1.
New Testament
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The New Testament is the second major part of the Christian biblical canon, the first part being the Old Testament, based on the Hebrew Bible. The New Testament discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christianity, Christians regard both the Old and New Testaments together as sacred scripture. The New Testament has frequently accompanied the spread of Christianity around the world and it reflects and serves as a source for Christian theology and morality. Both extended readings and phrases directly from the New Testament are also incorporated into the various Christian liturgies, the New Testament has influenced religious, philosophical, and political movements in Christendom and left an indelible mark on literature, art, and music. In almost all Christian traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books, John A. T. Robinson, Dan Wallace, and William F. Albright dated all the books of the New Testament before 70 AD. Others give a date of 80 AD, or at 96 AD. Over time, some disputed books, such as the Book of Revelation, other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as 1 Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Diatessaron, were excluded from the New Testament. However, the canon of the New Testament, at least since Late Antiquity, has been almost universally recognized within Christianity. The term new testament, or new covenant first occurs in Jeremiah 31,31, the same Greek phrase for new covenant is found elsewhere in the New Testament. Modern English, like Latin, distinguishes testament and covenant as alternative translations, John Wycliffes 1395 version is a translation of the Latin Vulgate and so follows different terms in Jeremiah and Hebrews, Lo. Days shall come, saith the Lord, and I shall make a new covenant with the house of Israel, for he reproving him saith, Lo. Days come, saith the Lord, when I shall establish a new testament on the house of Israel, use of the term New Testament to describe a collection of first and second-century Christian Greek Scriptures can be traced back to Tertullian. In Against Marcion, written circa 208 AD, he writes of the Divine Word, by the 4th century, the existence—even if not the exact contents—of both an Old and New Testament had been established. Lactantius, a 3rd–4th century Christian author wrote in his early-4th-century Latin Institutiones Divinae and that which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the law and the prophets—is called the Old, but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The canon of the New Testament is the collection of books that most Christians regard as divinely inspired, several of these writings sought to extend, interpret, and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality. The book order is the same in the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, the Slavonic, Armenian and Ethiopian traditions have different New Testament book orders. Each of the four gospels in the New Testament narrates the life, death, the word gospel derives from the Old English gōd-spell, meaning good news or glad tidings. The gospel was considered the good news of the coming Kingdom of Messiah, and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, Gospel is a calque of the Greek word εὐαγγέλιον, euangelion
2.
Biblia Hebraica (Kittel)
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Biblia Hebraica refers almost exclusively to the three editions of the Hebrew Bible edited by Rudolf Kittel. When referenced, Kittels Biblia Hebraica is usually abbreviated BH, or BHK, when specific editions are referred to, BH1, BH2 and BH3 are used. Biblia Hebraica is a Latin phrase meaning Hebrew Bible, traditionally used as a title for printed editions of the Tanakh. The Old Testament scholar Rudolf Kittel from Leipzig started in 1901 to develop a critical edition of the Hebrew Bible and his first edition Biblia Hebraica edidit Rudolf Kittel was published as a two-volume work in 1906 under the publisher J. C. In the bottom part of the page he added his critical apparatus where he listed textual variants from other ancient manuscripts and conjectural emendations. The second edition of Kittels Biblia Hebraica appeared in 1913, the differences between it and the first one are slight, apart from a list of errors in the second, in 1921 the Bible Society Württemberg bought the rights for Kittels Biblia Hebraica from J. C. Hinrichs and alongside further reprints of the edition, approaches for a third edition were planned from 1925 onwards. The third edition had a slightly different Hebrew text and completely revised footnotes, for the first time, a Bible reproduced the text of the Leningrad Codex from the year 1008, since it was the oldest existing manuscript of the entire Hebrew Bible. The idea to use that Codex is credited to Paul Kahle, the BH3 reproduces the Masoretic Text in the Codex exactly, without any editing. These marginal notes were of importance to the editors of the subsequent editions. Some of the references in the textual apparatus reference manuscripts that no longer exist due to the bombing of Leipzig during World War II, the third edition was superseded by the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. The current project in this tradition is the Biblia Hebraica Quinta, list of Hebrew Bible manuscripts Biblia Hebraica on archive. org I II
3.
