1.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
2.
Line infantry
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Line infantry is the type of infantry that composed the basis of European land armies from the middle of the 17th century to the middle of the 19th century. For both battle and parade drill it consisted of 2 to 4 ranks of soldiers drawn up side by side in rigid alignment. By extension, the term came to be applied to the regiments of the line as opposed to skirmishers, foot guards, militia. Line infantry mainly used three formations in its battles, the line, the square and the column, a line consisted of 2,3 or 4 ranks of soldiers. During the time period that line infantry were prevalent, the object was to cause the formation to rout, which was done by breaking it. The line was considered as the battle formation as it allowed for the largest deployment of firepower. Troops in skirmish formation, though able to cover and use initiative, were highly vulnerable to cavalry. Line infantry provided an anchor for skirmishers and cavalry to retreat to if threatened, against surrounding enemy cavalry, line infantry could swiftly adopt square formations to provide protection. Such squares were hollow, unlike the pikemen and old-style musketeers square, movement in line formation was very slow, and unless the battalion was superbly trained, a breakdown in cohesion was virtually assured, especially in any kind of uneven or wooded terrain. As a result, line was used as a stationary formation, with troops moving in column formations. Usually, columns would be adopted for movement and melee attacks, line infantry was trained in the manual of arms evolutions, the main objectives of which were fast deployment of a line, rapid shooting and manoeuvre. Line tactics required a strict discipline and simple movements, practiced to the point where they became second-nature, during training, the drill and corporal punishments were widely used. Line infantry quickly became the most common type of infantry in European countries, musketeers and grenadiers, formerly elite troops, gradually became part of the line infantry, switching to linear tactics. In the middle of the 17th century, the muskets of some line infantry were equipped with bayonets. Bayonets were attached to the muzzles of muskets and were used when line troops entered melee combat and they also helped to defend against cavalry. In many countries, the new fusils retained the name musket, both muskets and fusils were smoothbore, which lessened their accuracy and range, but made for faster loading, lesser amount of bore fouling and more robust, less complicated firearms. The bulk of the infantry had no protective equipment, as armor that could provide protection from musket fire were considered too expensive. Only the former elite troops could keep by tradition some elements of protection, for example, initially, soldiers equipped with firearms formed only a small part of the infantry branch of most armies, because of their vulnerability to hostile cavalry
3.
Battalion
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A battalion is a military unit. The use of the term varies by nationality and branch of service. Typically a battalion consists of 300 to 800 soldiers and is divided into a number of companies, a battalion is typically commanded by a lieutenant colonel. In some countries the word battalion is associated with the infantry, the term was first used in Italian as battaglione no later than the 16th century. It derived from the Italian word for battle, battaglia, the first use of battalion in English was in the 1580s, and the first use to mean part of a regiment is from 1708. The battalion must, of course, have a source of re-supply to enable it to sustain operations for more than a few days, the battalion is usually part of a regiment, brigade, or group, depending on the organizational model used by that service. The bulk of a battalions companies are often homogeneous with respect to type, a battalion includes a headquarters company and some sort of combat service support, typically organized within a combat support company. The term battalion is used in the British Army Infantry and some including the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. It was formerly used in the Royal Engineers, and was used in the now defunct Royal Army Ordnance Corps. Other corps usually use the term regiment instead, an infantry battalion is numbered ordinarily within its regiment. It normally has a company, support company, and three rifle companies. Each company is commanded by a major, the officer commanding, the HQ company contains signals, quartermaster, catering, intelligence, administration, pay, training, operations and medical elements. The support company usually contains anti-tank, machine gun, mortar, pioneer, mechanised units usually have an attached light aid detachment of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers to perform field repairs on vehicles and equipment. A British battalion in theatre during World War II had around 845 men in it, and, as of 2012, with successive rounds of cutbacks after the war, many infantry regiments were reduced to a single battalion. A battalion group or battlegroup consists of a battalion or armoured regiment with sub-units detached from other military units acting under the command of the battalion commander. In the Canadian Forces, most battalions are reserve units of between 100–200 soldiers that include an operationally ready, field-deployable component of approximately a half-company apiece, the nine regular force infantry battalions each contain three or four rifle companies and one or two support companies. Canadian battalions are generally commanded by lieutenant-colonels, though smaller reserve battalions may be commanded by majors, with the Dutch artillery units, the equivalent of a battalion is called an afdeling. Combat companies consist of infantry, combat engineers, or tanks, in the latter case, the unit is called an eskadron, which translates roughly to squadron
4.
Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars
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The Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars were a series of wars between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Indigenous clans of the Hawkesbury and Nepean rivers in New South Wales, Australia. The conflict consisted of Pemulwuys War and the Nepean War as well as the violence of the 1804–05 conflict. It was fought using mostly guerrilla-warfare tactics, however, several conventional battles also took place, the wars resulted in the defeat of the Hawkesbury and Nepean Indigenous clans who were subsequently dispossessed of their lands. The Sydney region comprised a variety of nations that were united by a common language and these nations were the Eora who lived along the coast, the Tharawal to the south, the Dharug to the northwest and the Gandagara to the southwest. Within the language groups there were several clans. The Eora people generally comprised three main clans known as the Cadigal, Wanegal, and the Cammeraygal, and several smaller ones, a clan typically numbered between 50–100 people. Following Britains loss of its American colonies during the American Revolutionary War, the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788 at Port Jackson marked the beginning of the colonization of Australia. At the time it was used as a colony to which criminals and political dissidents were sent as punishment, however. The penal colony had established at Port Jackson which was the traditional land of the Cadigal people. The penal colony had a population of one thousand and for the first few years struggled to adapt to the Australian climate. The origins of the Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars are complex and controversial, with the expansion of European settlement large amounts of land was cleared for farming, which resulted in the destruction of Aboriginal food sources. Whether Pemulwuy was actively resisting European settlement, or was attempting to uphold Aboriginal law. Regardless, the British believed the attacks made against them were acts of war, in March 1789, sixteen convicts marched to Botany Bay with the intention of plundering the natives of their fishing-tackle and spears. They had armed themselves with whatever tools they could find such as hatchets, shovels, as they arrived near the bay a body of natives ambushed them, and in the skirmish most of the convicts fled. Those who fled back to the camp alerted the military to the attack, an officer with a detachment of marines quickly rushed to their aid, however they were too late to repel the natives which left one convict dead and seven severely wounded. Arthur Phillip sought no vengeance against the natives for this event as the convicts had hostile intentions, in 1789, a disastrous smallpox epidemic broke out which killed up to 70% of the Indigenous people of the Sydney region. Unable to understand or counter the sickness they often fled, leaving the sick with some food, as the clans fled the epidemic it consequently spread further along the coast and into the hinterland. This had an effect on Aboriginal society, with many of the productive hunters and gathers dead. The British had not seen smallpox in anyone among themselves before the outbreak, on 7 September 1790, upon hearing news of a gathering of natives at South-head near Broken Bay, Governor Phillip and three others made their way towards the reported happenings
5.
Castle Hill convict rebellion
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The Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804 was a rebellion by convicts against colonial authority in the Castle Hill area of the British colony of New South Wales. It was the first and only major convict uprising in Australian history suppressed under martial law, on 4 March 1804, according to the official accounts 233 convicts led by Philip Cunningham escaped from a prison farm intent on capturing ships to sail to Ireland. In response, martial law was declared in the Colony of New South Wales. The mostly Irish rebels, having gathered reinforcements, were hunted by the forces until they were sequestered on 5 March 1804 on a hillock nicknamed Vinegar Hill. Under a flag of truce, Cunningham was arrested and troops charged, nine of the rebel leaders were executed and hundreds were punished before martial law was finally revoked a week after the battle. Many convicts in the Castle Hill area had involved in the 1798 rebellions in Ireland. According to Helen Mackay, their goal was to establish Irish rule in the colony, on the evening of 4 March 1804, John Cavenah set fire to his hut at Castle Hill at 8,00 as the signal for the rebellion to begin. With Cunningham leading, about 200 to 300 rebels broke into the Government Farms buildings, taking firearms, ammunition and their move had been informed from the intelligence gathered a year previous when 12 convicts de-camped from Castle Hill scouring the surrounding districts seeking out friends and sympathisers. On capture each and every one had the same story – they were heading to China by crossing over the Blue Mountains, meanwhile, the provost marshal, Thomas Smyth, was sent ahead to contact Major George Johnston at Annandale. The troops from Sydney arrived at 1,30 am, Johnston arrived at Government House in Parramatta about four hours later not long after King had declared martial law under the Mansfield doctrine of posse comitatus. A curfew had also been enacted and an amnesty declared, which gave those who were involved 24 hours to surrender, on Johnstons arrival at Parramatta, King delivered his orders, in writing, to Johnston and then verbally to his small detachment. Johnston was to proceed to the gate of the park around Government House. If they were not there, he was ordered to exploit towards Toongabbie and Castle Hill to locate them and he was also empowered to fire upon anyone who did not obey his directions. Shortly after 5,00 am, Johnston set out to locate the rebel force. Over 50 enrolled in a reserve militia combined with the NSW Corps to march out, Johnston decided to advance in two columns, one which he led himself towards Toongabbie, and another under a subaltern, Davies, which was sent along the Castle Hill Road. Meanwhile, the rebels at Constitution Hill were having difficulties co-ordinating their force as several parties, Cunningham, being involved in two previous rebellions and the mutiny on the Anne, knew from experience that the most important element of a rebellion or uprising would be secrecy. During this phase they obtained around third of the entire colonys armaments had dwindled to several hundred, during the short period of the rebellion, Cunningham was elected King of the Australian Empire, and his followers declared the area New Ireland. Initially, it was believed that the rebels were at Toongabbie, as the morning progressed, the heat of the day threatened to stymie the efforts of the marching troops who were poorly equipped for the pursuit
6.
Rum Rebellion
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The Rum Rebellion of 1808 was the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history. During the 19th century, it was referred to as the Great Rebellion. William Bligh, well known for his overthrow in the mutiny on the Bounty, was a naval officer and he succeeded Governor Philip Gidley King in 1805, having been offered the position by Sir Joseph Banks. It is likely that he was selected by the British Government as governor because of his reputation as a hard man and he stood a good chance of reining in the maverick New South Wales Corps, something that his predecessors had not been able to do. Bligh left for Sydney with his daughter, Mary Putland, even before his arrival, Blighs style of governance led to problems with his subordinates. The Admiralty gave command of the storeship Porpoise and the convoy to the lower ranked Captain Joseph Short and this led to quarrels which eventually resulted in Captain Short firing across Blighs bow in order to force Bligh to obey his signals. When this failed, Short tried to give an order to Lieutenant Putland, Blighs son-in-law, Bligh boarded the Porpoise and seized control of the convoy. The president of the court, Sir Isaac Coffin, wrote to the Admiralty and made several accusations against Bligh. Blighs wife obtained a statement from one of the officers denying this and Banks, supplies were divided up according to those most in need and provisions were made for loans to be drawn from the store based on capacity to repay. This earned Bligh the gratitude of the farmers but the enmity of traders in the Corps who had been profiting greatly from the situation. Bligh, under instructions from the Colonial Office, attempted to normalise trading conditions in the colony by prohibiting the use of spirits as payment for commodities, Bligh communicated his policy to the Colonial Office in 1807, with the advice that his policy would be met with resistance. Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, Secretary of State for War, the instructions were to stop the barter of spirits and H. V. Evatt concludes in his history of the Rebellion that, Evatt argues that the enmity of the monopolists within the colony stemmed from this and other policies which counteracted the power of the rich and promoted the welfare of the poor settlers. Bligh also dismissed Thomas Jamison from the magistracy, describing him in 1807 as being inimical to good government, Jamison was the highly capable Surgeon-General of New South Wales. He had accumulated significant personal wealth as a trader and was a friend. Jamison never forgave Bligh for sacking him as a magistrate and interfering with his business activities. It is clear that Bligh had made enemies of some of the most influential people in the colony and he also antagonised some of the less wealthy when he ordered those who had leases on government land within Sydney to remove their houses. Macarthur had arrived with the New South Wales Corps in 1790 as a lieutenant and he had quarrelled with Blighs predecessor governors and had fought three duels
7.
