New South Wales in May 1813 as a private individual, the couple had already had seven children together by that time and they lived on his land at Annandale, Sydney. He died much respected on 5 January 1823, leaving a large family and he was first interred in a private mausoleum on his Annandale property, until its subdivision to become an inner city suburb. His remains were moved to a new mausoleum at Waverley Cemetery in 1904, the suburb of Georges Hall is named after the farmhouse of the same name on land grants Johnston received near the junction of the Georges River and Prospect Creek
14.
Arthur Phillip
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Admiral Arthur Phillip RN was a Royal Navy officer and the first Governor of New South Wales who founded the British penal colony that later became the city of Sydney, Australia. After much experience at sea, Phillip sailed with the First Fleet as Governor-designate of the proposed British penal colony of New South Wales, in January 1788, he selected its location to be Port Jackson. Phillip was a governor who soon saw that New South Wales would need a civil administration. But his plan to bring skilled tradesmen on the voyage had been rejected and his friendly attitude towards the aborigines was also sorely tested when they killed his gamekeeper, and he was not able to assert a clear policy about them. Phillip retired in 1805, but continued to correspond with his friends in New South Wales, Arthur Phillip was born on 11 October 1738, the younger of two children to Jacob Phillip and Elizabeth Breach. His father Jacob was born in Frankfurt, Germany and he was a languages teacher who may also have served in the Royal Navy as an able seaman and pursers steward. His mother Elizabeth was the widow of a seaman, John Herbert. At the time of Arthur Phillips birth, his family maintained a modest existence as tenants near Cheapside in the City of London, there are no surviving records of Phillips early childhood. His father Jacob died in 1739, after which the Phillip family may have fallen on hard times, on 22 June 1751 he was accepted into the Greenwich Hospital School, a charity school for the sons of indigent seafarers. In keeping with the curriculum, his education was focused on literacy, arithmetic and navigational skills. He was a competent student and something of a perfectionist and his headmaster, Rev. Francis Swinden observed that in personality, Phillip was unassuming, reasonable, business-like to the smallest degree in everything he undertakes. Phillip remained at the Greenwich School for two and a half years, considerably longer than the student stay of twelve months. At the end of 1753 he was granted a seven-year indenture as an apprentice aboard Fortune and he left the Greenwich School on 1 December and spent the winter aboard Fortune awaiting the commencement of the 1754 whaling season. Phillip spent the summer of 1754 hunting whales near Svalbard in the Barents Sea, as an apprentice, his responsibilities included stripping blubber from whale carcasses and helping to pack it into barrels. Food was scarce and Fortunes thirty crew members supplemented their diet with eggs, scurvy grass. The ship returned to England on 20 July 1754, the whaling crew were paid off and replaced with twelve sailors for a winter voyage to the Mediterranean. As an apprentice, Phillip remained aboard as Fortune undertook a trading voyage to Barcelona and Livorno carrying salt and raisins, returning via Rotterdam with a cargo of grains. The ship returned to England in April 1755 and sailed immediately for Svalbard for that years whale hunt, Phillip was still a member of the crew, but abandoned his apprenticeship when the ship returned to England on 27 July
15.
Convicts in Australia
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Between 1788 and 1868, about 162,000 convicts were transported by the British government to various penal colonies in Australia. The British government began transporting convicts overseas to American colonies in the early 17th century, when transportation ended with the start of the American Revolution, an alternative site was needed relieve further overcrowding of British prisons and hulks. Earlier in 1770, James Cook charted and claimed possession of the east coast of Australia for Britain. Other penal colonies were established in Van Diemens Land in 1803 and Queensland in 1824, while Western Australia, founded in 1829 as a free colony. Victoria and South Australia remained free colonies, penal transportation to Australia peaked in the 1830s and dropped off significantly the following decade. The last convict ship arrived in Western Australia on 10 January 1868, many convicts were transported for petty crimes, while a significant number were political prisoners. More serious crimes, such as rape and murder, were punishable by death, once emancipated, most ex-convicts stayed in Australia and joined the free settlers, with some rising to prominent positions in Australian society. However, convictism carried a stigma, and for some later Australians. Attitudes became more accepting in the 20th century and it is now considered by many Australians to be a cause for celebration to have a convict in ones lineage, around 20% of modern Australians are descended from transported convicts. The convict era has inspired novels, films, and other cultural works. According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the population of England and Wales, by the time of the American Revolution, London was overcrowded, filled with the unemployed, and flooded with cheap gin. Poverty, social injustice, child labor, harsh and dirty living conditions, Dickens novels perhaps best illustrate this, even some government officials were horrified by what they saw. Only in 1833 and 1844 were the first general laws against child labour passed in the United Kingdom, crime had become a major problem and in 1784 a French observer noted that from sunset to dawn the environs of London became the patrimony of brigands for twenty miles around. Each parish had a watchman, but British cities did not have forces in the modern sense. Jeremy Bentham avidly promoted the idea of a prison. Virtually all malefactors were caught by informers or denounced to the court by their victims. Pursuant to the so-called Bloody Code, by the 1770s there were 222 crimes in Britain which carried the death penalty, almost all of which were crimes against property. These included such offences as the stealing of goods worth over 5 shillings, the cutting down of a tree, the situation was so dire that hulks left over from the Seven Years War were used as makeshift floating prisons
16.