Westcott-Hort
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The New Testament in the Original Greek is a Greek-language version of the New Testament published in 1881. It is also known as the Westcott and Hort text, after its editors Brooke Foss Westcott and it is a critical text, compiled from some of the oldest New Testament fragments and texts that had been discovered at the time. The two editors worked together for 28 years, according to Hort, Knowledge of Documents should precede Final Judgments upon Readings. The two editors favoured two manuscripts, Vaticanus and Sinaiticus, Westcott and Hort distinguished four text types in their studies. The most recent is the Syrian, or Byzantine text-type, of which the newest example is the Textus Receptus, the Western text-type is much older, but tends to paraphrase, so according to them also lacks dependability. The Alexandrian text-type, exemplified in the Codex Ephraemi, exhibits a polished Greek style and this text has only a few changes of the original. This edition is based on the critical works especially of Tischendorf, the minuscules play a minimal role in this edition. Westcott and Hort worked on their Testament from 1853 until its completion in 1881 and it was followed by an Introduction and Appendix by Hort appearing in a second volume in 1882. In 1892, an edition was released by F. C. The edition of Westcott and Hort began a new epoch in the history of textual criticism, all critical editions published after Westcott and Hort closely follow the text of The New Testament in the Original Greek, with the exception of the text edited by Hermann von Soden. Sodens edition stands much closer to the text of Tischendorf than to the text of Westcott, all editions of Nestle-Aland remain close in textual character to the text WH. According to Bruce M. Metzger, the validity of their critical principles and procedures is widely acknowledged by scholars today. Of course, I think they gave too much weight to Codex Vaticanus alone, and this criticism aside, the Westcott and Hort text is extremely reliable. Of course, the discoveries of the past one hundred years have changed things. The texts of Nestle-Aland, and of Bover and Merk, differ very little from the text of the Westcott-Hort, Editio Regia Novum Instrumentum omne Editio Octava Critica Maior Novum Testamentum Graece Bruce M. Metzger. The Text of the New Testament, Its Transmission, Corruption, the Greek Testament with the Readings Adopted by the Revisers of the Authorised Version. The New Testament In The Original Greek Sortable articles Bible Version Verse Comparison Charts Comparison of the Wescott/Hort text with other editions on the Manuscript Comparator
4.
Dynamic and formal equivalence
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Dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence are two dissimilar translation techniques used to achieve differing levels of literalness between the original and target languages of a text. Both of these techniques are used in biblical translation, the two terms have often been understood fundamentally as sense-for-sense translation and word-for-word translation. The desire is that the reader of both languages would understand the meanings of the text in a similar fashion, in later years, Nida distanced himself from the term dynamic equivalence and preferred the term functional equivalence. It is possible to associate functional equivalence with how people interact in cultures, formal equivalence is often more goal than reality, if only because one language may contain a word for a concept which has no direct equivalent in another language. In such cases, a dynamic translation may be used or a neologism may be created in the target language to represent the concept. The more the language differs from the target language, the more difficult it may be to understand a literal translation without modifying or rearranging the words in the target language. Translators of the Bible have taken various approaches in rendering it into English, ranging from a use of formal equivalence
5.
Bible
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The Bible is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans. Many different authors contributed to the Bible, what is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups, a number of Bible canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents. The Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint, the New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be mostly Jewish disciples of Christ, written in first-century Koine Greek. These early Christian Greek writings consist of narratives, letters, among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily the Apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect. Attitudes towards the Bible also differ amongst Christian groups and this concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching. With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, the Bible is widely considered to be the book of all time. It has estimated sales of 100 million copies, and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West. The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin. Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra holy book, while biblia in Greek and it gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe. Latin biblia sacra holy books translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ta biblia ta hagia, the word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of paper or scroll and came to be used as the ordinary word for book. It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, Egyptian papyrus, possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece, the Greek ta biblia was an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books. Christian use of the term can be traced to c.223 CE, bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer to use the Greek phrase ta biblia to describe both the Old and New Testaments together. The division of the Hebrew Bible into verses is based on the sof passuk cantillation mark used by the 10th-century Masoretes to record the verse divisions used in oral traditions. The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th-century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, the oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus and he states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from traditions in the second half of the first century CE. Riches says that, Scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the Gospels, the period of transmission is short, less than 40 years passed between the death of Jesus and the writing of Marks Gospel. This means that there was time for oral traditions to assume fixed form
6.