Regiment
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A regiment is a military unit. Their role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, in Medieval Europe, the term regiment denoted any large body of front-line soldiers, recruited or conscripted in one geographical area, by a leader who was often also the feudal lord of the soldiers. By the 17th century, a regiment was usually about a thousand personnel. In many armies, the first role has been assumed by independent battalions, battlegroups, task forces, brigades and other, similarly-sized operational units. By the beginning of the 18th century, regiments in most European continental armies had evolved into permanent units with distinctive titles and uniforms, when at full strength, an infantry regiment normally comprised two field battalions of about 800 men each or 8–10 companies. In some armies, an independent regiment with fewer companies was labelled a demi-regiment, a cavalry regiment numbered 600 to 900 troopers, making up a single entity. With the widespread adoption of conscription in European armies during the nineteenth century, the regimental system underwent modification. Prior to World War I, a regiment in the French, German, Russian. As far as possible, the battalions would be garrisoned in the same military district, so that the regiment could be mobilized. A cavalry regiment by contrast made up an entity of up to 1,000 troopers. Usually, the regiment is responsible for recruiting and administering all of a military career. Depending upon the country, regiments can be either combat units or administrative units or both and this is often contrasted to the continental system adopted by many armies. Generally, divisions are garrisoned together and share the same installations, thus, in divisional administration, soldiers and officers are transferred in and out of divisions as required. Some regiments recruited from specific areas, and usually incorporated the place name into the regimental name. In other cases, regiments would recruit from an age group within a nation. In other cases, new regiments were raised for new functions within an army, e. g. the Fusiliers, the Parachute Regiment, a key aspect of the regimental system is that the regiment or battalion is the fundamental tactical building block. This flows historically from the period, when battalions were widely dispersed and virtually autonomous. For example, a regiment might include different types of battalions of different origins, within the regimental system, soldiers, and usually officers, are always posted to a tactical unit of their own regiment whenever posted to field duty
8.
New South Wales Marine Corps
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Established in 1786, the Corps saw active service in New South Wales from 1788 to 1791 and was instrumental in establishing the colonys rule of law. In 1791 the Admiralty disbanded the New South Wales Marines and replaced it with a new regular Army unit, on 18 December 1791 HMS Gorgon left Port Jackson taking home the last company of the New South Wales Marines. Those leaving included Robert Ross, Watkin Tench, William Dawes, of the departure, Tench said, “we hailed it with rapture and exhilaration”. Volunteers for the NSW Marine Corps were required to have had a prior record of service in the British Marines, to be at least 5 feet 6 inches tall. Recruits were offered an incentive payment if they volunteered for the Corps. With an eye to the likelihood of delays in setting out, Marines who chose this option had no automatic right of return to military service after discharge, but in practice few were refused re-entry when their service expired. Rates of pay were in accordance with those of the British Marines, New South Wales Marine Corps uniforms consisted of a red long-tailed doublet, white trousers, black headdress, and shoes and gaiters. Officers were authorised to carry swords and sidearms, other ranks were issued Brown Bess muskets, in 1787–88 four companies of marines, numbering some 213 men under Major Robert Ross, accompanied the First Fleet to Botany Bay. The error was kept a secret from the convicts in order to avoid an uprising, security was strictly maintained during the voyage. Bulkheads filled with nails were constructed across each deck to separate the convict quarters from those of the Marines, Marines were routinely stationed at loopholes in these bulkheads in order to fire upon the convicts if necessary. Marines were located behind barricades constructed across the deck and at each of the hatches leading below. A further Marine detachment was permanently stationed on the quarterdeck. A marine caught in the convict womens tent was drummed out of the Corps on 9 February 1788, the music played for the occasion was the Rogues March, the first record of a named piece of music being played in Australia. The New South Wales Corps helped establish a precedent for the creation of ad hoc units for service under the aegis of the Royal Marines. One example, from the Americas and the War of 1812, was the Corps of Colonial Marines, list of Officers of the New South Wales Marine Corps Citations References Bladen, F. M. ed. Historical records of New South Wales, historical records of New South Wales. Lansdown Slattery & Co. p.56
9.
First Fleet
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The First Fleet is the name given to the 11 ships that left England on 13 May 1787 to found the penal colony that became the first European settlement in Australia. The First Fleet was commanded by Commodore Arthur Phillip, who was given instructions authorising him to make regulations, the cost to Britain of outfitting and despatching the Fleet was £84,000. Ropes, crockery, agricultural equipment and a miscellany of other stores were needed, the party had to rely on its own provisions to survive until it could make use of local materials, assuming suitable supplies existed, and grow its own food and raise livestock. Scale models of all the ships are on display at the Museum of Sydney, the models were built by ship makers Lynne and Laurie Hadley, after researching the original plans, drawings and British archives. The replicas of the Supply, Charlotte, Scarborough, Friendship, Prince of Wales, Lady Penrhyn, Borrowdale, Alexander, Sirius, Fishburn, nine Sydney harbour ferries built in the mid-1980s are named after First Fleet vessels. The unused names are Lady Penrhyn and Prince of Wales, the people of the fleet included seamen, marines and their families, government officials, and a large number of convicts, including women and children. The majority were British, but there were also African, American, the six convict transports each had a detachment of marines on board. Most of the families of the marines travelled aboard the Prince of Wales, a number of people on the First Fleet kept diaries and journals of their experiences, including the surgeons. There are twelve known journals in existence as well as some letters, the exact number of people directly associated with the First Fleet will likely never be established, as all accounts of the event vary slightly. A total of 1,420 people have identified as embarking on the First Fleet in 1787. The total number of persons embarking on the First Fleet would, therefore, be approximately 1,530 with about 1,483 reaching Sydney Cove. The Scarborough, of 418 tons, had on board 205 male convicts,1 captain,2 lieutenants,2 sergeants,2 corporals,1 drummer, and 26 privates, with 1 assistant surgeon to the colony. The Charlotte, of 346 tons, had on board 89 male and 20 female convicts,1 captain,2 lieutenants,2 sergeants,3 corporals,1 drummer, and 35 privates, with the principal surgeon of the colony. The Lady Penrhyn, of 338 tons, had on board 101 female convicts,1 captain,2 lieutenants, and 3 privates, with a person acting as a surgeons mate. The Prince of Wales, of 334 tons, had on board 2 male and 50 female convicts,2 lieutenants,3 sergeants,2 corporals,1 drummer, and 24 privates, with the surveyor-general of the colony. The Friendship, … of 228 tons, had on board 76 male and 21 female convicts,1 captain,2 lieutenants,2 sergeants,3 corporals,1 drummer, and 36 privates, with 1 assistant surgeon to the colony. There were on board, beside these,28 women,8 male and 6 female children, belonging to the soldiers of the detachment, the Fishburn store-ship was of 378 tons, the Borrowdale of 272 tons, and the Golden Grove of 331 tons. Golden Grove carried the chaplain for the colony, with his wife, not only these store-ships, but the men of war and transports were laden with provisions, implements of agriculture, camp equipage, clothing for the convicts, baggage, etc
10.
Francis Grose (British Army officer)
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Lieutenant-General Francis Grose was a British soldier who commanded the New South Wales Corps. As Governor of New South Wales 1792-1794, he established military rule, abolished civil courts and he failed to stamp out the practice of paying wages in alcoholic spirits, with consequent public drunkenness and corruption. Although he helped to improve living conditions to some degree, he was not viewed as a successful administrator, Grose was born in Greenland, Middlesex, England around 1758. He was the eldest son of Francis Grose and Catherine Jordan, Grose received a commission as an ensign in 1775, in the 52nd Foot and was promoted to lieutenant later that year. Grose served during the American Revolutionary War, where he was twice wounded, returning to England in 1779 as captain of the 85th Regiment of Foot, he acted as recruiting officer. He attained the rank of major in 1783, in the 96th Foot and in November 1789 was placed in command of the New South Wales Corps, Grose did not leave England until late in 1791, arriving in Sydney on 14 February 1792 on board the convict transport Pitt. The voyage was not a one as fever killed a large number of people on board, seaman, soldiers, convicts, wives. Grose became colonial administrator when Governor Arthur Phillip, whose health had been poor for some time, the European population of New South Wales when Grose took over was 4,221, of whom 3,099 were convicts. Grose immediately abandoned Phillips plans for governing the colony, a staunch military man, he established military rule and set out to secure the authority of the Corps. He abolished the civilian courts and transferred the magistrates to the authority of Captain Joseph Foveaux, after the poor crops of 1793 he cut the rations of the convicts but not those of the Corps, overturning Phillip’s policy of equal rations for all. In a connived attempt to improve production and make the colony more self-sufficient, Grose turned away from collective farming. They were also provided with government-fed and clothed convicts as farm labour, the custom of officers trading in spirits was almost universal and in the interregnum before the arrival of Captain Hunter, the colony was rife with drunkenness, gambling, licentiousness and crime. How far Grose was responsible for state of affairs it is now impossible to say. There is, however, no reason to doubt the statements of the chaplain, the Rev. Richard Johnson, that he could get no support from the lieutenant-governor and no assistance in building a church. In spite of the low state of morality and the habits of the people. However, most of the credit for this cannot be given to Grose and his substitution of military for civil power was not for the good of the state and he showed no foresight or real strength in his government. The improvement probably came from better farming methods, for which credit can largely be given to the two chaplains, Johnson and Samuel Marsden, Grose did, however, increase the rations and improve the housing conditions of his troops. After leaving Australia Grose filled various posts in the army, in 1798, he was on the staff in Ireland
11.
Second Fleet (Australia)
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The Second Fleet is the name of the second fleet of ships sent with settlers, convicts and supplies to the colony at Sydney Cove in Port Jackson, Australia. The fleet comprised six ships, one Royal Navy escort, four ships. The ships were intended to sail to Australia together, arriving at Sydney Cove in 1789, however the escort was disabled en route and failed to make the destination, and one convict ship which was delayed arrived two months after the other ships. Upon arrival the sickly convicts were a drain on the struggling colony. Lady Juliana sailed before the convict ships and is not always counted as a member of the Second Fleet. The storeship Justinian did not sail with the ships and arrived before them. HMS Guardian set out before the ships but struck ice after leaving the Cape of Good Hope, returned to southern Africa. Surprize, Neptune, and Scarborough were contracted from the firm Camden, Calvert & King, 6d per head, whether they landed alive or not. This firm had previously involved in transporting slaves to North America. The only agents of the Crown in the crew were the agent, Lieutenant John Shapcote. The three vessels left England on 19 January 1790, with 1,006 convicts on board and they made only one stop on the way, at the Cape of Good Hope. Here 20 male convicts, survivors from HMS Guardian, were taken on board. The three vessels made a faster trip than the First Fleet, arriving at Port Jackson in the last week of June 1790, the passage was relatively fast, but the mortality rate was the highest in the history of transportation to Australia. Of the 1,026 convicts embarked,267 died during the voyage, on Neptune the convicts were deliberately starved, kept chained, and frequently refused access to the deck. On Scarborough, rations were not deliberately withheld, but a reported mutiny attempt led to the convicts being closely confined below decks, on arrival at Port Jackson, half-naked convicts were lying without bedding, too ill to move. Those unable to walk were slung over the side, at least 486 sick were landed. Of these,124 died shortly after they had landed, of the rest the Rev. Johnson, who went among them as soon as the ships reached port, wrote, The misery I saw amongst them is indescribable. Their heads, bodies, clothes, blankets, were all full of lice and they were wretched, naked, filthy, dirty, lousy, and many of them utterly unable to stand, to creep, or even to stir hand or foot
12.
Company (military unit)
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A company is a military unit, typically consisting of 80–250 soldiers and usually commanded by a major or a captain. Most companies are formed of three to six platoons, although the number may vary by country, unit type. Usually several companies are grouped as a battalion or regiment, the latter of which is formed by several battalions. Occasionally, independent or separate companies are organized for special purposes and these companies are not organic to a battalion or regiment, but rather report directly to a higher level organization such as a Marine Expeditionary Force headquarters. The modern military company became popularized during the reorganization of the Swedish Army in 1631 under King Gustav II Adolph, for administrative purposes, the infantry was divided into companies consisting of 150 men, grouped into regiments of eight companies. Tactically, the companies were organized into battalions and grouped with cavalry troops. From ancient times, some armies have used a base administrative. Furthermore, recent studies have indicated that humans are best able to maintain stable relationships in a group numbering between 100-250 members, with 150 members being the common number. The advent of accurate, long-range rifle fire, repeating rifles and this, coupled with the advent of radio communication, permitted relatively small numbers of men to have much greater firepower and combat effectiveness than previously possible. Companies, however, continue to remain within the range of 100-250 members, perhaps validating the premise that men fight best in organizations of around 150 members. These companies were not organic to any intermediate headquarters, but rather reported directly to the division headquarters, rifle companies consist of three platoons and a company headquarters. Until after the Second World War, the Royal Engineers and Royal Signals had both squadrons and companies depending on whether the units were supporting mounted or foot formations. The British Army infantry normally identifies its rifle companies by letter within a battalion, usually with the addition of a headquarters company and a support/heavy weapons company. Some units name their companies after regimental battle honours, this is commonly the case for composite units, for example the London Regiment with its Somme, Messines and Cambrai companies. The foot guards regiments use traditional names for some of their companies, for example Queens Company, Left Flank, Royal Marines companies are designated by a letter that is unique across the corps, not just within their command. The Intelligence Corps, Royal Army Medical Corps, Royal Military Police, the defunct Royal Army Service Corps, Royal Pioneer Corps and Royal Army Ordnance Corps had companies, the Royal Corps of Transport had squadrons. British companies are commanded by a major, the officer commanding. The Honourable Artillery Company is in fact a regiment, not a company, in terms of organisation, canadian Army organisation is modelled after the British
13.