Collective farming
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Collective farming and communal farming are various types of agricultural production in which multiple farmers run their holdings as a joint enterprise. This type of collective is often an agricultural cooperative in which member-owners engage jointly in farming activities, the process by which farmland is aggregated is called collectivization. In some countries, there have been state-run and cooperative-run variants, for example, the Soviet Union had both kolkhozy and sovkhozy, often denoted in English as collective farms and state farms, respectively. In general, collective farming is contrasted with family farming and with arrangements in which land was owned by landlords or aristocrats. Notable examples of collective farming include the kolkhozy that dominated Soviet agriculture between 1930 and 1991 and the Israeli kibbutzim, both are collective farms based on common ownership of resources and on pooling of labour and income in accordance with the theoretical principles of cooperative organizations. They differ radically, however, in the application of the cooperative principles relative to freedom of choice, a small group of farming or herding families living together on a jointly-managed piece of land is surely one of the most common living arrangements in all of human history. This has co-existed with, and competed with, more forms of ownership. Private ownership came to predominate in much of the Western world, the process by which Western Europes communal land became private is a fundamental question behind views of property, is it the legacy of historical injustices and crimes. Karl Marx believed that what he called primitive communism was ended by exploitative means he called primitive accumulation, by contrast Libertarian thinkers say that by the homestead principle, whoever is first to work on the land is the rightful owner. A calpulli consisted of a number of extended families with a presumed common ancestor. Each calpulli owned the land and granted the individual families the right to farm parts of it, the Huron had an essentially communal system of land ownership. The French Catholic missionary Gabriel Sagard described the fundamentals, the Huron had as much land as they need. As a result, the Huron could give families their own land, any Huron was free to clear the land and farm on the basis of usufruct. He maintained possession of the land as long as he continued to actively cultivate, once he abandoned the land, it reverted to communal ownership, and anyone could take it up for themselves. The Iroquois had a communal system of land distribution. The tribe owned all lands but gave out tracts to the different clans for further distribution among households for cultivation, the land would be redistributed among the households every few years, and a clan could request a redistribution of tracts when the Clan Mothers Council gathered. Those clans that abused their allocated land or otherwise did not take care of it would be warned, land property was really only the concern of the women, since it was the womens job to cultivate food and not the mens. The Clan Mothers Council also reserved certain areas of land to be worked by the women of all the different clans, food from such lands, called kěndiǔgwǎge hodiyěntho, would be used at festivals and large council gatherings
17.
Rum
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Rum is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane byproducts, such as molasses, or directly from sugarcane juice, by a process of fermentation and distillation. The distillate, a liquid, is then usually aged in oak barrels. The majority of the rum production occurs in the Caribbean. Rums are produced in various grades, light rums are commonly used in cocktails, whereas golden and dark rums were typically consumed straight or neat, on the rocks, or used for cooking, but are now commonly consumed with mixers. Premium rums are also available, made to be consumed straight or iced. Rum plays a part in the culture of most islands of the West Indies as well as in The Maritimes and this beverage has famous associations with the Royal Navy and piracy. Rum has also served as a medium of economic exchange, used to help fund enterprises such as slavery, organized crime. The origin of the rum is generally unclear. In an 1824 essay about the origin, Samuel Morewood. He wrote, As spirits, extracted from molasses, could not well be ranked under the name whiskey, brandy, or arrack, it would be called rum, given the harsh taste of early rum, this is unlikely. Morewood later suggested another possibility, that it was taken from the last syllable of the Latin word for sugar, saccharum, other etymologists have mentioned the Romani word rum, meaning strong or potent. These words have been linked to the ramboozle and rumfustian, both popular British drinks in the mid-17th century, however, neither was made with rum, but rather eggs, ale, wine, sugar, and various spices. The most probable origin is as a version of rumbullion or rumbustion. Both words surfaced in English about the time as rum did. This is a far more convincing explanation, and brings the image of men fighting in entanglements at island tippling houses. Another claim is the name is from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen known as rummers, from the Dutch word roemer, other options include contractions of the words iterum, Latin for again, a second time, or arôme, French for aroma. A short time later in May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts also decided to make illegal the sale of strong liquor whether knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc. In current usage, the used for a rum is often based on its place of origin
18.