Jehovah's Witnesses
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Jehovahs Witnesses is a millenarian restorationist Christian denomination with nontrinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity. The group reports a membership of more than 8.3 million adherents involved in evangelism. Jehovahs Witnesses are directed by the Governing Body of Jehovahs Witnesses, a group of elders in Warwick, New York and they prefer to use their own translation, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, although their literature occasionally quotes and cites other Bible translations. The name Jehovahs witnesses was adopted in 1931 to distinguish themselves from other Bible Student groups, Jehovahs Witnesses are best known for their door-to-door preaching, distributing literature such as The Watchtower and Awake. and refusing military service and blood transfusions. They consider use of the name Jehovah vital for proper worship and they reject Trinitarianism, inherent immortality of the soul, and hellfire, which they consider to be unscriptural doctrines. They do not observe Christmas, Easter, birthdays or other holidays, adherents commonly refer to their body of beliefs as the truth and consider themselves to be in the truth. They consider secular society to be corrupt and under the influence of Satan. Congregational disciplinary actions include disfellowshipping, their term for formal expulsion, baptized individuals who formally leave are considered disassociated and are also shunned. Disfellowshipped and disassociated individuals may eventually be reinstated if deemed repentant, the religions position regarding conscientious objection to military service and refusal to salute national flags has brought it into conflict with some governments. Consequently, some Jehovahs Witnesses have been persecuted and their activities are banned or restricted in some countries, persistent legal challenges by Jehovahs Witnesses have influenced legislation related to civil rights in several countries. The organization has received criticism over issues surrounding biblical translation, doctrines, handling of abuse cases. The claims are rejected by the leaders, and some have been disputed by courts. In 1870, Charles Taze Russell and others formed a group in Pittsburgh, in 1876, Russell met Nelson H. Barbour, later that year they jointly produced the book Three Worlds, which combined restitutionist views with end time prophecy. Beginning in 1878 Russell and Barbour jointly edited a religious journal, from 1879, Watch Tower supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible topically. Thirty congregations were founded, and during 1879 and 1880, Russell visited each to provide the format he recommended for conducting meetings, as congregations continued to form during Russells ministry, they each remained self-administrative, functioning under the congregationalist style of church governance. In 1881, Zions Watch Tower Tract Society was presided over by William Henry Conley, by about 1900, Russell had organized thousands of part- and full-time colporteurs, and was appointing foreign missionaries and establishing branch offices. By the 1910s, Russells organization maintained nearly a hundred pilgrims, Russell engaged in significant global publishing efforts during his ministry, and by 1912, he was the most distributed Christian author in the United States. He identified the movement as Bible Students, and more formally as the International Bible Students Association
7.
Biblical Hebrew
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The term Hebrew was not used for the language in the Bible, which was referred to as Canaanite or Judahite, but the name was used in Greek and Mishnaic Hebrew texts. Biblical Hebrew is attested from about the 10th century BCE, and persisted through and beyond the Second Temple period, Biblical Hebrew eventually developed into Mishnaic Hebrew, which was spoken until the second century CE. There is also evidence of regional dialectal variation, including differences between Biblical Hebrew as spoken in the northern Kingdom of Israel and in the southern Kingdom of Judah. Biblical Hebrew has been written with a number of different writing systems, the Hebrews adopted the Phoenician alphabet around the 12th century BCE, which developed into the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. This was retained by the Samaritans, who use the descendent Samaritan alphabet to this day, however, the Aramaic alphabet gradually displaced the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet for the Jews, and it became the source for the modern Hebrew alphabet. All of these scripts were lacking letters to represent all of the sounds of Biblical Hebrew, though these sounds are reflected in Greek and these scripts originally only indicated consonants, but certain letters, known by the Latin term matres lectionis, became increasingly used to mark vowels. In the Middle Ages, various systems of diacritics were developed to mark the vowels in Hebrew manuscripts, of these, Biblical Hebrew possessed a series of emphatic consonants whose precise articulation is disputed, likely ejective or pharyngealized. Earlier Biblical Hebrew possessed three consonants which did not have their own letters in the system, but over time they merged with other consonants. The stop consonants developed fricative allophones under the influence of Aramaic, the pharyngeal and glottal consonants underwent weakening in some regional dialects, as reflected in the modern Samaritan Hebrew reading tradition. Biblical Hebrew had a typical Semitic morphology with nonconcatenative morphology, arranging Semitic roots into patterns to form words, Biblical Hebrew distinguished two genders, three numbers. Verbs were marked for voice and mood, and had two conjugations which may have indicated aspect and/or tense, the tense or aspect of verbs was also influenced by the conjugation ו, in the so-called waw-consecutive construction. Default word order was verb–subject–object, and verbs inflected for the number, gender, pronominal suffixes could be appended to verbs or nouns, and nouns had special construct states for use in possessive constructions. The earliest written sources refer to Biblical Hebrew by the name of the land in which it was spoken, the Hebrew Bible also shows that the language was called יהודית Judaean, Judahite. In the Hellenistic period Greek writings use the names Hebraios, Hebraïsti, Jews also began referring to Hebrew as לשון הקדש the Holy Tongue in Mishnaic Hebrew. The term Classical Hebrew may include all pre-medieval dialects of Hebrew, including Mishnaic Hebrew, the term Biblical Hebrew refers to pre-Mishnaic dialects. The archeological record for the prehistory of Biblical Hebrew is far more complete than the record of Biblical Hebrew itself, Early Northwest Semitic materials are attested from 2350 BCE to 1200 BCE, the end of the Bronze Age. Hebrew developed during the half of the second millennium BCE between the Jordan and the Mediterranean Sea, an area known as Canaan. The earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered was found at Khirbet Qeiyafa, the kingdom of Israel was destroyed by the Assyrians in 722 BCE
8.