George Johnston (British Marines officer)
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Lieutenant-Colonel George Johnston was briefly Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales, Australia after leading the rebellion later known as the Rum Rebellion. In his later life, he returned to New South Wales as a citizen, raising a family in the colony. Johnston was born on 19 January 1764 at Annan, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, Percy obtained a commission for the 12-year-old Johnston as second lieutenant of marines on 6 March 1776. During the fight, his father received a chest wound, from which he subsequently died, the Duke of Northumberland, who had held Johnstons father in high regard, became Johnstons guardian. Returned to garrison duty in Portsmouth, he volunteered to join the New South Wales Marine Corps and he sailed for Australia aboard the convict transport Lady Penrhyn in 1788. On arrival in New South Wales, Johnston served as adjutant to Governor Arthur Phillip and he transferred from the New South Wales Marine Corps to the locally raised New South Wales Corps in 1791 with the rank of captain. Johnston received extensive grants in areas of modern Petersham, Bankstown. Johnstons other grants included land which is now the suburb of Annandale and he and Esther Abrahams farmed and lived on Annandale with their children. In September 1796, Johnston was appointed aide-de-camp to Governor John Hunter, in the same year Johnston was put under arrest by Lieutenant Governor William Paterson on charges of paying spirits to a sergeant as part of his pay—and disobedience of orders. Johnston objected to trial by court-martial in the colony, and Hunter sent him to England, there the difficulties of conducting a trial with witnesses in Australia led to the proceedings being dropped, and Johnston returned to New South Wales in 1802. In 1803 Johnston took temporary command of the New South Wales Corps during the illness of Paterson, in March 1804 he acted with decision when in command of the military sent against some convicts who had rebelled at Castle Hill. When Paterson was sent to Port Dalrymple, Johnston became commander of the New South Wales Corps, on 26 January 1808, Johnston played a key role in the only successful armed takeover of a government in Australias recorded history, the Rum Rebellion, working closely with John Macarthur. Johnston led the troops that deposed Governor William Bligh, assumed the title of lieutenant-governor, the administration of justice became farcical, and there were signs of strong discontent among the settlers. Johnston was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel on 25 April 1808, and was superseded by his senior officer Joseph Foveaux, Johnston sailed for England with John Macarthur in March 1809 and was tried by court-martial in May 1811. Found guilty of mutiny he was sentenced to be cashiered and this lenience of the sentence imposed in the circumstances presumably indicates that the court was convinced that he had been the tool of other people. Johnston returned to New South Wales in May 1813 as a private individual, the couple had already had seven children together by that time and they lived on his land at Annandale, Sydney. He died much respected on 5 January 1823, leaving a large family and he was first interred in a private mausoleum on his Annandale property, until its subdivision to become an inner city suburb. His remains were moved to a new mausoleum at Waverley Cemetery in 1904, the suburb of Georges Hall is named after the farmhouse of the same name on land grants Johnston received near the junction of the Georges River and Prospect Creek
14.
Arthur Phillip
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Admiral Arthur Phillip RN was a Royal Navy officer and the first Governor of New South Wales who founded the British penal colony that later became the city of Sydney, Australia. After much experience at sea, Phillip sailed with the First Fleet as Governor-designate of the proposed British penal colony of New South Wales, in January 1788, he selected its location to be Port Jackson. Phillip was a governor who soon saw that New South Wales would need a civil administration. But his plan to bring skilled tradesmen on the voyage had been rejected and his friendly attitude towards the aborigines was also sorely tested when they killed his gamekeeper, and he was not able to assert a clear policy about them. Phillip retired in 1805, but continued to correspond with his friends in New South Wales, Arthur Phillip was born on 11 October 1738, the younger of two children to Jacob Phillip and Elizabeth Breach. His father Jacob was born in Frankfurt, Germany and he was a languages teacher who may also have served in the Royal Navy as an able seaman and pursers steward. His mother Elizabeth was the widow of a seaman, John Herbert. At the time of Arthur Phillips birth, his family maintained a modest existence as tenants near Cheapside in the City of London, there are no surviving records of Phillips early childhood. His father Jacob died in 1739, after which the Phillip family may have fallen on hard times, on 22 June 1751 he was accepted into the Greenwich Hospital School, a charity school for the sons of indigent seafarers. In keeping with the curriculum, his education was focused on literacy, arithmetic and navigational skills. He was a competent student and something of a perfectionist and his headmaster, Rev. Francis Swinden observed that in personality, Phillip was unassuming, reasonable, business-like to the smallest degree in everything he undertakes. Phillip remained at the Greenwich School for two and a half years, considerably longer than the student stay of twelve months. At the end of 1753 he was granted a seven-year indenture as an apprentice aboard Fortune and he left the Greenwich School on 1 December and spent the winter aboard Fortune awaiting the commencement of the 1754 whaling season. Phillip spent the summer of 1754 hunting whales near Svalbard in the Barents Sea, as an apprentice, his responsibilities included stripping blubber from whale carcasses and helping to pack it into barrels. Food was scarce and Fortunes thirty crew members supplemented their diet with eggs, scurvy grass. The ship returned to England on 20 July 1754, the whaling crew were paid off and replaced with twelve sailors for a winter voyage to the Mediterranean. As an apprentice, Phillip remained aboard as Fortune undertook a trading voyage to Barcelona and Livorno carrying salt and raisins, returning via Rotterdam with a cargo of grains. The ship returned to England in April 1755 and sailed immediately for Svalbard for that years whale hunt, Phillip was still a member of the crew, but abandoned his apprenticeship when the ship returned to England on 27 July
15.
Convicts in Australia
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Between 1788 and 1868, about 162,000 convicts were transported by the British government to various penal colonies in Australia. The British government began transporting convicts overseas to American colonies in the early 17th century, when transportation ended with the start of the American Revolution, an alternative site was needed relieve further overcrowding of British prisons and hulks. Earlier in 1770, James Cook charted and claimed possession of the east coast of Australia for Britain. Other penal colonies were established in Van Diemens Land in 1803 and Queensland in 1824, while Western Australia, founded in 1829 as a free colony. Victoria and South Australia remained free colonies, penal transportation to Australia peaked in the 1830s and dropped off significantly the following decade. The last convict ship arrived in Western Australia on 10 January 1868, many convicts were transported for petty crimes, while a significant number were political prisoners. More serious crimes, such as rape and murder, were punishable by death, once emancipated, most ex-convicts stayed in Australia and joined the free settlers, with some rising to prominent positions in Australian society. However, convictism carried a stigma, and for some later Australians. Attitudes became more accepting in the 20th century and it is now considered by many Australians to be a cause for celebration to have a convict in ones lineage, around 20% of modern Australians are descended from transported convicts. The convict era has inspired novels, films, and other cultural works. According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the population of England and Wales, by the time of the American Revolution, London was overcrowded, filled with the unemployed, and flooded with cheap gin. Poverty, social injustice, child labor, harsh and dirty living conditions, Dickens novels perhaps best illustrate this, even some government officials were horrified by what they saw. Only in 1833 and 1844 were the first general laws against child labour passed in the United Kingdom, crime had become a major problem and in 1784 a French observer noted that from sunset to dawn the environs of London became the patrimony of brigands for twenty miles around. Each parish had a watchman, but British cities did not have forces in the modern sense. Jeremy Bentham avidly promoted the idea of a prison. Virtually all malefactors were caught by informers or denounced to the court by their victims. Pursuant to the so-called Bloody Code, by the 1770s there were 222 crimes in Britain which carried the death penalty, almost all of which were crimes against property. These included such offences as the stealing of goods worth over 5 shillings, the cutting down of a tree, the situation was so dire that hulks left over from the Seven Years War were used as makeshift floating prisons
16.
Collective farming
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Collective farming and communal farming are various types of agricultural production in which multiple farmers run their holdings as a joint enterprise. This type of collective is often an agricultural cooperative in which member-owners engage jointly in farming activities, the process by which farmland is aggregated is called collectivization. In some countries, there have been state-run and cooperative-run variants, for example, the Soviet Union had both kolkhozy and sovkhozy, often denoted in English as collective farms and state farms, respectively. In general, collective farming is contrasted with family farming and with arrangements in which land was owned by landlords or aristocrats. Notable examples of collective farming include the kolkhozy that dominated Soviet agriculture between 1930 and 1991 and the Israeli kibbutzim, both are collective farms based on common ownership of resources and on pooling of labour and income in accordance with the theoretical principles of cooperative organizations. They differ radically, however, in the application of the cooperative principles relative to freedom of choice, a small group of farming or herding families living together on a jointly-managed piece of land is surely one of the most common living arrangements in all of human history. This has co-existed with, and competed with, more forms of ownership. Private ownership came to predominate in much of the Western world, the process by which Western Europes communal land became private is a fundamental question behind views of property, is it the legacy of historical injustices and crimes. Karl Marx believed that what he called primitive communism was ended by exploitative means he called primitive accumulation, by contrast Libertarian thinkers say that by the homestead principle, whoever is first to work on the land is the rightful owner. A calpulli consisted of a number of extended families with a presumed common ancestor. Each calpulli owned the land and granted the individual families the right to farm parts of it, the Huron had an essentially communal system of land ownership. The French Catholic missionary Gabriel Sagard described the fundamentals, the Huron had as much land as they need. As a result, the Huron could give families their own land, any Huron was free to clear the land and farm on the basis of usufruct. He maintained possession of the land as long as he continued to actively cultivate, once he abandoned the land, it reverted to communal ownership, and anyone could take it up for themselves. The Iroquois had a communal system of land distribution. The tribe owned all lands but gave out tracts to the different clans for further distribution among households for cultivation, the land would be redistributed among the households every few years, and a clan could request a redistribution of tracts when the Clan Mothers Council gathered. Those clans that abused their allocated land or otherwise did not take care of it would be warned, land property was really only the concern of the women, since it was the womens job to cultivate food and not the mens. The Clan Mothers Council also reserved certain areas of land to be worked by the women of all the different clans, food from such lands, called kěndiǔgwǎge hodiyěntho, would be used at festivals and large council gatherings
17.
Rum
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Rum is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane byproducts, such as molasses, or directly from sugarcane juice, by a process of fermentation and distillation. The distillate, a liquid, is then usually aged in oak barrels. The majority of the rum production occurs in the Caribbean. Rums are produced in various grades, light rums are commonly used in cocktails, whereas golden and dark rums were typically consumed straight or neat, on the rocks, or used for cooking, but are now commonly consumed with mixers. Premium rums are also available, made to be consumed straight or iced. Rum plays a part in the culture of most islands of the West Indies as well as in The Maritimes and this beverage has famous associations with the Royal Navy and piracy. Rum has also served as a medium of economic exchange, used to help fund enterprises such as slavery, organized crime. The origin of the rum is generally unclear. In an 1824 essay about the origin, Samuel Morewood. He wrote, As spirits, extracted from molasses, could not well be ranked under the name whiskey, brandy, or arrack, it would be called rum, given the harsh taste of early rum, this is unlikely. Morewood later suggested another possibility, that it was taken from the last syllable of the Latin word for sugar, saccharum, other etymologists have mentioned the Romani word rum, meaning strong or potent. These words have been linked to the ramboozle and rumfustian, both popular British drinks in the mid-17th century, however, neither was made with rum, but rather eggs, ale, wine, sugar, and various spices. The most probable origin is as a version of rumbullion or rumbustion. Both words surfaced in English about the time as rum did. This is a far more convincing explanation, and brings the image of men fighting in entanglements at island tippling houses. Another claim is the name is from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen known as rummers, from the Dutch word roemer, other options include contractions of the words iterum, Latin for again, a second time, or arôme, French for aroma. A short time later in May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts also decided to make illegal the sale of strong liquor whether knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc. In current usage, the used for a rum is often based on its place of origin
18.
Distilled beverage
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This process purifies it and removes diluting components like water, for the purpose of increasing its proportion of alcohol content. As distilled beverages contain more alcohol, they are considered harder – in North America, as examples, this term does not include beverages such as beer, wine, sake, and cider, as they are fermented but not distilled. These all have relatively low alcohol content, typically less than 15%, brandy is a spirit produced by the distillation of wine, and has an ABV of over 35%. Other examples of distilled beverages include bourbon, vodka, gin, rum, tequila, mezcal, whisky, scotch, the term spirit refers to a distilled beverage that contains no added sugar and has at least 20% alcohol by volume. Distilled beverages bottled with added sugar and added flavorings, such as Grand Marnier, Frangelico, Distilled beverages generally have an alcohol concentration higher than 30%. The origin of liquor and its close relative liquid was the Latin verb liquere, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply a liquid, can be dated to 1225. The first use the OED mentions of its meaning a liquid for drinking occurred in the 14th century and its use as a term for an intoxicating alcoholic drink appeared in the 16th century. The term spirit in reference to alcohol stems from Middle Eastern alchemy and these alchemists were more concerned with medical elixirs than with transmuting lead into gold. The vapor given off and collected during a process was called a spirit of the original material. Distilled water was described in the 2nd century AD by Alexander of Aphrodisias, the Alexandrians were using a distillation alembic or still device in the 3rd century AD. The medieval Arabs learned the process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively. Freeze distillation involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice, the freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use. The earliest evidence of distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in southern Italy during the 12th century. Again, the Chinese may not have been far behind, with evidence indicating the practice of distillation began during the 12th century Jin or Southern Song dynasties. A still has been found at a site in Qinglong, Hebei. Fractional distillation was developed by Taddeo Alderotti in the 13th century, the production method was written in code, suggesting that it was being kept secret. In 1437, burned water was mentioned in the records of the County of Katzenelnbogen in Germany and it was served in a tall, narrow glass called a Goderulffe. Claims upon the origin of specific beverages are controversial, often invoking national pride, but they are plausible after the 12th century AD and these spirits would have had a much lower alcohol content than the alchemists pure distillations, and they were likely first thought of as medicinal elixirs
19.