Distilled beverage
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This process purifies it and removes diluting components like water, for the purpose of increasing its proportion of alcohol content. As distilled beverages contain more alcohol, they are considered harder – in North America, as examples, this term does not include beverages such as beer, wine, sake, and cider, as they are fermented but not distilled. These all have relatively low alcohol content, typically less than 15%, brandy is a spirit produced by the distillation of wine, and has an ABV of over 35%. Other examples of distilled beverages include bourbon, vodka, gin, rum, tequila, mezcal, whisky, scotch, the term spirit refers to a distilled beverage that contains no added sugar and has at least 20% alcohol by volume. Distilled beverages bottled with added sugar and added flavorings, such as Grand Marnier, Frangelico, Distilled beverages generally have an alcohol concentration higher than 30%. The origin of liquor and its close relative liquid was the Latin verb liquere, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply a liquid, can be dated to 1225. The first use the OED mentions of its meaning a liquid for drinking occurred in the 14th century and its use as a term for an intoxicating alcoholic drink appeared in the 16th century. The term spirit in reference to alcohol stems from Middle Eastern alchemy and these alchemists were more concerned with medical elixirs than with transmuting lead into gold. The vapor given off and collected during a process was called a spirit of the original material. Distilled water was described in the 2nd century AD by Alexander of Aphrodisias, the Alexandrians were using a distillation alembic or still device in the 3rd century AD. The medieval Arabs learned the process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively. Freeze distillation involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice, the freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use. The earliest evidence of distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in southern Italy during the 12th century. Again, the Chinese may not have been far behind, with evidence indicating the practice of distillation began during the 12th century Jin or Southern Song dynasties. A still has been found at a site in Qinglong, Hebei. Fractional distillation was developed by Taddeo Alderotti in the 13th century, the production method was written in code, suggesting that it was being kept secret. In 1437, burned water was mentioned in the records of the County of Katzenelnbogen in Germany and it was served in a tall, narrow glass called a Goderulffe. Claims upon the origin of specific beverages are controversial, often invoking national pride, but they are plausible after the 12th century AD and these spirits would have had a much lower alcohol content than the alchemists pure distillations, and they were likely first thought of as medicinal elixirs
19.
Bengal Presidency
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The Bengal Presidency was once the largest colonial subdivision of British India, with its seat in Calcutta, the capital of British-held territories in South Asia until 1911. At its territorial peak in the 19th century, the presidency extended from the present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan in the west to Burma, Singapore, the Governor of Bengal was concurrently the Viceroy of India for many years. Most of the territories were eventually incorporated into other British Indian provinces. In 1905, Bengal proper was partitioned, with Eastern Bengal and Assam headquartered in Dacca, British India was reorganised in 1912 and the presidency was reunited into a single Bengali-speaking province. The Bengal Presidency was established in 1765, following the defeat of the last independent Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, Bengal was the economic, cultural and educational hub of the British Raj. It was the centre of the late 19th and early 20th century Bengali Renaissance, the Partition of British India resulted in Bengals division on religious grounds, between West Bengal and East Bengal. Under Warren Hastings the consolidation of British imperial rule over Bengal was solidified, while the formation of a regularised system of legislation was brought in under John Shore. Acting through Lord Cornwallis, then Governor-General, he ascertained and defined the rights of the landholders over the soil. In 1793 Lord Cornwallis declared their rights perpetual, and gave over the land of Bengal to the previous quasi-proprietors or zamindars and this piece of legislation is known as the Permanent Settlement of the Land Revenue. It was designed to introduce ideas of property rights to India, the former aim misunderstood the nature of landholding in India, and the latter was an abject failure. The Cornwallis Code, while defining the rights of the proprietors, failed to give recognition to the rights of the under-tenants. Furthermore, the Permanent Settlement took no account of inflation, meaning that the value of the revenue to Government declined year by year, whilst the heavy burden on the peasantry grew no less. This was compounded in the early 19th century by compulsory schemes for the cultivation of Opium and Indigo, the former by the state, peasants were forced to grow a certain area of these crops, which were then purchased at below market rates for export. This added greatly to rural poverty, so unsuccessful was the Permanent Settlement that it was not introduced in the North-Western Provinces after 1831, in Punjab after its conquest in 1849, or in Oudh which was annexed in 1856. These regions were part of the Bengal Presidency, but remained administratively distinct. Officially Punjab, Agra and Allahabad had Lieutenant-Governors subject to the authority of the Governor of Bengal in Calcutta, the only all-Presidency institutions which remained were the Bengal Army and the Civil Service. The partition of the province of Bengal, which was decided upon by Lord Curzon, was carried into execution in October 1905. The princely states of Sikkim and the states of Odisha and Chhota Nagpur were not part of Bengal
20.