Koine Greek
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It was based mainly on Attic and related Ionic speech forms, with various admixtures brought about through dialect levelling with other varieties. Koine Greek displayed a wide spectrum of different styles, ranging from more conservative literary forms to the vernaculars of the time. As the dominant language of the Byzantine Empire, it developed further into Medieval Greek, Koine Greek remained the court language of the Byzantine Empire until its dissolution in 1453, while Medieval and eventually Modern Greek were the everyday language. Literary Koine was the medium of much of post-classical Greek literary and scholarly writing, such as the works of Plutarch, Koine is also the language of the Christian New Testament, of the Septuagint, and of most early Christian theological writing by the Church Fathers. In this context, Koine Greek is also known as Biblical, New Testament and it continues to be used as the liturgical language of services in the Greek Orthodox Church. The word koinē is the Greek word for common, and is understood as referring to the common dialect. The word is pronounced /kɔɪˈneɪ/, /ˈkɔɪneɪ/ or /kiːˈniː/ in US English, the pronunciation of the word in Koine gradually changed from Greek pronunciation, to Greek pronunciation. Its pronunciation in Modern Greek is, the term was applied in several different senses by ancient scholars. Others chose to refer to Koine as the Alexandrian dialect or the dialect of Alexandria, the former was often used by modern classicists. Koine Greek arose as a dialect within the armies of Alexander the Great. Under the leadership of Macedon, their newly formed common variety was spoken from the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt to the Seleucid Empire of Mesopotamia and it replaced existing ancient Greek dialects with an everyday form that people anywhere could understand. The passage into the period, known as Medieval Greek. The post-Classical period of Greek thus refers to the creation and evolution of Koine Greek throughout the entire Hellenistic, the linguistic roots of the Common Greek dialect had been unclear since ancient times. During the Hellenistic period, most scholars thought of Koine as the result of the mixture of the four main Ancient Greek dialects, ἡ ἐκ τῶν τεττάρων συνεστῶσα. The view accepted by most scholars today was given by the Greek linguist Georgios Hatzidakis, who showed that, despite the composition of the Four, the stable nucleus of Koine Greek is Attic. In other words, Koine Greek can be regarded as Attic with the admixture of elements especially from Ionic, the degree of importance of the non-Attic linguistic elements on Koine can vary depending on the region of the Hellenistic World. The literary Koine of the Hellenistic age resembles Attic in such a degree that it is mentioned as Common Attic. Koine Greek was therefore considered a form of Greek which was not worthy of attention
9.
Aramaic language
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Aramaic is a language or group of languages belonging to the Semitic subfamily of the Afroasiatic language family. More specifically, it is part of the Northwest Semitic group, the Aramaic alphabet was widely adopted for other languages and is ancestral to the Hebrew, Syriac and Arabic alphabets. During its approximately 3000 years of history, Aramaic has served variously as a language of administration of empires, therefore, there is not one singular, static Aramaic language, each time and place rather has had its own variation. The Aramaic languages are now considered endangered, Aram is used as a proper name of several people in the Torah including descendants of Shem, Nahor, and Jacob. Ancient Aram, bordering northern Israel and now called Syria, is considered the epicenter of Aramaic. The language is often considered to have originated within Assyria. Interestingly, the Christian New Testament, for which the constituent texts are written in Koine Greek. The Hellenized Jewish community of Alexandria instead translated Aramaic to the Syrian tongue, a related language, Mlahsô, has recently become extinct. Mandaeans living in the Khuzestan Province of Iran and scattered throughout Iraq and it is quite distinct from any other Aramaic variety. Central Neo-Aramaic consists of Turoyo and the recently extinct Mlahsô, very little remains of Western Aramaic. All these speakers of Modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic, Jewish Palestinian Aramaic and Samaritan Aramaic are preserved in liturgical and literary usage. Each dialect of Aramaic has its own pronunciation, and it would not be feasible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. The open vowel is an open near-front unrounded vowel and it usually has a back counterpart, and a front counterpart. There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects, there is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short a and short e. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long a became the o sound, the open e and back a are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters א alaph or ה he. The close front vowel is the long i and it has a slightly more open counterpart, the long e, as in the final vowel of café. Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced more open
10.