Bengal Presidency
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The Bengal Presidency was once the largest colonial subdivision of British India, with its seat in Calcutta, the capital of British-held territories in South Asia until 1911. At its territorial peak in the 19th century, the presidency extended from the present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan in the west to Burma, Singapore, the Governor of Bengal was concurrently the Viceroy of India for many years. Most of the territories were eventually incorporated into other British Indian provinces. In 1905, Bengal proper was partitioned, with Eastern Bengal and Assam headquartered in Dacca, British India was reorganised in 1912 and the presidency was reunited into a single Bengali-speaking province. The Bengal Presidency was established in 1765, following the defeat of the last independent Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, Bengal was the economic, cultural and educational hub of the British Raj. It was the centre of the late 19th and early 20th century Bengali Renaissance, the Partition of British India resulted in Bengals division on religious grounds, between West Bengal and East Bengal. Under Warren Hastings the consolidation of British imperial rule over Bengal was solidified, while the formation of a regularised system of legislation was brought in under John Shore. Acting through Lord Cornwallis, then Governor-General, he ascertained and defined the rights of the landholders over the soil. In 1793 Lord Cornwallis declared their rights perpetual, and gave over the land of Bengal to the previous quasi-proprietors or zamindars and this piece of legislation is known as the Permanent Settlement of the Land Revenue. It was designed to introduce ideas of property rights to India, the former aim misunderstood the nature of landholding in India, and the latter was an abject failure. The Cornwallis Code, while defining the rights of the proprietors, failed to give recognition to the rights of the under-tenants. Furthermore, the Permanent Settlement took no account of inflation, meaning that the value of the revenue to Government declined year by year, whilst the heavy burden on the peasantry grew no less. This was compounded in the early 19th century by compulsory schemes for the cultivation of Opium and Indigo, the former by the state, peasants were forced to grow a certain area of these crops, which were then purchased at below market rates for export. This added greatly to rural poverty, so unsuccessful was the Permanent Settlement that it was not introduced in the North-Western Provinces after 1831, in Punjab after its conquest in 1849, or in Oudh which was annexed in 1856. These regions were part of the Bengal Presidency, but remained administratively distinct. Officially Punjab, Agra and Allahabad had Lieutenant-Governors subject to the authority of the Governor of Bengal in Calcutta, the only all-Presidency institutions which remained were the Bengal Army and the Civil Service. The partition of the province of Bengal, which was decided upon by Lord Curzon, was carried into execution in October 1905. The princely states of Sikkim and the states of Odisha and Chhota Nagpur were not part of Bengal
20.
Coin
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A coin is a small, flat, round piece of metal or plastic used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government, Coins are usually metal or alloy, or sometimes made of synthetic materials. Coins made of metal are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. Other coins are used as money in transactions, circulating alongside banknotes. Usually the highest value coin in circulation is less than the lowest-value note. In the last hundred years, the value of circulation coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain. Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value also occur for some bullion coins made of copper, silver, or gold, while the Eagle, Maple Leaf, and Sovereign coins have nominal face values, the Krugerrand does not. The first coins were developed independently in Iron Age Anatolia and Archaic Greece, India, Coins spread rapidly in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, throughout Greece and Persia, and further to the Balkans. Standardized Roman currency was used throughout the Roman Empire, important Roman gold and silver coins were continued into the Middle Ages. Fiat money first arose in medieval China, with the paper money. Early paper money was introduced in Europe in the later Middle Ages, the penny was minted as a silver coin until the 17th century. The first circulating United States coins were cents, produced in 1793, Coins were an evolution of currency systems of the Late Bronze Age, where standard-sized ingots, and tokens such as knife money, were used to store and transfer value. In the late Chinese Bronze Age, standardized cast tokens were made and these were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese currency, cowrie shells, so they were named Bronze Shell. According to Aristotle and Pollux, the first issuer of coins was Hermodike of Kyme The earliest coins are associated with Iron Age Anatolia. Early electrum coins were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests. The first Lydian coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of silver, most of the early Lydian coins include no writing, only an image of a symbolic animal. Anatolian Artemis was the Πὀτνια Θηρῶν, whose symbol was the stag, a small percentage of early Lydian/Greek coins have a legend
21.
Still
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A still is an apparatus used to distill liquid mixtures by heating to selectively boil and then cooling to condense the vapor. A still uses the concepts as a basic distillation apparatus. Since ethyl alcohol boils at a lower temperature than water. Usually a still used for purpose is made of copper. Modern stills are made of steel with copper innards. Using this combination of metals is much cheaper as it prevents erosion of the entire vessel, all copper stills will require repairs about every eight years because of copper erosion from the compounds it is designed to remove, this erosion is therefore unavoidable. The alcohol industry was the first to use anything close to a distillation apparatus. There is also an increasing usage of distillation of gin under glass and PTFE, the ethyl alcohol is relatively unchanged. The simplest standard distillation apparatus is known as a pot still, consisting of a single heated chamber. A pot still incorporates only one condensation, whereas other types of equipment have multiple stages which result in higher purification of the more volatile component. Pot still distillation gives an incomplete separation, but this can be desirable for the flavor of some distilled beverages, if a purer distillate is desired, a reflux still is the most common solution. Reflux stills incorporate a fractionating column, commonly created by filling copper vessels with glass beads to maximize surface area. As alcohol boils, condenses, and reboils through the column, vodka and gin and other neutral grain spirits are distilled by this method, then diluted to concentrations appropriate for human consumption. Alcoholic products from home distilleries are common throughout the world, but are sometimes in violation of local statutes, the product of illegal stills in the United States is commonly referred to as moonshine and in Ireland, poitín. However poitín, although illegal in 1661 has been legal for export in Ireland since 1997. Distillation Distilled water Retort Alembic Column still Pot still Reflux still Solar still Moonshine Still Moonshine Still Ghost from the past - Video
22.
William Paterson (explorer)
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Colonel William Paterson, FRS was a Scottish soldier, explorer, Lieutenant governor and botanist best known for leading early settlement in Tasmania. A native of Montrose, Scotland, Paterson was interested in botany as a boy, Paterson was sent to the Cape Colony by the wealthy and eccentric Countess of Strathmore to collect plants, he arrived in Table Bay on board the Houghton in May 1777. He made four trips into the interior between May 1777 and March 1780, when he departed, in 1789 Paterson published Narrative of Four Journeys into the Country of the Hottentots and Caffraria, which he dedicated to Sir Joseph Banks. Paterson was originally commissioned as an ensign in the 98th Regiment of Foot and he later transferred to the 73rd Regiment of Foot after the 98ths disbandment in 1787. In 1789, he was promoted to captain in the New South Wales Corps, after some time spent recruiting, he arrived in Sydney in October 1791. From November 1791 until March 1793 he served in command on Norfolk Island, whilst there he collected botanical, geological and insect specimens and sent them to Banks. He also provided seed to the Lee and Kennedy and Colvill nurseries and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in May 1798. In 1794 he served for a year as Lieutenant Governor of New South Wales, in 1800 he was re-appointed to the post and served a second term until 1808. Between 1804 and 1808 Paterson was also appointed Commandant at Port Dalrymple, in 1806, Patersons duties as commander of the New South Wales Corps required him to return to Sydney, but he went back to Van Diemens Land in 1807, and stayed until December 1808. During this time he corresponded regularly with the eminent naturalist Sir Joseph Banks, the New South Wales Corps selected Paterson as acting Governor of New South Wales on 1 January 1809 after the deposition of Governor Captain William Bligh in the so-called Rum Rebellion. He was replaced by the newly arrived Lachlan Macquarie by the end of the year and he left Sydney for England on 12 May 1810, but died on board HMS Dromedary while off Cape Horn just a few weeks later. His widow Elizabeth married Francis Grose in April 1814, but he died a month later, Elizabeth died in Liverpool, England in 1839. Historical records of New South Wales, alexander, Alison, The Companion to Tasmanian History, Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart. William A Narrative of four Journeys into the Country of the Hottentotts, in the Years One Thousand Seven Hundred and Seventy-Seven, Eight, and Nine. Vernon S. Forbes and John Rourke, Patersons Cape Travels,1777 to 1779, Johannesburg, ISBN 0-909079-12-9 Leonard Guelke and Jeanne K. Guelke, Imperial eyes on South Africa, reassessing travel narratives, Journal of Historical Geography. Van Diemens Land from the earliest times to 1855, Melbourne, ISBN 0-19-554364-5 Anne-Maree Whitaker, Mrs Patersons keepsakes, the provenance of some significant colonial documents and paintings, Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society. Brendan Whiting, Victims of Tyranny, The Story of the Fitzgerald Convict Brothers, ISBN 0-646-43345-8 David S. Macmillan, Paterson, William, Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 2, MUP,1967, pp 317–319 Short biography from the Australian National Botanic Gardens
23.
John Hunter (Royal Navy officer)
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Vice Admiral John Hunter was an officer of the Royal Navy, who succeeded Arthur Phillip as the second governor of New South Wales, Australia and served as such from 1795 to 1800. Both a sailor and a scholar, he explored the Parramatta River as early as 1788, as governor, he tried to combat serious abuses by the military in the face of powerful local interests led by John MacArthur. Hunters name is commemorated in historic locations such as Hunter Valley and Hunter Street, as a boy Hunter was sent to live with an uncle in the town of Lynn in Norfolk, where, and also at Edinburgh, he received the classical education of the time. Hunter was sent to University of Edinburgh, but soon left it to join the navy as a servant to Thomas Knackston in HMS Grampus in May 1754. In 1755 he was enrolled as able seaman on HMS Centaur, became a midshipman and served on HMS Union, while aboard Neptune he was present at the Raid on Rochefort in 1757, and afterwards served during cruises off Brest in 1758 and the capture of Quebec in 1759. Serving aboard Neptune at this time as her first lieutenant was John Jervis, Hunter passed examinations and qualified for promotion to lieutenant in February 1760. He was not, however, appointed lieutenant until 1780, hood gave Hunter an acting-order as master in 1768, and after passing his exams with Trinity House in 1769, Hunter had the order confirmed. His first appointment was to the 28-gun HMS Carysfort for service in the West Indies, Hunter spent his time there making charts and plans of parts of the coast and of the Spanish fortifications at Havana, which he sent back to the Admiralty. Hunter served as master of HMS Intrepid in the East Indies between 1772 and 1775, after which he became master of HMS Kent, the Kent was at this time commanded by Captain John Jervis, Hunters companion from HMS Neptune. Jervis took Hunter with him to his command, HMS Foudroyant. Also serving aboard Foudroyant at this time was Evan Nepean, then the ships purser, but later a leading civil servant and First Secretary to the Admiralty. From Foudroyant Hunter was moved into HMS Eagle in 1776, at the request of Admiral Lord Howe, the American War of Independence having broken out, Hunter served under Howe for the duration of his time in command, acting virtually as master of the fleet. He was active in the Chesapeake raid and the expeditions on the Delaware, on Howes recall, by now out of favour with the Sandwich administration, Hunter was not able to have his request to be made lieutenant honoured. Instead he joined the 74-gun HMS Berwick as a volunteer in 1779, under her captain, There he received a commission from the commander in chief, Sir George Rodney. Hunter returned to England aboard the Berwick in 1781, and was present at the Battle of Dogger Bank on 5 August that year. Howe appointed him lieutenant of his flagship HMS Victory in 1782, and was advanced to first lieutenant by the time she took part in the relief of Gibraltar. Following these engagements Hunter was appointed to his first command, that of the 14-gun sloop HMS Marquis de Seignelay, the fleet was under the overall command of Commodore Arthur Phillip who was going out to found and be governor of the new colony of New South Wales. Hunter carried a dormant commission as successor to Phillip if he should have died or was absent, the expedition arrived in Port Jackson in January 1788
24.