Coin
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A coin is a small, flat, round piece of metal or plastic used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government, Coins are usually metal or alloy, or sometimes made of synthetic materials. Coins made of metal are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. Other coins are used as money in transactions, circulating alongside banknotes. Usually the highest value coin in circulation is less than the lowest-value note. In the last hundred years, the value of circulation coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain. Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value also occur for some bullion coins made of copper, silver, or gold, while the Eagle, Maple Leaf, and Sovereign coins have nominal face values, the Krugerrand does not. The first coins were developed independently in Iron Age Anatolia and Archaic Greece, India, Coins spread rapidly in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, throughout Greece and Persia, and further to the Balkans. Standardized Roman currency was used throughout the Roman Empire, important Roman gold and silver coins were continued into the Middle Ages. Fiat money first arose in medieval China, with the paper money. Early paper money was introduced in Europe in the later Middle Ages, the penny was minted as a silver coin until the 17th century. The first circulating United States coins were cents, produced in 1793, Coins were an evolution of currency systems of the Late Bronze Age, where standard-sized ingots, and tokens such as knife money, were used to store and transfer value. In the late Chinese Bronze Age, standardized cast tokens were made and these were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese currency, cowrie shells, so they were named Bronze Shell. According to Aristotle and Pollux, the first issuer of coins was Hermodike of Kyme The earliest coins are associated with Iron Age Anatolia. Early electrum coins were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests. The first Lydian coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of silver, most of the early Lydian coins include no writing, only an image of a symbolic animal. Anatolian Artemis was the Πὀτνια Θηρῶν, whose symbol was the stag, a small percentage of early Lydian/Greek coins have a legend
21.
Still
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A still is an apparatus used to distill liquid mixtures by heating to selectively boil and then cooling to condense the vapor. A still uses the concepts as a basic distillation apparatus. Since ethyl alcohol boils at a lower temperature than water. Usually a still used for purpose is made of copper. Modern stills are made of steel with copper innards. Using this combination of metals is much cheaper as it prevents erosion of the entire vessel, all copper stills will require repairs about every eight years because of copper erosion from the compounds it is designed to remove, this erosion is therefore unavoidable. The alcohol industry was the first to use anything close to a distillation apparatus. There is also an increasing usage of distillation of gin under glass and PTFE, the ethyl alcohol is relatively unchanged. The simplest standard distillation apparatus is known as a pot still, consisting of a single heated chamber. A pot still incorporates only one condensation, whereas other types of equipment have multiple stages which result in higher purification of the more volatile component. Pot still distillation gives an incomplete separation, but this can be desirable for the flavor of some distilled beverages, if a purer distillate is desired, a reflux still is the most common solution. Reflux stills incorporate a fractionating column, commonly created by filling copper vessels with glass beads to maximize surface area. As alcohol boils, condenses, and reboils through the column, vodka and gin and other neutral grain spirits are distilled by this method, then diluted to concentrations appropriate for human consumption. Alcoholic products from home distilleries are common throughout the world, but are sometimes in violation of local statutes, the product of illegal stills in the United States is commonly referred to as moonshine and in Ireland, poitín. However poitín, although illegal in 1661 has been legal for export in Ireland since 1997. Distillation Distilled water Retort Alembic Column still Pot still Reflux still Solar still Moonshine Still Moonshine Still Ghost from the past - Video
22.