King James Version
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The King James Version, also known as Authorized Version or simply King James Bible, is an English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England begun in 1604 and completed in 1611. The books of the King James Version include the 39 books of the Old Testament, a section containing 14 books of the Apocrypha. It was first printed by the Kings Printer Robert Barker and was the translation into English approved by the English Church authorities. The first had been the Great Bible, commissioned in the reign of King Henry VIII, the translation is noted for its majesty of style, and has been described as one of the most important books in English culture. The translation was done by 47 scholars, all of whom were members of the Church of England. In common with most other translations of the period, the New Testament was translated from Greek, the Old Testament from Hebrew and Aramaic, and the Apocrypha from Greek and Latin. In the Book of Common Prayer, the text of the Authorized Version replaced the text of the Great Bible for Epistle and Gospel readings, over the course of the 18th century, the Authorized Version supplanted the Latin Vulgate as the standard version of scripture for English-speaking scholars. Today the unqualified title King James Version usually indicates that this Oxford standard text is meant, the title page carries the words Appointed to be read in Churches, and F. F. For many years it was not to give the translation any specific name. In his Leviathan of 1651, Thomas Hobbes referred to it as the English Translation made in the beginning of the Reign of King James. Similarly, a History of England, whose edition was published in 1775, writes merely that new translation of the Bible, viz. that now in Use, was begun in 1607. King Jamess Bible is used as the name for the 1611 translation in Charles Butlers Horae Biblicae and this name was also found as King James Bible, for example in a book review from 1811. The phrase King Jamess Bible is used as far back as 1715, the use of Authorized Version or Authorised Version, capitalized and used as a name, is found as early as 1814. For some time before this, descriptive phrases such as our present, and only publicly authorised version, our Authorised version, the Oxford English Dictionary records a usage in 1824. In Britain, the 1611 translation is known as the Authorised Version today. As early as 1814, we find King James version, evidently a descriptive phrase, the King James Version is found, unequivocally used as a name, in a letter from 1855. The next year King James Bible, with no possessive, appears as a name in a Scottish source, in the United States, the 1611 translation is generally known as the King James Version today. The followers of John Wycliffe undertook the first complete English translations of the Christian scriptures in the 14th century and these translations were banned in 1409 due to their association with the Lollards
11.
Nathan Homer Knorr
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Nathan Knorr was born in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, United States. He began to show interest in the International Bible Students at age 16 and he left the Reformed Church in 1922 and was baptized on July 4,1923 as a Bible Student following a baptism talk by Frederick W. Franz, with whom Knorr became close friends. Knorr became a volunteer at the Watch Tower headquarters in Brooklyn on September 6,1923, on January 11,1934, at age 28, Knorr was elected director of the Peoples Pulpit Association, and was made its vice president the following year. Knorr was married to Audrey Mock in 1953 and he died from a cerebral tumor June 8,1977 while receiving hospice care at an extension of world headquarters, quieter Watchtower Farms in Wallkill, New York. Knorr contributed significantly to Jehovahs Witnesses, with an educational focus. Within a month of his office, arrangements were made for an Advanced Course in Theocratic Ministry. On September 24,1942, Knorr suggested that the Society establish another school to train missionaries for service in foreign countries, the suggestion was unanimously approved by the board of directors. The first class of the Gilead School - the name given to this missionary school - commenced February 1,1943, Knorr arranged for the creation of new branch offices in many countries. In 1942, when he became president, there were 25 branch offices worldwide, by 1946, despite the events of World War II, the number of branch offices increased to 57. Over the next 30 years, the number of branch offices increased to 97, in 1958, more than 253,000 Witnesses gathered at two New York City venues, Yankee Stadium and the Polo Grounds, for an eight-day convention where more than 7000 were baptized. Other large conventions were held in the US, Canada and Germany, the doctrine of not accepting blood transfusions was also introduced during Knorrs leadership. From October 1,1972, adjustments began in the oversight of the congregations of Jehovahs Witnesses. A revision to the Watchtower Societys organizational manual in 1972 explains, it is noteworthy that the Bible does not say there was only one older man, one overseer. Rather, it indicates there were a number of such. There would no longer be one servant, or overseer. One elder would be designated chairman, but all the elders would have equal authority, later, the chairmanship of the Governing Body would also be affected, rotating in alphabetical order. In December 1975, leadership of Jehovahs Witnesses passed from the president of the Watch Tower Society to the Governing Body of Jehovahs Witnesses, beginning January 1,1976 the Governing Body formed several committees to oversee publishing, writing, teaching, service and personnel. Knorr worked with the new arrangement until illness shortly before his death forced his move from the headquarters in Brooklyn
12.