Joseph Banks
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Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, GCB, PRS was a British naturalist, botanist and patron of the natural sciences. Banks made his name on the 1766 natural history expedition to Newfoundland and he took part in Captain James Cooks first great voyage, visiting Brazil, Tahiti, and, after 6 months in New Zealand, Australia, returning to immediate fame. He held the position of President of the Royal Society for over 41 years and he advised King George III on the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and by sending botanists around the world to collect plants, he made Kew the worlds leading botanical gardens. He is credited with introducing the eucalyptus, acacia, and the named after him, Banksia. Approximately 80 species of plants bear his name and he was the leading founder of the African Association and a member of the Society of Dilettanti which helped to establish the Royal Academy. Banks was born on Argyle Street in London to William Banks, a wealthy Lincolnshire country squire and member of the House of Commons and he had a younger sister, Sarah Sophia Banks, born in 1744. Banks was educated at Harrow School from the age of 9 and at Eton College from 1756, as a boy, Banks enjoyed exploring the Lincolnshire countryside and developed a keen interest in nature, history and botany. When he was 17, he was inoculated with smallpox, but he became ill, in late 1760, he was enrolled as a gentleman-commoner at the University of Oxford. At Oxford, he matriculated at Christ Church, where his studies were focused on natural history rather than the classical curriculum. Determined to receive instruction, he paid the Cambridge botanist Israel Lyons to deliver a series of lectures at Oxford in 1764. Banks left Oxford for Chelsea in December 1763 and he continued to attend the university until 1764, but left that year without taking a degree. He began to make friends among the men of his day and to correspond with Carl Linnaeus. As Bankss influence increased, he became an adviser to King George III and urged the monarch to support voyages of discovery to new lands and he became a Freemason sometime before 1769. He made his name by publishing the first Linnean descriptions of the plants and animals of Newfoundland and his diary, describing his expedition to Newfoundland, was rediscovered recently in the Royal Geographical Society of South Australia. Banks also documented 34 species of birds, including the great auk, on 7 May, he noted a large number of penguins swimming around the ship on the Grand Banks, and a specimen he collected in Chateau Bay, Labrador, was later identified as the great auk. Banks was appointed to a joint Royal Navy/Royal Society scientific expedition to the south Pacific Ocean on HMS Endeavour and this was the first of James Cooks voyages of discovery in that region. Banks funded seven others to him, the Swedish naturalist Daniel Solander. The voyage went to Brazil, where Banks made the first scientific description of a now common garden plant, bougainvillea, and to other parts of South America
25.
Royal Society
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Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
26.
Excise
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An excise or excise tax is an inland tax on the sale, or production for sale, of specific goods or a tax on a good produced for sale, or sold, within a country or licenses for specific activities. Excises are distinguished from customs duties, which are taxes on importation, excises are inland taxes, whereas customs duties are border taxes. An excise is considered a tax, meaning that the producer or seller who pays the tax to the government is expected to try to recover or shift the tax by raising the price paid by the buyer. Excises are typically imposed in addition to another indirect tax such as a tax or value added tax. Typical examples of excise duties are taxes on gasoline and other fuels, the etymology of the word excise is derived from the Dutch accijns, which is presumed to come from the Latin accensare, meaning simply to tax. Regulatory and legal definitions of excise vary by country, for example, In India, an excise is described as an indirect tax levied and collected on the goods manufactured in India. Include alcohol, tobacco and petroleum and alternative fuels, in Australia, the meaning of excise is not merely academic, but has been the subject of numerous court cases. Samuel Johnson was less flattering in his 1755 dictionary, EXCISE, a hateful tax levied upon commodities, and adjudged not by the common judges of property, but wretches hired by those to whom excise is paid. Monies raised through excise may be earmarked for redress of specific social costs commonly associated with the product or service being taxed, tobacco tax revenues, for example, might be spent on government anti-smoking campaigns. Excise duties or taxes often serve political as well as financial ends, public safety and health, public morals, environmental protection, and national defense are all rationales for the imposition of an excise. Punitive Many US states impose taxes on illegal drugs and these are the three main targets of excise taxation in most countries around the world. They are everyday items of mass usage which bring significant revenue for governments, the first two are considered to be legal drugs, which are a cause of many illnesses, which are used by large swathes of the population, both being widely recognized as addictive. Some U. S. states tax transactions involving illegal drugs, gambling licences are subject to excise in many countries today. Profits of bookmakers are subject to General Betting Duty in the United Kingdom, Excise has been known to be applied to substances which would in todays world seem rather unusual, such as salt, paper, and coffee. In fact, salt was taxed as early as the second century, such would the justification of salt tax, paper excise, and even advertisement duty have been. The window tax was introduced after controversy arose around the introduction of income tax, which was considered to be a breach of privacy. The rationale behind this was that the grandeur of a persons house, one way people got around this problem was to brick up their windows. In the case of people this was a big social problem
27.
John Macarthur (wool pioneer)
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John Macarthur was a British army officer, entrepreneur, politician, architect and pioneer of settlement in Australia. Macarthur is recognised as the pioneer of the industry that was to boom in Australia in the early 19th century. He is noted as the architect of Elizabeth Farm House, his own residence in Parramatta and his exact date of birth is unknown, but it is known that his birth was registered on 3 September 1767. He spelled his surname MArthur for most of his life and he occasionally varied it to MacArthur. The spelling Macarthur became established very late in his life. John and Elizabeth Macarthur married on October 1788 and they sailed to the new colony after John joined the New South Wales Corps in 1789. Elizabeth gave birth to a daughter on the voyage to the new colony, John and Elizabeth Macarthur parented four sons, John, Edward, James and William, the later two being born at Elizabeth Farm. In 1782, John Macarthur was commissioned as an ensign in Fishs Corps, the war ended before the regiment was ready to sail and was disbanded in 1783. On half-pay, Macarthur went to live on a farm near Holsworthy in Devon, during the next five years Macarthur used his spare time to travel, read, and perhaps contemplate a future at the bar. Instead, in April 1788, Macarthur returned to full-pay army duties, securing a commission as an ensign in the 68th Regiment of Foot, ensuing negotiations with the War Office resulted in an alternative posting to far-away Sydney, with the New South Wales Corps in 1789. He sailed on the Neptune in the Second Fleet, the worst ship in the worst of Australian fleets. Before the Neptune had even departed the British Isles, Macarthur became involved in disputations with various personnel, including fighting a duel with Captain Gilbert, the cramped and squalid accommodation provided for his wife and infant son on board the Neptune provoked further disputes. This eventually resulted in his family being transferred mid-voyage and on the seas, to the Scarborough. He arrived in Sydney in 1790 holding the rank of lieutenant and was appointed as commandant at Parramatta, in February 1793, the acting governor, Major Francis Grose, granted Macarthur 100 acres of land at Rose Hill near Parramatta. He was granted a further 100 acres in April 1794 for being the first man to clear and he named the property Elizabeth Farm in honour of his wife, Elizabeth Macarthur. Macarthur was a man who quarrelled with many of his neighbours. He was involved in a campaign alleging that Governor Hunter was ineffective, the allegations led to Hunter being forced to answer the charges and contributed to Hunter being recalled to England where he fought to restore his reputation. King referred the matter for trial in England on the grounds that the court had refused to hear Marshalls objection to an officer of the NSW Corps hearing the case and this resulted in Paterson challenging Macarthur to a duel in which Paterson was severely wounded in the shoulder
28.
Philip Gidley King
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Captain Philip Gidley King RN was the third Governor of New South Wales, and did much to civilise the young colony in the face of great obstacles. When the First Fleet arrived in January 1788, King was detailed to colonise Norfolk Island for defence, as Governor of New South Wales, he helped develop livestock farming, whaling and mining, built many schools and launched the colonys first newspaper. But conflicts with the military wore down his spirit, and they were able to force his resignation, Philip Gidley King was born at Launceston England on 23 April 1758, the son of draper Philip King, and grandson of Exeter attorney-at-law John Gidley. He joined the Royal Navy at the age of 12 as captains servant, King served under Arthur Phillip who chose him as second lieutenant on HMS Sirius for the expedition to establish a convict settlement in New South Wales. On arrival, in January 1788, King was selected to lead a party of convicts and guards to set up a settlement at Norfolk Island. More convicts were sent, and these proved occasionally troublesome, early in 1789 he prevented a mutiny when some of the convicts planned to take him and other officers prisoner, and escape on the next boat to arrive. Whilst commandant on Norfolk Island, King formed a relationship with the female convict Ann Inett – their first son, another son was born in 1790 and named Sydney. Following the wreck of Sirius at Norfolk Island in March 1790, King left, Ann Inett was left in Sydney with the boys, she later married another man in 1792, and went on to lead a comfortable and respected life in the colony. King, who had arranged the marriage, also arranged for their two sons to be educated in England, where they became officers in the navy. Whilst in England King married Anna Josepha Coombe on 11 March 1791 and returned shortly after on HMS Gorgon to take up his post as Lieutenant-Governor of Norfolk Island, Kings first legitimate offspring, Phillip Parker King, was born there in December 1791, and four daughters followed. On his return to Norfolk Island, King found the population of one thousand torn apart by discontent after the strict regime of Major Robert Ross. However, he set about enthusiastically to improve conditions and he encouraged settlers, drawn from ex-convicts and ex-marines, and he listened to their views on wages and prices. By 1794 the island was self-sufficient in grain, and surplus swine were being sent to Sydney, the number of people living off the government store was high, and few settlers wanted to leave. As their conduct became mutinous, he sent twenty of them to Sydney for trial by court-martial, there Lieutenant-Governor Francis Grose censured Kings actions and issued orders which gave the military illegal authority over the civilian population. Grose later apologised, but conflict with the continued to plague King. King became Governor on 28 September 1800 and he set about changing the system of administration, and appointed Major Joseph Foveaux as Lieutenant-Governor of Norfolk Island. His first task was to attack the misconduct of officers of the New South Wales Corps in their trading in liquor. He tried to discourage the importation of liquor, and began to construct a brewery, however, he found the refusal of convicts to work in their own time for other forms of payment, and the continued illicit local distillation, increasingly difficult to control
29.
National Library of Australia
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In 2012–2013, the National Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, and an additional 15,506 metres of manuscript material. In 1901, a Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was established to serve the newly formed Federal Parliament of Australia, from its inception the Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was driven to development of a truly national collection. The present library building was opened in 1968, the building was designed by the architectural firm of Bunning and Madden. The foyer is decorated in marble, with windows by Leonard French. In 2012–2013 the Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, the Librarys collections of Australiana have developed into the nations single most important resource of materials recording the Australian cultural heritage. Australian writers, editors and illustrators are actively sought and well represented—whether published in Australia or overseas, approximately 92. 1% of the Librarys collection has been catalogued and is discoverable through the online catalogue. The Library has digitized over 174,000 items from its collection and, the Library is a world leader in digital preservation techniques, and maintains an Internet-accessible archive of selected Australian websites called the Pandora Archive. A core Australiana collection is that of John A. Ferguson, the Library has particular collection strengths in the performing arts, including dance. The Librarys considerable collections of general overseas and rare materials, as well as world-class Asian. The print collections are further supported by extensive microform holdings, the Library also maintains the National Reserve Braille Collection. The Library has acquired a number of important Western and Asian language scholarly collections from researchers, williams Collection The Asian Collections are searchable via the National Librarys catalogue. The National Library holds a collection of pictures and manuscripts. The manuscript collection contains about 26 million separate items, covering in excess of 10,492 meters of shelf space, the collection relates predominantly to Australia, but there are also important holdings relating to Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and the Pacific. The collection also holds a number of European and Asian manuscript collections or single items have received as part of formed book collections. Examples are the papers of Alfred Deakin, Sir John Latham, Sir Keith Murdoch, Sir Hans Heysen, Sir John Monash, Vance Palmer and Nettie Palmer, A. D. Hope, Manning Clark, David Williamson, W. M. The Library has also acquired the records of many national non-governmental organisations and they include the records of the Federal Secretariats of the Liberal party, the A. L. P, the Democrats, the R. S. L. Finally, the Library holds about 37,000 reels of microfilm of manuscripts and archival records, mostly acquired overseas and predominantly of Australian, the National Librarys Pictures collection focuses on Australian people, places and events, from European exploration of the South Pacific to contemporary events. Art works and photographs are acquired primarily for their informational value, media represented in the collection include photographs, drawings, watercolours, oils, lithographs, engravings, etchings and sculpture/busts
30.