William Paterson (explorer)
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Colonel William Paterson, FRS was a Scottish soldier, explorer, Lieutenant governor and botanist best known for leading early settlement in Tasmania. A native of Montrose, Scotland, Paterson was interested in botany as a boy, Paterson was sent to the Cape Colony by the wealthy and eccentric Countess of Strathmore to collect plants, he arrived in Table Bay on board the Houghton in May 1777. He made four trips into the interior between May 1777 and March 1780, when he departed, in 1789 Paterson published Narrative of Four Journeys into the Country of the Hottentots and Caffraria, which he dedicated to Sir Joseph Banks. Paterson was originally commissioned as an ensign in the 98th Regiment of Foot and he later transferred to the 73rd Regiment of Foot after the 98ths disbandment in 1787. In 1789, he was promoted to captain in the New South Wales Corps, after some time spent recruiting, he arrived in Sydney in October 1791. From November 1791 until March 1793 he served in command on Norfolk Island, whilst there he collected botanical, geological and insect specimens and sent them to Banks. He also provided seed to the Lee and Kennedy and Colvill nurseries and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in May 1798. In 1794 he served for a year as Lieutenant Governor of New South Wales, in 1800 he was re-appointed to the post and served a second term until 1808. Between 1804 and 1808 Paterson was also appointed Commandant at Port Dalrymple, in 1806, Patersons duties as commander of the New South Wales Corps required him to return to Sydney, but he went back to Van Diemens Land in 1807, and stayed until December 1808. During this time he corresponded regularly with the eminent naturalist Sir Joseph Banks, the New South Wales Corps selected Paterson as acting Governor of New South Wales on 1 January 1809 after the deposition of Governor Captain William Bligh in the so-called Rum Rebellion. He was replaced by the newly arrived Lachlan Macquarie by the end of the year and he left Sydney for England on 12 May 1810, but died on board HMS Dromedary while off Cape Horn just a few weeks later. His widow Elizabeth married Francis Grose in April 1814, but he died a month later, Elizabeth died in Liverpool, England in 1839. Historical records of New South Wales, alexander, Alison, The Companion to Tasmanian History, Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart. William A Narrative of four Journeys into the Country of the Hottentotts, in the Years One Thousand Seven Hundred and Seventy-Seven, Eight, and Nine. Vernon S. Forbes and John Rourke, Patersons Cape Travels,1777 to 1779, Johannesburg, ISBN 0-909079-12-9 Leonard Guelke and Jeanne K. Guelke, Imperial eyes on South Africa, reassessing travel narratives, Journal of Historical Geography. Van Diemens Land from the earliest times to 1855, Melbourne, ISBN 0-19-554364-5 Anne-Maree Whitaker, Mrs Patersons keepsakes, the provenance of some significant colonial documents and paintings, Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society. Brendan Whiting, Victims of Tyranny, The Story of the Fitzgerald Convict Brothers, ISBN 0-646-43345-8 David S. Macmillan, Paterson, William, Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 2, MUP,1967, pp 317–319 Short biography from the Australian National Botanic Gardens
23.