Yankee Stadium (1923)
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Yankee Stadium was a stadium located in the Bronx, a borough of New York City. It was the home ballpark of the New York Yankees, one of the citys Major League Baseball franchises, from 1923 to 1973, the stadium hosted 6,581 Yankees regular season home games during its 85-year history. It was also the home of the New York Giants football team from 1956 through the first part of the 1973–74 football season. It has also known as The Big Ballpark in The Bronx, The Stadium. The stadium was built from 1922 to 1923 for $2.4 million, Yankee Stadium opened for the 1923 MLB season and at the time, it was hailed as a one-of-a-kind facility in the country for its size. Over the course of its history, it one of the most famous venues in the United States, having hosted a variety of events. The stadium went through many alterations and playing surface configurations over the years, the condition of the facility worsened in the 1960s and 1970s, prompting its closing for renovation from 1974 to 1975. The renovation significantly altered the appearance of the venue and reduced the distance of the outfield fences, in 2006, the Yankees began building a new $2.3 billion stadium in public parkland adjacent to the stadium. The price included $1.2 billion in public subsidies, the design includes a replica of the frieze along the roof that was in Yankee Stadium. Monument Park, a Hall of Fame for prominent former Yankees, was relocated to the new stadium, Yankee Stadium closed following the 2008 baseball season and the new stadium opened in 2009, adopting the Yankee Stadium moniker. The original Yankee Stadium was demolished in 2010, two years after it closed, and the 8-acre site was converted into a park called Heritage Field, the new Yankee stadium opened in 2009 and is currently used by the NY Yankees. The Yankees had played at the Polo Grounds in upper Manhattan since 1913, however, relations between the two teams were rocky, with the Giants harboring resentment towards the Yankees. For the 1920 season, the Yankees acquired star slugger Babe Ruth and in his first year with his new team, by the middle of 1920, the Giants had issued an eviction notice to the Yankees, which was soon rescinded. In 1921, the Yankees won their first American League pennant and this exacerbated Giants owner Charles Stonehams resentment of the Yankees and reinforced his insistence that the Yankees find another place to play their home games. The Giants derisively suggested that the Yankees relocate to Queens or some other out-of-the-way place, tillinghast LHommedieu Huston and Jacob Ruppert, the Yankees owners since January 1915, decided to build their own stadium. They did so at considerable financial risk and speculation, Baseball teams typically played in 30, 000-seat facilities, but Huston and Ruppert invoked Ruths name when asked how the Yankees could justify a ballpark with 60,000 seats. The total bill for construction of the stadium was $2.5 million, Huston and Ruppert explored many areas for Yankee Stadium. Of the other sites being considered, the Hebrew Orphan Asylum, consideration was also given to building atop railroad tracks on the West Side of Manhattan and to Long Island City, in Queens
13.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
14.
Old Testament
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Its counterpart is the New Testament, the second part of the Christian Bible. The books that comprise the Old Testament canon differ between Christian Churches as well as their order and names. The most common Protestant canon comprises 39 books, the Catholic canon comprises 46 books, the 39 books in common to all the Christian canons corresponds to 24 books of the Tanakh, with some differences of order, and there are some differences in text. The additional number reflects the split of texts in the Christian Bibles into separate books, for example, Kings, Samuel and Chronicles, Ezra–Nehemiah, the books which are part of a Christian Old Testament but which are not part of the Hebrew canon are sometimes described as deuterocanonical. In general, Protestant bibles do not include books in its canon. The Old Testament consists of translations of many books by various authors produced over a period of centuries. The canon formed in stages, first the Pentateuch by around 400 BC, then the Prophets during the Hasmonean dynasty, and finally the remaining books. The Old Testament contains 39 or 46 or more books, divided, very broadly, into the Pentateuch, the books, the wisdom books. For the Orthodox canon, Septuagint titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions, for the Catholic canon, the Douaic titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. Likewise, the King James Version references some of these books by the spelling when referring to them in the New Testament. The Talmud in Bava Batra 14b gives a different order for the books in Neviim and Ketuvim and this order is also cited in Mishneh Torah Hilchot Sefer Torah 7,15. The order of the books of the Torah is universal through all denominations of Judaism and they are present in a few historic Protestant versions, the German Luther Bible included such books, as did the English 1611 King James Version. Empty table cells indicate that a book is absent from that canon, several of the books in the Eastern Orthodox canon are also found in the appendix to the Latin Vulgate, formerly the official Bible of the Roman Catholic Church. The books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings follow, there is a broad consensus among scholars that these originated as a single work during the Babylonian exile of the 6th century BC. The two Books of Chronicles cover much the material as the Pentateuch and Deuteronomistic history and probably date from the 4th century BC. Chronicles, and Ezra–Nehemiah, were finished during the 3rd century BC. Catholic and Orthodox Old Testaments contain two to four Books of Maccabees, written in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC and these history books make up around half the total content of the Old Testament. God is consistently depicted as the one who created or put into order the world, the Old Testament stresses the special relationship between God and his chosen people, Israel, but includes instructions for proselytes as well
15.