Battle of Vinegar Hill
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It marked a turning point in the rebellion, as it was the last attempt by the rebels to hold and defend ground against the British military. The battle was fought in two locations, on Vinegar Hill itself and in the streets of nearby Enniscorthy. By 18 June, the British had surrounded county Wexford with between 13,000 and 18,000 troops and were ready to pour into Wexford to crush the insurgency. The rebel leadership issued a call to all its fighters to gather at Vinegar Hill to meet the army in one great, decisive battle. The number assembled was estimated at between 16,000 and 20,000, but the majority lacked firearms and had to rely on pikes as their main weapon, the camp also included many thousands of women and children who were staying there for protection against the rampaging military. The British plan, as formulated by Gerard Lake, envisaged the complete annihilation of the rebels by encircling the hill and seizing the only route to the west. The battle began shortly before dawn with a bombardment of Irish positions on the hill. Advance units quickly moved against rebel outposts under cover of the bombardment, at least two mass charges were launched by the rebels which failed to break the lines of the military and the situation on Vinegar Hill soon became desperate for the rebels. Meanwhile a detachment of infantry under the command of General Johnson attacked the town of Enniscorthy. Buildings in the town had fortified, and the initial attack was driven back, with the loss of munitions. A second attack commenced with reinforcements including cavalry, which retook the lost cannon and ammunition while also incurring considerable casualties, the Irish rebels were slowly driven out of the town but managed to hold the Slaney bridge and prevent the British from crossing. These atrocities may have been perpetrated in revenge for the execution by the rebels of numbers of loyalist prisoners in the preceding weeks, one immediately set out to the west, the other northwards towards the Wicklow Mountains to link up with General Joseph Holts forces. Murphy was subsequently captured in Wexford and hung, casualties for the rebels have been variously reported, with estimates ranging from 400 to around 1,200. Personal Recollections of Wexford and Wicklow Insurgents of 1798, a Personal Narrative of those Transactions in the County of Wexford, in which the author was engaged, during the awful period of 1798. History of the Rebellion in Ireland in the year 1798, &c, History of the Irish Rebellion in 1798 with Memoirs of the Union and Bennetts Insurrection of 1803 Bell & Daldy, Covent Gardens,1861. The Wexford Rising in 1798, Its Causes and Course, dublin, Gill & Macmillan Ltd.1995. The Green Flag, A History of Irish Nationalism, the Mighty Wave, The 1798 Rebellion in Wexford
31.
Castle Hill, New South Wales
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Castle Hill is a suburb of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia 30.1 kilometres north-west of the Sydney GPO, in the Hills District. Castle Hill is the centre of the local government area of the Hills Shire. The land that is now called Castle Hill was originally home to the Bidjigal people, who are believed to be a clan of the Dharuk people, who occupied all the land to the immediate west of Sydney. The Bidjigal people are commemorated by Bidjigal Reserve which straddles the suburbs of Castle Hill, Baulkham Hills, North Rocks. The first European visitors to the district were led by Governor Phillip in April 1791 accompanied by an entourage, traveling from Parramatta reaching the hills following the Aboriginal trails, which today are overlaid by the Windsor and Old Northern Roads. As Governor he needed to find new country for settlement and farming land for crops so as to feed a struggling infant colony, Governor King began Government Farm 3 there on 8 July 1801, referring to it as Castle Hill on 1 March 1802. The majority of the convicts who worked the farm were Irish Catholics. The most notorious incident being the Battle of Vinegar Hill where around 39 were slaughtered and they were branded politicals and exiled for life, never to return. The first free settler in Castle Hill, a Frenchman Baron Verincourt de Clambe and it has been suggested that locals of the time commonly referred to de Clambes house as The Castle because of the Barons noble status. On Sunday night March 4,1804, the convicts rose up as one in what was to become known as the Castle Hill convict rebellion, leading to The Second Battle of Vinegar Hill. Overpowering their guards, they marched towards Parramatta, having torched a hut at the farm as a signal to convicts at the Hawkesbury. However, disciplined English troops, Red Coats, vastly outgunned and outnumbered them, about fifteen to twenty were killed in the first skirmish at the western gates of the Governors Domain at Parramatta, not far from Constitution Hill. The main group headed west, pursued by the Red Coats and by a citizen militia, opposite where the Rouse Hill Regional Town stands, although the exact location is lost to time, a twenty-minute skirmish happened where an unknown number were killed. Martial law was declared across the whole of the colony and was allowed to cloak the activities of the military, martial law continued in effect for seven days, throughout which muskets were heard by locals who wrote to King about the calamity. The government-controlled newspaper reported only 133 convicts were involved, but over 600 left Castle Hill in the hope of joining with another 1,100 from the Hawkesbury plains. The population of the colony at the time was around 5,000, thus the panic that beset the administration, nine were hanged, with three left hanging dead in gibbets for many months as a reminder for all. In later years the area filled with market gardens and orchards which supplied Sydney. As Sydney expanded, the disappeared and were replaced with a sprawl of suburban dwellings, retail and commercial establishments
32.
Musket
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A musket is a muzzle-loaded, smoothbore firearm, fired from the shoulder. Muskets were designed for use by infantry, a soldier armed with a musket had the designation musketman or musketeer. The musket replaced the arquebus, and was in turn replaced by the rifle. By the end of the 17th century, a version of the musket had edged out the arquebus, and the addition of the bayonet edged out the pike. In the 18th century, improvements in ammunition and firing methods allowed rifling to be practical for use. In the 19th century, rifled muskets became common, combining the advantages of rifles, about the time of the introduction of cartridge, breechloading, and multiple rounds of ammunition just a few years later, muskets fell out of fashion. Musket calibers generally ranged from 0.50 to 0.90 in, rifled muskets of the mid-19th century, like the Springfield Model 1861, were significantly more accurate, with the ability to hit a man sized target at a distance of 500 yards or more. However, in the Italian War of 1859, French forces were able to defeat the longer range of Austrian rifle muskets by aggressive skirmishing and rapid bayonet assaults during close quarters combat. According to the Etymology Dictionary, firearms were often named after animals, and the word derived from the French word mousquette. An alternative theory is that derives from the 16th century French mousquet, -ette, from the Italian moscetto, -etta, the Italian moscetto is a diminutive of mosca, a fly. Hand cannons arrived in Europe from Asia sometime in the early 14th century and they were more commonly used by the early 15th century, particularly in the Hussite wars. It is possible that the noise was at least as important as the missile and these were very short ranged, inaccurate and difficult to load and fire. Hand cannons had a handle, or no handle at all. A wooden stock was added, allowing the weapon to be easily held. The hand cannon evolved into the arquebus by the mid 15th century, the matchlock mechanism was a simple solution to this problem, and placed the match in a clamp on the end of a lever. When a trigger was pulled, the lever would rotate and allowed the match to come in contact with the touch hole, the first European usage of firearms in large ratios was in Hungary under king Matthias Corvinus. Every third soldier in the Black Army of Hungary had an arquebus, gradual advances in the empirical understanding of the corning of gunpowder made possible a more powerful explosive. The cost of gunpowder also gradually fell, by the 16th century the handheld firearm became commonplace, replacing the crossbow and longbow in all advanced armies, and known as the arquebus
33.
Pike (weapon)
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A pike is a pole weapon, a very long thrusting spear formerly used extensively by infantry. Unlike many similar weapons, the pike is not intended to be thrown, pikes were used regularly in European warfare from the early Middle Ages until around 1700, and were wielded by foot soldiers deployed in close quarters. The pike found extensive use with Landsknecht armies and Swiss mercenaries, a similar weapon, the sarissa, was also used by Alexander the Greats Macedonian phalanx infantry to great effect. Generally, a spear becomes a pike when it is too long to be wielded with one hand in combat, the pike was a long weapon, varying considerably in size, from 3 to 7.5 metres long. It was approximately 2. 5–6 kg in weight, with sixteenth-century military writer Sir John Smythe recommending lighter rather than heavier pikes and it had a wooden shaft with an iron or steel spearhead affixed. The shaft near the head was often reinforced with metal strips called cheeks or langets. When the troops of opposing armies both carried the pike, it grew in a sort of arms race, getting longer in both shaft and head length to give one sides pikemen an edge in combat. It is a mistake to refer to a bladed polearm as a pike, such weapons are more generally halberds. The great length of the pikes allowed a concentration of spearheads to be presented to the enemy, with their wielders at a greater distance. This meant that pikemen had to be equipped with an additional, shorter weapon such as a sword, mace, in general, however, pikemen attempted to avoid such disorganized combat, in which they were at a disadvantage. To compound their difficulties in a melee, the pikeman often did not have a shield, the pike, due to its unwieldy nature, was always intended to be used in a deliberate, defensive manner, often in conjunction with other missile and melee weapons. As long as it kept good order, such a formation could roll right over enemy infantry, the men were all moving forward facing in a single direction and could not turn quickly or efficiently to protect the vulnerable flanks or rear of the formation. The huge block of men carrying such unwieldy spears could be difficult to maneuver in any way other than straightforward movement, as a result, such mobile pike formations sought to have supporting troops protect their flanks or would maneuver to smash the enemy before they could be outflanked themselves. There was also the risk that the formation would become disordered, according to Sir John Smythe, there were two ways for two opposing pike formations to confront one another, cautious or aggressive. The cautious approach involved fencing at the length of the pike, while the approach involved quickly closing distance. In the aggressive approach, the first rank would then resort to swords. Smythe considered the cautious approach laughable, after the fall of the last successor of Macedon, the pike largely fell out of use for the next 1000 or so years. The one exception to this appears to have been in Germany and he consistently refers to the spears used by the Germans as being massive and very long suggesting that he is describing in essence a pike
34.
Parramatta
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Parramatta is a suburb of Sydney, Australia,23 kilometres west of its central business district on the banks of the Parramatta River. Parramatta is the seat of the City of Parramatta, one of four cities within the Sydney metropolitan area. Parramatta, founded by the British in 1788, the year as Sydney, is the oldest inland European settlement in Australia. Since 2000, government agencies such as the New South Wales Police Force, Parramatta is a major business and commercial centre, and home to Westfield Parramatta, the ninth largest shopping centre in Australia. It is colloquially known as Parra, radiocarbon dating suggests human activity occurred in Parramatta from around 30,000 years ago. The Darug people who lived in the area before European settlement regarded the area as rich in food from the river, the Parramatta Eels Rugby League club chose their symbol as a result of this phenomenon. Parramatta was founded in 1788, the year as Sydney. As such, Parramatta is the second oldest city in Australia, during 1788, Governor Arthur Phillip had reconnoitred several places before choosing Parramatta as the most likely place for a successful large farm. Parramatta was the furthest navigable point inland on the Parramatta River and also the point at which the river became freshwater, as a settlement developed, Governor Phillip gave it the name Rose Hill after George Rose, Secretary for the British Treasury. In 1791 he changed the name to Parramatta, approximating the term used by the local Aboriginal people, a neighbouring suburb acquired the name Rose Hill. In an attempt to deal with the crisis, Phillip in 1789 granted a convict named James Ruse the land of Experiment Farm at Parramatta on the condition that he develop a viable agriculture. There, Ruse became the first person to grow grain in Australia. The Parramatta area was also the site of the pioneering of the Australian wool industry by John Macarthurs Elizabeth Farm in the 1790s, Philip Gidley Kings account of his visit to Parramatta on 9 April 1790 is one of the earliest descriptions of the area. Walking four miles with Governor Phillip to Prospect he saw undulating grassland interspersed with magnificent trees, Governor Arthur Phillip built a small house for himself on the hill of The Crescent. It was used as a retreat by Governors until the 1850s, the house, Old Government House, is currently a historic site and museum within Parramatta Park and is Australias oldest surviving public building. In 1803, another incident occurred in Parramatta, involving a convicted criminal named Joseph Samuel. Samuel was convicted of murder and sentenced to death by hanging, in the second attempt, the noose slipped off his neck. In the third attempt, the new rope broke, Governor King was summoned and pardoned Samuel, as the incident appeared to him to be divine intervention
35.
History of Sydney
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The History of Sydney begins in prehistoric times with the occupation of the district by Australian Aborigines, whose ancestors came to Sydney in the Upper Paleolithic period. The modern history of the city began with the arrival of a First Fleet of British ships in 1788, from 1788 to 1900 Sydney was the capital of the British colony of New South Wales. An elected city council was established in 1840, in 1900, Sydney became a state capital, when New South Wales voted to join the Australian Federation. Sydney today is Australias largest city and an international capital of culture. The city has played host to international events, including the 2000 Summer Olympics. The first people to occupy the now known as Sydney were Australian Aborigines. Radiocarbon dating suggests that they lived in and around Sydney for at least 30,000 years, in an archaeological dig in Parramatta, Western Sydney, it was found that the Aboriginals used charcoal, stone tools and possible ancient campfires. Near Penrith, a far suburb of Sydney, numerous Aboriginal stone tools were found in Cranebrook Terraces gravel sediments having dates of 45,000 to 50,000 years BP. This would mean there was human settlement in Sydney earlier than thought. Prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in the Sydney area from as many as 29 different clans, Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan. The principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal, the earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the indigenous people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells, and cooking fish. The area surrounding Port Jackson was home to several Aboriginal tribes, the Eora people are the coastal Aborigines of the Sydney district. The name Eora simply means here or from this place, and was used by Local Aboriginal people to describe to the British where they came from. The Cadigal band are the owners of the Sydney CBD area. Consequently, they were first to suffer the effects of dispossession when the British arrived, other than the Eora, people of the Dharug, Kuringgai and Dharawal language groups occupied the lands in and around Sydney. Their occupation pre-dates the arrival of the First Fleet of British by some thousands of years, examples of Aboriginal stone tools and Aboriginal art can be found throughout New South Wales, even within the metropolis of modern Sydney, as in Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park. On 19 April 1770, the crew of HMS Endeavour, under the command of Lieutenant James Cook, were the first known Europeans to sight the east coast of Australia, ten days later they landed at a bay in what is now southern Sydney. The ships naturalist, Sir Joseph Banks, was so impressed by the volume of flora and fauna hitherto unknown to European science, that Cook named the inlet Botany Bay
36.