John Hunter (Royal Navy officer)
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Vice Admiral John Hunter was an officer of the Royal Navy, who succeeded Arthur Phillip as the second governor of New South Wales, Australia and served as such from 1795 to 1800. Both a sailor and a scholar, he explored the Parramatta River as early as 1788, as governor, he tried to combat serious abuses by the military in the face of powerful local interests led by John MacArthur. Hunters name is commemorated in historic locations such as Hunter Valley and Hunter Street, as a boy Hunter was sent to live with an uncle in the town of Lynn in Norfolk, where, and also at Edinburgh, he received the classical education of the time. Hunter was sent to University of Edinburgh, but soon left it to join the navy as a servant to Thomas Knackston in HMS Grampus in May 1754. In 1755 he was enrolled as able seaman on HMS Centaur, became a midshipman and served on HMS Union, while aboard Neptune he was present at the Raid on Rochefort in 1757, and afterwards served during cruises off Brest in 1758 and the capture of Quebec in 1759. Serving aboard Neptune at this time as her first lieutenant was John Jervis, Hunter passed examinations and qualified for promotion to lieutenant in February 1760. He was not, however, appointed lieutenant until 1780, hood gave Hunter an acting-order as master in 1768, and after passing his exams with Trinity House in 1769, Hunter had the order confirmed. His first appointment was to the 28-gun HMS Carysfort for service in the West Indies, Hunter spent his time there making charts and plans of parts of the coast and of the Spanish fortifications at Havana, which he sent back to the Admiralty. Hunter served as master of HMS Intrepid in the East Indies between 1772 and 1775, after which he became master of HMS Kent, the Kent was at this time commanded by Captain John Jervis, Hunters companion from HMS Neptune. Jervis took Hunter with him to his command, HMS Foudroyant. Also serving aboard Foudroyant at this time was Evan Nepean, then the ships purser, but later a leading civil servant and First Secretary to the Admiralty. From Foudroyant Hunter was moved into HMS Eagle in 1776, at the request of Admiral Lord Howe, the American War of Independence having broken out, Hunter served under Howe for the duration of his time in command, acting virtually as master of the fleet. He was active in the Chesapeake raid and the expeditions on the Delaware, on Howes recall, by now out of favour with the Sandwich administration, Hunter was not able to have his request to be made lieutenant honoured. Instead he joined the 74-gun HMS Berwick as a volunteer in 1779, under her captain, There he received a commission from the commander in chief, Sir George Rodney. Hunter returned to England aboard the Berwick in 1781, and was present at the Battle of Dogger Bank on 5 August that year. Howe appointed him lieutenant of his flagship HMS Victory in 1782, and was advanced to first lieutenant by the time she took part in the relief of Gibraltar. Following these engagements Hunter was appointed to his first command, that of the 14-gun sloop HMS Marquis de Seignelay, the fleet was under the overall command of Commodore Arthur Phillip who was going out to found and be governor of the new colony of New South Wales. Hunter carried a dormant commission as successor to Phillip if he should have died or was absent, the expedition arrived in Port Jackson in January 1788
24.
Joseph Banks
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Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, GCB, PRS was a British naturalist, botanist and patron of the natural sciences. Banks made his name on the 1766 natural history expedition to Newfoundland and he took part in Captain James Cooks first great voyage, visiting Brazil, Tahiti, and, after 6 months in New Zealand, Australia, returning to immediate fame. He held the position of President of the Royal Society for over 41 years and he advised King George III on the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and by sending botanists around the world to collect plants, he made Kew the worlds leading botanical gardens. He is credited with introducing the eucalyptus, acacia, and the named after him, Banksia. Approximately 80 species of plants bear his name and he was the leading founder of the African Association and a member of the Society of Dilettanti which helped to establish the Royal Academy. Banks was born on Argyle Street in London to William Banks, a wealthy Lincolnshire country squire and member of the House of Commons and he had a younger sister, Sarah Sophia Banks, born in 1744. Banks was educated at Harrow School from the age of 9 and at Eton College from 1756, as a boy, Banks enjoyed exploring the Lincolnshire countryside and developed a keen interest in nature, history and botany. When he was 17, he was inoculated with smallpox, but he became ill, in late 1760, he was enrolled as a gentleman-commoner at the University of Oxford. At Oxford, he matriculated at Christ Church, where his studies were focused on natural history rather than the classical curriculum. Determined to receive instruction, he paid the Cambridge botanist Israel Lyons to deliver a series of lectures at Oxford in 1764. Banks left Oxford for Chelsea in December 1763 and he continued to attend the university until 1764, but left that year without taking a degree. He began to make friends among the men of his day and to correspond with Carl Linnaeus. As Bankss influence increased, he became an adviser to King George III and urged the monarch to support voyages of discovery to new lands and he became a Freemason sometime before 1769. He made his name by publishing the first Linnean descriptions of the plants and animals of Newfoundland and his diary, describing his expedition to Newfoundland, was rediscovered recently in the Royal Geographical Society of South Australia. Banks also documented 34 species of birds, including the great auk, on 7 May, he noted a large number of penguins swimming around the ship on the Grand Banks, and a specimen he collected in Chateau Bay, Labrador, was later identified as the great auk. Banks was appointed to a joint Royal Navy/Royal Society scientific expedition to the south Pacific Ocean on HMS Endeavour and this was the first of James Cooks voyages of discovery in that region. Banks funded seven others to him, the Swedish naturalist Daniel Solander. The voyage went to Brazil, where Banks made the first scientific description of a now common garden plant, bougainvillea, and to other parts of South America
United Kingdom
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