Raymond Franz
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Franz stated the request for his resignation and his subsequent disfellowshipping resulted from allegations of apostasy. Following his removal, Franz wrote two books that related his experiences with the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society and his views on Jehovahs Witnesses teachings. His uncle, Frederick Franz, was influential in the religions development and his father associated with the Bible Student movement and was baptized in 1913. Raymond joined the Jehovahs Witnesses in 1938, and became a member in 1939. At the age of 37, Franz married his wife, Cynthia, both returned to the Dominican Republic in 1961 to evangelize for four more years and were then assigned to Watch Tower headquarters in Brooklyn, New York. On October 20,1971 he was appointed as a member of the Governing Body. In March 1980, Franz and his wife took a leave of absence from the headquarters for health reasons and moved to Alabama. The following month, a committee of the Governing Body raised concerns about wrong teachings being spread by headquarters staff, staff were also questioned about comments Franz had made that may have contradicted Watch Tower doctrine. This statement, which placed blame for the disappointment about 1975 on Raymond Franz as the chairman of the writing committee. On May 8,1980, Franz was told that he had implicated as an apostate. He was called back to Brooklyn on May 20 for two days of questioning by the Chairmans Committee, according to Franz, the discussion involved allegations that some Witnesses were meeting privately to discuss various teachings of the Watch Tower Society that may have constituted apostasy. On May 21,1980, Franz was called to a Governing Body session where he was questioned for three hours about his biblical viewpoints and commitment to Watch Tower doctrines, consequently, he agreed to a request to resign from the Governing Body and headquarters staff. Franz refused the Watch Tower Societys offer of a stipend as a member of the Infirm Special Pioneers. The Governing Body investigation resulted in the disfellowshipping of several other headquarters staff, on September 1,1980, the Governing Body distributed a letter to all Circuit and District overseers stating that apostates need not be promoting doctrines to be disfellowshipped. The letter stated that individuals who persisted in believing other doctrine despite scriptural reproof were also apostatizing, on March 18,1981 Franz employer in Alabama submitted a letter of disassociation from Jehovahs Witnesses. Franz, who continued to socialize with his employer, was summoned to a hearing on November 25. On May 30,2010, at age 88, Franz fell, Jehovahs Witnesses and congregational discipline Beverley, James A. The Orwellian World of Jehovahs Witnesses, millions Now Living Will Never Die, A Study of Jehovahs Witnesses
16.
Frederick William Franz
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Frederick William Franz served as President of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, the legal entity used to direct the work of Jehovahs Witnesses. Franz was born on September 12,1893 in Covington, Kentucky and he was baptized in the Lutheran Church, but attended Catholic services as a child as a matter of convenience, before later attending the Presbyterian Church. He learned German and could read Latin and Greek and in later years learned Spanish, Portuguese and French and his association with the Bible Students began after he read some of the literature of Charles Taze Russell. He was baptized as a Bible Student on either November 30,1913, or, according to Franz, April 5,1914. In 1920 he joined the Watch Tower headquarters staff in Brooklyn, New York, upon the death of Watch Tower president Joseph Rutherford, Franz became head of the editorial department, and in 1945 he replaced Hayden C. Covington as vice-president of the Watch Tower Society. Franz was the Societys leading theologian and has named as a leading figure in the preparation of the Witnesses New World Translation of the Bible. His nephew and fellow Governing Body member Raymond Franz resigned from the Governing Body and was subsequently disfellowshipped in 1982 during F. W. Franzs presidency, Franz continued to contribute to Watch Tower Society literature until his death in 1992 at the age of 99. He was succeeded as president of the Watch Tower Society by Milton G. Henschel, obituary, The New York Times, December 24,1992
17.