Annandale, New South Wales
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Annandale is a suburb in the Inner West of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Annandale is located within 5 kilometres west of the Sydney central business district and is part of the government area of the Inner West Council. Annandales northern end lies on Rozelle Bay, which is on Sydney Harbour, glebe lies to its east, Lilyfield and Leichhardt to its west and Stanmore to its south. Major George Johnston arrived on the First Fleet ship Lady Penrhyn and he was granted 100 acres of land in the area around Annandale and Stanmore, which became known as Johnstons Bush. He later renamed it Annandale after his birthplace Annan in Scotland and his name is remembered in Johnston Street, Johnston Lane, Johnstons Creek and Johnstons Bay. Johnston and his wife Esther Abrahams, one of the convicts on the Lady Penrhyn and they built a fine residence called Annandale House in 1799, some distance back from Parramatta Road. It was demolished in 1905, although the gates were preserved. Georges son Robert inherited the estate, but in 1877 sold it to John Young, Young began turning the Johnston estate into an attractive suburb by building a number of picturesque houses. One of those houses was Kenilworth, with a witchs cap style of roof common to that period of architecture, Kenilworth was sold for $3.35 million in 2007. Other houses in the group were The Abbey, Oybin, Rozelle, Greba, Hockingdon, Highroyd, some of the houses are popularly known as witches houses because their towers resemble witches hats. Highroyd was given a restoration which took twenty years and was completed in 2009. Of the various houses in this group, The Abbey is the most notable, built by John Young, The Abbey has been described as a stone Gothic Revival mansion, modelled on Scottish manors. Young gave his imagination a free rein and the house incorporates gables, arches, gargoyles, lions, quatrefoils, chimneys, turrets, a cloister, Young was the highest ranking Mason in Australia and The Abbey incorporates Masonic themes. It is possible that the building may have used by Young as a Masonic Lodge. After Youngs death, The Abbey was occupied by a series of tenants, a new owner acquired the house in 1959 and restored it. It is now on the Register of the National Estate, the house itself was sold for A$4.86 million on 7 November 2009, setting a record residential price for the Annandale area. The selling agent had been hoping for a price of A$5 million, the auction itself took nearly an hour to complete, as one bidder regularly engaged in disputes with the auctioneer over the conduct of the auction. Another home in the area was Kentville, which was built as John Youngs home, the land was bought by Young in 1877, and included a cottage built by Robert Johnston
37.
Windsor, New South Wales
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Windsor is a town lying North-West of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Windsor is located in the government area of the City of Hawkesbury. It sits on the Hawkesbury River, on the outskirts of the Sydney metropolitan area. At the 2011 census, Windsor had a population of 1,803, Windsor is the third-oldest place of British settlement on the Australian continent. Settlement at the location was first established about 1791, near the head of navigation on the Hawkesbury River, the area was originally called Green Hills, but renamed Windsor. While in Windsor, Macquarie ordered the main institutions of organised settlement to be erected, such as a church, school-house, gaol, of these new buildings, the most outstanding was Francis Greenways Saint Matthews Anglican Church, for which Macquarie himself chose the site. Samuel Marsden, principal chaplain of the colony, consecrated the church on 8 December 1822, in 1813 a report was given to Governor Macquarie from Earl Bathurst detailing a proposed invasion of the Hawkesbury River by France. This planned invasion that did not eventuate, targeted the Windsor granary in order to cut off supply to Sydney and it was known as the bread basket, ensuring the survival of the starving colony. The extensive agriculture caused major silting in the Hawkesbury River, by the 1890s the river had become so blocked with silt, by then the railway, in 1864, and the road, in 1814, had been built. On 1 January 1803 Daniel Egan was born in Windsor and he went on to become Mayor of Sydney in 1853. Many of the oldest surviving European buildings in Australia are located at Windsor, the following buildings are listed on the Register of the National Estate. 1835–1880 George Street Inn Group, George Street, c, 1840–1875 Thompson Square Precinct and Bridge Street Buildings, including Hawkesbury Museum, c.4 persons per kilometre. As of 2008, Windsor had an unemployment rate of 3. 4% with 59. 5% of the receiving the Newstart Allowance for a period of longer than 365 days. The average taxable income of Windsor was $50,064 as of 2007,3,719 working individuals received a total of $186. 2m of taxable income. As of December 2016, Windsor has a house price of $650,101. Floods are a concern in Windsor. Its proximity to the Hawkesbury River has resulted in disastrous floods. A horseshoe on the wall of the Macquarie Arms pub marks the level the flood peaked at in 1867
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Daniel Woodriff
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Captain Daniel Woodriff CB was a British Royal Navy officer and navigator in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. He made two voyages to Australia and he was Naval Agent on the convict transport Kitty in 1792, and in 1803 the captain of HMS Calcutta for David Collins expedition to found a new settlement in Port Phillip. Woodriff was commissioned as a lieutenant on 1 April 1783, and received promotion to the rank of commander on 18 September 1795, towards the end of 1802 Woodriff was appointed to command of the Calcutta, a 50-gun ship armed en flûte, and fitted to transport convicts. They were bound for Port Phillip in the Bass Strait, on the extremity of Australia. Calcutta then sailed alone to Port Jackson to take on a cargo of 800 tons of timber, whilst in Sydney, Woodriff and the crew of Calcutta assisted in suppressing the Castle Hill convict rebellion. For this service Woodriff received a 1, 000-acre land grant near Penrith, Calcutta then before sailing back to England via Cape Horn and Rio de Janeiro, arriving back at Spithead on 23 July 1804, completing a circumnavigation in ten months and three days. The Calcutta was refitted as a 50-gun ship, and sent to Saint Helena to escort merchant ships back to England and she arrived there on 3 August 1804 and sailed in company with six merchant ships back to England. Unfortunately, on 26 September, as the convoy approached the entrance to the English Channel, Woodriff attacked, sacrificing his own ship in order to give the convoy a chance to escape, which all but one did, while the Calcutta was forced to surrender. Woodriff, his officers, and crew were landed at La Rochelle three months later, and marched to Verdun,600 miles away, in June 1807, Woodriff was released in a prisoner exchange, and promptly court-martialled for the loss of his ship. He was honourably acquitted, and his conduct was pronounced to have been that of a brave, cool, in 1808 Woodriff was appointed agent for prisoners of war at Forton, near Gosport. Towards the end of the war he served as Resident Commissioner at Jamaica and he was born on 17 December 1756, the son of John Woodriff of Deptford, Kent. He married Asia Sumarel, they had three daughters, and three sons, Capt. Woodriff, Daniel James RN, Cdr, John Robert Woodriff RN, and Lt. Robert Mathews Woodriff RN. Calcutta and the Sullivan Bay Settlement of 1803-4, extracts from Daniel Woodriffs journal and from correspondence he received and wrote, 1802-4, Lavender Hill Multimedia, ISBN 978-0-9579676-5-6
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HMS Calcutta (1795)
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HMS Calcutta was the East Indiaman Warley, converted to a Royal Navy 56-gun fourth rate. This ship of the served for a time as an armed transport. She also transported convicts to Australia in a voyage that became a circumnavigation of the world, the French 74-gun Magnanime captured Calcutta in 1805. In 1809, after she ran aground during the Battle of the Basque Roads and her crew had abandoned her, the East Indiaman Warley was built at John Perrys Blackwall Yard in 1788, the first vessel of the name that Perry built for the East India Company. She made two trading voyages to the Far East for the East India Company, warleys captain for her two voyages was Charles Wilson. Her letter of marque was issued on 7 September 1793, on her second voyage, in July 1793, Warley, Triton, and Royal Charlotte, together with HMS Minerva, participated in the capture of Pondicherry by maintaining a blockade of the port. The Indiamen then sailed for China in early September, on their way to China, the same East Indiamen participated in an action in the Straits of Malacca. They came upon a French frigate, with six or seven of her prizes. The three British vessels immediately gave chase, the frigate fled towards the Sunda Strait. The Indiamen were able to catch up with a number of the prizes, the British restored the prizes to their crews and took the French prize crews as prisoners of war. Had they not carried letters of marque, such behaviour might well have qualified as piracy, the British Government had chartered Hindostan to take Lord Macartney to China in an unsuccessful attempt to open diplomatic and commercial relations with the Chinese empire. In early 1795, the Royal Navy purchased the first Warley and had her original builders, Perry & Co. refit her as a 56-gun fourth rate, under the name Calcutta, at a cost of £10,300. She was one of nine large merchantmen that the Navy Board purchased that year for conversion to convoy escorts, Captain William Bligh was her first commander, assigned to her to supervise her conversion. He took command on 16 April 1795 and commissioned her in May, in October 1795, the crew of the 74-gun HMS Defiance mutinied. Bligh, in Calcutta, was ordered to embark 200 troops and take them alongside Defiance so that they might board her, the threat of the soldiers ended the mutiny for the time being, though the crew of the Defiance mutinied again in 1797 and 1798. Bligh continued to command Calcutta until she was paid off in February 1796, in order for her to fulfill her new role, the Transport Board had the guns on her lower deck removed. As a result she no longer needed as large a crew and her complement fell to 160 officers, Calcutta served in the transport role under Lieutenants Robert Arnold, Edward Jekyll Canes, Richard Pouldon. and John Anderson. Under Poulden Calcutta was at the capture of Minorca in December 1798, on 11 November she was part of a squadron that unsuccessfully chased four Spanish frigates, though two days later Argo recaptured the sloop Peterel, which the Spaniards had captured on the 11th
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William Bligh
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Vice admiral William Bligh FRS RN was an officer of the British Royal Navy and a colonial administrator. Fifteen years after the Bounty mutiny, he was appointed Governor of New South Wales in Australia and his actions directed against the trade resulted in the so-called Rum Rebellion, during which Bligh was again placed under arrest and deposed from his command. William Bligh was born on 9 September 1754 but it is not clear where. It is likely that he was born in Plymouth, Devon, as he was baptised at St Andrews Church, Plymouth on 4 October 1754, Blighs ancestral home of Tinten Manor in St Tudy near Bodmin, Cornwall, is also a possibility. Blighs mother, Jane Pearce, was a widow who married Francis at the age of 40. Bligh was signed for the Royal Navy at age seven, at a time when it was common to sign on a young gentleman simply to gain, or at least record, the experience at sea required for a commission. In 1770, at age 16, he joined HMS Hunter as an able seaman and he became a midshipman early in the following year. In September 1771, Bligh was transferred to the Crescent and remained on the ship for three years, Bligh returned to England at the end of 1780 and was able to give details of Cooks last voyage. Bligh married Elizabeth Betham, daughter of a collector, on 4 February 1781. The wedding took place at nearby Onchan, a few days later, he was appointed to serve on HMS Belle Poule as master. Soon after this, in August 1781, he fought in the Battle of Dogger Bank under Admiral Parker, for the next 18 months, he was a lieutenant on various ships. He also fought with Lord Howe at Gibraltar in 1782, between 1783 and 1787, Bligh was a captain in the merchant service. Like many lieutenants, he would have found employment in the Navy, however. In 1787, Bligh was selected as commander of Bounty and he rose eventually to the rank of vice admiral in the Royal Navy. William Blighs naval career involved various appointments and assignments and he first rose to prominence as Master of Resolution, under the command of Captain Cook. Bligh received praise from Cook during what would be the final voyage. Bligh served on three of the ships from Fletcher Christians naval career. In the early 1780s, while in the merchant service, Bligh became acquainted with a man named Fletcher Christian
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73rd (Perthshire) Regiment of Foot
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The 73rd Regiment of Foot was an infantry regiment of the British Army, raised in 1780. Under the Childers Reforms it amalgamated with the 42nd Regiment of Foot to form the Black Watch in 1881. The regiment was raised as the 2nd Battalion, 42nd Regiment of Foot in March 1780, the battalion was sent to India in January 1781 and took part in the Siege of Mangalore in autumn 1783 during the Second Anglo-Mysore War. It was still in India when the battalion received regimental status in 1786 as the 73rd Regiment of Foot and it went on to form part of the storming party at the Siege of Seringapatam in April 1799 during the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War before returning to England in July 1806. In April 1809 the regiment raised a battalion in Nottingham from local militia companies and lost its Highland status due to recruiting difficulties. The 1st Battalion embarked at Yarmouth for a journey to New South Wales. There in 1810 they received a draft of men from the New South Wales Corps, to reduce these tensions, the main body of the battalion left New South Wales in April 1814 on the General Hewitt for Ceylon. The battalion took part in the Second Kandyan War in Ceylon in 1815, following the disbanding of the 2nd Battalion in 1817, some 300 of its remaining soldiers sent out to Trincomalee to join the 1st battalion. In that year the regiment took part in suppressing the Uva Rebellion, the 2nd Battalion remained in England until May 1813 when it was shipped to Swedish Pomerania and fought at the Battle of the Göhrde in September 1813 and the Battle of Merxem in January 1814. In 1815 the battalion joined Wellingtons Army in Belgium, the regiment was in Major-General Colin Halketts Brigade in Lieutenant General Sir Charles Altens 3rd Division, the battalion fought in the Battle of Quatre Bras on 16 June 1815 where they lost 53 men killed and wounded. At the subsequent Battle of Waterloo on 18 June, the regiment was charged by French Cavalry no less than 11 times during the battle and it remained in square without breaking. The battalion formed part of the Army of Occupation in Paris before moving back to England in December 1815, in November 1821 the regiment returned home from Ceylon. It was posted to Gibraltar in August 1827 and to Nova Scotia in April 1838, after returning to England in June 1841, the regiment succeeded in having its Highland status restored, in so far as it was re-designated The 73rd Regiment of Foot in 1845. In January 1846, the 73rd Highlanders arrived in Argentina to project British interests during the Uruguayan Civil War, the regiment then sailed on to the Cape Colony to take part in the Seventh Xhosa War. In 1852 a detachment from the regiment departed Simons Town aboard the troopship HMS Birkenhead bound for Port Elizabeth, at two oclock in the morning on 28 February 1852, the ship struck rocks at Danger Point, just off Gansbaai. In 1857 the regiment helped to suppress the Indian Rebellion seeing some action in Central India, in 1862 it received a new title becoming the 73rd Regiment of Foot. The regiment was posted to Hong Kong in 1866, back to Ceylon in 1871, on 1 July 1881 the Childers Reforms came into effect and the regiment amalgamated with the 42nd Regiment of Foot, the regiment they originated from 95 years earlier, to form the Black Watch. Battle honours won by the regiment were, Anglo-Mysore Wars, Mangalore, Seringapatam Napoleonic Wars, Waterloo Colonels of the Regiment were,1786, Sir George Osborn, 4th Baronet 1786–1796, Gen
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Lachlan Macquarie
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Major-General Lachlan Macquarie CB was a British Army officer and colonial administrator from Scotland. Macquarie served as the fifth and last autocratic Governor of New South Wales from 1810 to 1821, an inscription on his tomb in Scotland describes him as The Father of Australia. Lachlan Macquarie was born on the island of Ulva off the coast of the Isle of Mull in the Inner Hebrides, a chain of islands off the West Coast of Scotland. He was a gentleman of the Scottish Highland family clan MacQuarrie which possessed Ulva, Staffa, and a region of the Isle of Mull for over one thousand years, and his forebears were buried on Iona. Governor Macquaries father, a man of Intelligence, polite, and much of the world, supposedly attained the age of 103 years and his mother was the daughter of a Maclaine chieftain who owned a castle on the Isle of Mull. Macquarie left the island at the age of 14, if he did attend the Royal High School of Edinburgh, as tradition has it, it was only for a very brief period because, at the same age, he volunteered for the army. Macquarie joined the 84th Regiment of Foot on 9 April 1777, as a new recruit on the way to America he participated in the Battle of the Newcastle Jane. This battle was the first naval victory for a British merchant ship over an American privateer and he was initially stationed at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and was commissioned as an ensign five months after his arrival. On 18 January 1781, he was promoted to lieutenant and transferred to the 71st Regiment of Foot, and served them in New York City, Charleston. In June 1784 he returned to Scotland as a half-pay lieutenant, three years later, on Christmas Day 1787 he received his commission as lieutenant in the 77th Regiment, where he saw service with the army in India and Egypt. Macquarie became a Freemason in January 1793 at Bombay, in Lodge No.1 and he was promoted Captain on 9 November 1789, Major on 12 March 1801. Two years later,1803, he was in London, as Assistant Adjutant General to Lord Harrington, in 1803 and 1804 saw him on active service in India. In 1793 he married Jane Jarvis, daughter of the Chief Justice of Antigua, three years later she died of tuberculosis. In November 1807, Macquaries cousin Elizabeth Henrietta Campbell became his second wife, in April 1809 Macquarie was appointed Governor of New South Wales. At the head of troops he was unchallenged by the New South Wales Corps whose members had become settled in farming, commerce. Macquarie was promoted to Colonel in 1810, Brigadier in 1811 and Major-General in 1813, the Macquaries departed from England in May 1809 aboard HMS Dromedary, accompanied by HMS Hindostan. They reached Sydney on 28 December 1809 and he started as a governor on 1 January 1810 and he appointed John Campbell as his secretary. The first task Macquarie had to tackle was to restore orderly, lawful government, Macquarie was ordered by the British government to arrest both John Macarthur and Major George Johnston, two of the leaders of the Rum Rebellion
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Horsham
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Horsham /ˈhɔːrʃəm/ is a market town on the upper reaches of the River Arun on the fringe of the Weald in Sussex, England. The town is 31 miles south south-west of London,18.5 miles north-west of Brighton and 26 miles north-east of the county town of Chichester, nearby towns include Crawley to the north-east and Haywards Heath and Burgess Hill to the south-east. It is the centre of the Horsham district. The first historical record of Horsham is from AD947, the name may mean either horse home or Horsas home. The town has historically been known for trading in early medieval times, iron and brick making up until the 20th century. Horsham is the largest town in the Horsham District Council area, the second, higher, tier of local government is West Sussex County Council, based in Chichester. It was once part of the county of Surrey in 1758 until a change in boundaries through the parliament act in 1867, in addition there are various Parish Councils. The town is the centre of the constituency of Horsham. Jeremy Quin has served as Member of Parliament for Horsham since 2015, succeeding Francis Maude, Horsham holds the UK record for the heaviest hailstone ever to fall. On 5 September 1958, a hailstone weighing 140g landed in the town and it was similar in size to a tennis ball and impact speeds have been calculated to be 100 m/s. Horsham is 50 metres above sea level, the River Arun rising from ghylls in the St Leonards Forest area, to the east of Horsham, cuts through the south of the town then makes its way through Broadbridge Heath. The Arun is joined by a number of streams flowing down from the north which rise around Rusper, Horsham has grown up around the Carfax. To the south of the Carfax is the Causeway and this street consists of houses erected in the 17th, 18th and early 19th century and is lined with ancient London Plane trees. The Horsham Museum is at the end opposite to the recently developed former headquarters of the R. S. P. C. A. At the south end of the Causeway is the Church of England parish church of St. Mary, Norman in origin, rebuilt in the 13th century, the area immediately to the south of the parish church is known as Normandy. It was formerly an area of cottages and an ancient well. Fifty metres south is the River Arun, on the northern bank is Prewetts Mill and on the south side is the towns cricket field. A short walk along the banks of the Arun in a easterly direction is Chesworth Farm
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Guernsey
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Guernsey is a jurisdiction within the Bailiwick of Guernsey, a Crown dependency. The jurisdiction is not part of the United Kingdom, however, defence and most foreign relations are handled by the British Government. Taken together with the jurisdictions of Alderney and Sark it forms the Bailiwick of Guernsey. The two Bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey together form the geographical grouping known as the Channel Islands, the name Guernsey, as well as that of neighbouring Jersey, is of Old Norse origin. The second element of word, -ey, is the Old Norse for island, while the original root, guern, is of uncertain origin. Around 6000 BC, rising seas created the English Channel and separated the Norman promontories that became the bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey from continental Europe, neolithic farmers then settled on its coast and built the dolmens and menhirs found in the islands today. During their migration to Brittany, Britons occupied the Lenur islands including Sarnia or Lisia and Angia, travelling from the Kingdom of Gwent, Saint Sampson, later the abbot of Dol in Brittany, is credited with the introduction of Christianity to Guernsey. In 933 AD, the Cotentin Peninsula including Avranchin which included the islands, were placed by the French King Ranulf under the control of William I, the island of Guernsey and the other Channel Islands represent the last remnants of the medieval Duchy of Normandy. During the Middle Ages, the island was a haven for pirates that would use the technique to ground ships close to her waters. This intensified during the Hundred Years War, when, starting in 1339, the Guernsey Militia was operational in 1337 and would help defend the island for a further 600 years. In 1372, the island was invaded by Aragonese mercenaries under the command of Owain Lawgoch, Owain and his dark-haired mercenaries were later absorbed into Guernsey legend as invading fairies from across the sea. In the mid-16th century, the island was influenced by Calvinist reformers from Normandy, during the Marian persecutions, three women, the Guernsey Martyrs, were burned at the stake for their Protestant beliefs. During the English Civil War, Guernsey sided with the Parliamentarians, the allegiance was not total, however, there were a few Royalist uprisings in the southwest of the island, while Castle Cornet was occupied by the Governor, Sir Peter Osborne, and Royalist troops. In December 1651, with honours of war, Castle Cornet surrendered. By the beginning of the 18th century, Guernseys residents were starting to settle in North America, the threat of invasion by Napoleon prompted many defensive structures to be built at the end of that century. The 19th century saw an increase in the prosperity of the island, due to its success in the global maritime trade. During the First World War, about 3,000 island men served in the British Expeditionary Force, of these, about 1,000 served in the Royal Guernsey Light Infantry regiment formed from the Royal Guernsey Militia in 1916. For most of the Second World War, the Channel Islands were occupied by German troops, before the occupation, 80% of Guernsey children had been evacuated to England to live with relatives or strangers during the war
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Bermuda
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Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is approximately 1,070 km east-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,1,236 km south of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Bermuda is an associate member of Caribbean Community. The first person known to have reached Bermuda was the Spanish sea captain Juan de Bermúdez in 1503 and he claimed the islands for the Spanish Empire. Bermúdez never landed on the islands, but made two visits to the archipelago, of which he created a recognisable map, shipwrecked Portuguese mariners are now thought to have been responsible for the 1543 inscription on Portuguese Rock. Subsequent Spanish or other European parties are believed to have released pigs there, the island was administered as an extension of Virginia by the Company until 1614. Its spin-off, the Somers Isles Company, took over in 1615, at that time, the companys charter was revoked, and the English Crown took over administration. The islands became a British colony following the 1707 unification of the parliaments of Scotland and England, after 1949, when Newfoundland became part of Canada, Bermuda became the oldest remaining British Overseas Territory. Since the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997, it is the most populous Territory and its first capital, St. Georges, was established in 1612 and is the oldest continuously inhabited English town in the New World. Bermudas economy is based on insurance and reinsurance, and tourism. Bermuda had one of the worlds highest GDP per capita for most of the 20th century, recently, its economic status has been affected by the global recession. The island is in the belt and prone to severe weather. However, it is protected from the full force of a hurricane by the coral reef that surrounds the island. It is 898 nautical miles northeast of Miami, Florida, and 667 nautical miles from Cape Sable Island, in Nova Scotia, Canada. The islands lie due east of Fripp Island, South Carolina, west-northwest of Cape Verde, southeast of New York City, New York, north-northwest of Brazil and north of San Juan, Puerto Rico. The archipelago is formed by points on the rim of the caldera of a submarine volcano that forms a seamount. The volcano is one part of a range that was formed as part of the process that formed the floor of the Atlantic. It has 103 km of coastline, the two incorporated municipalities in Bermuda are the City of Hamilton and the Town of St George. Bermuda is divided into nine parishes, which have some localities called villages, such as Flatts Village, although usually referred to in the singular, the territory consists of 181 islands, with a total area of 53.3 square kilometres
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Nova Scotia
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Nova Scotia is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces, and one of the four provinces which form Atlantic Canada. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province, with an area of 55,284 square kilometres, including Cape Breton, as of 2016, the population was 923,598. Nova Scotia is the second most-densely populated province in Canada with 17.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, Nova Scotia means New Scotland in Latin and is the recognized English language name for the province. In Scottish Gaelic, the province is called Alba Nuadh, which simply means New Scotland. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province in area after Prince Edward Island, the provinces mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, including numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than 67 km from the ocean, Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are rich on the Bay of Fundys shores. Blue Beach near Hantsport, Joggins Fossil Cliffs, on the Bay of Fundys shores, has yielded an abundance of Carboniferous age fossils, wassons Bluff, near the town of Parrsboro, has yielded both Triassic and Jurassic age fossils. Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone, since the province is almost surrounded by the sea, the climate is closer to maritime than to continental climate. The winter and summer temperature extremes of the climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental – still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotia climate is in ways similar to the central Baltic Sea coast in Northern Europe. This is in spite of Nova Scotia being some fifteen parallels south, areas not on the Atlantic coast experience warmer summers more typical of inland areas, and winter lows a little colder. The province includes regions of the Mikmaq nation of Mikmaki, the Mikmaq people inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived. In 1605, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada at Port Royal, the British conquest of Acadia took place in 1710. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formally recognized this and returned Cape Breton Island to the French, present-day New Brunswick then still formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. The British changed the name of the capital from Port Royal to Annapolis Royal, in 1749, the capital of Nova Scotia moved from Annapolis Royal to the newly established Halifax. In 1755 the vast majority of the French population were removed in the Expulsion of the Acadians
United Kingdom
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