Milton George Henschel
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Milton George Henschel was a member of the Governing Body of Jehovahs Witnesses and succeeded Frederick W. Franz as president of the Watch Tower Society in 1992. Milton Henschel was born in Pomona, New Jersey and his father, Herman George Henschel assisted in the establishment of the Watch Tower Societys farm on Staten Island, working with and mentoring the staff about once each week during the 1920s. The family relocated to Brooklyn, New York in 1934 to enable Herman to work on projects in the printeries and residences for Jehovahs Witnesses headquarters there. Milton was baptized as a Jehovahs Witness minister in 1934, and his older brother, Warren, was a full-time minister assigned to Oregon until he was invited to serve at the Brooklyn facility around 1940. In 1956, Henschel married Lucille Bennett, a graduate of the 14th class of the Watchtower Bible School of Gilead, Henschel died on March 22,2003 at age 82, survived by his wife Lucille and brother Warren. In 1939, Henschel was appointed secretary to Nathan H. Knorr, after Knorr became president of the Watch Tower Society in 1942, Henschel continued as his assistant. Henschel was often with Knorr in his travels, visiting at least 150 countries during this time, by 1945, Henschel was a featured speaker at international events though only 25 years old. By 1947 Henschel had claimed to be unusual among Jehovahs Witnesses at the time—which was a criterion at the time for appointment as a director of the Watch Tower Society. Henschel was elected to the board of directors in 1947, after the death of W. E. Van Amburgh, by 1960, Henschel was a zone overseer, supervising and auditing the administrative and ministry activities of about 10% of the Watch Tower Societys branch offices. In March,1963, Henschel was among a group of Jehovahs Witnesses who were detained and assaulted during a religious conference in Liberia. He returned a few months later to meet with Liberias president to discuss freedom of worship for Jehovahs Witnesses, in June,1963, Henschel was a guest on a talk show hosted by Larry King. In the same interview, Henschel described the Watch Tower view of the immediate future, by 1973, Henschel was branch overseer for the United States. Henschel contributed to the book Religions of America, edited by Leo Rosten, in 1984, Henschel was the chairman for the centennial commemoration of the incorporation of the Watch Tower Society. Henschel became president of the Watch Tower Society December 30,1992, major organizational changes took place in 2000, as the Governing Body of Jehovahs Witnesses was separated from the Societys board of directors. As a result, members of the Governing Body stepped aside from their capacities in the Watch Tower Society, Henschel remained a member of the Governing Body until his death in 2003. He Loved Kindness, The Watchtower, pg.31, August 15,2003
18.
Walter Ralston Martin
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As the author of the influential The Kingdom of the Cults, he has been dubbed the godfather of the anti-cult movement. Martin was born in Brooklyn, New York to George Washington Martin II and his father was a prominent figure in the legal profession who served as an assistant District attorney, before working as a criminal trial lawyer. In 1920 George Martin became a county judge and presided over cases involving some of the notorious Murder Inc criminals. Martins mother, Maud Ainsworth, was born in Chicago to Joseph Ainsworth and she was one of several children born of that marriage, but was put up for adoption. She was adopted by her uncle and aunt James McIntyre a vaudevillian, and Emma Maude Young, Martin was raised in the Bedford-Stuyvesant area of Brooklyn, and was the youngest of six children. In his earliest years the family lived on Macdonough Street, and then from 1930 onwards on Bainbridge Street, in the mid-1940s he attended The Stony Brook School where he obtained his high school diploma. Dr. Martin held four earned degrees including a Master of Arts Degree in Philosophy from New York University, Kennedy confirmed the fact that Martin had completed all of the coursework for his doctorate, with the exception of his dissertation. He subsequently obtained a Ph. D. in 1976 from California Coast University, Martins career as an apologist began at the age of fifteen after being baptized in Hegemen Chapel at The Stony Brook School. Martin has indicated in various book dedications and in audio recorded lectures how he was mentored by Frank Gaebelein, Wilbur Smith, Martins relationship with Barnhouse as his mentor grew over the years, and he was appointed as a regular columnist to Eternity magazine. Barnhouses support for Martins research and teaching abilities resulted in the reassessment of Seventh Day Adventist theology and he also worked for a time as a research associate for the National Association of Evangelicals. Martin was ordained as a minister of the Regular Baptists in 1951 and his status as a minister has been the subject of much controversy but his daughter, Jill Martin Rische, has made more information available that puts much of the controversy to rest. Walter Martin served as a pastor in churches in New York. He also became a teacher of Bible study classes at Barnhouses Church in New York City. In later years Martin would serve as a preacher and Bible teacher at Melodyland Christian Center, perhaps the greatest public controversy of his early career arose from his studies of Seventh-day Adventist theology. From its earliest days until the 1950s, the Seventh-day Adventist Church was regarded by Evangelical Christians, Martin had initially accepted the prevailing Protestant opinion about the heretical status of the Seventh-day Adventists. He indicated his opposition to Adventist teachings in a paragraph in the inaugural edition of his book The Rise of the Cults. However, he reversed his views after a series of interviews with leaders of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Martin reported his findings to Barnhouse, and between 1955-56 a series of small conferences were held, with Barnhouse and Martin meeting Adventist leaders like T. E. Unruh
19.
Jesus and the woman taken in adultery
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Jesus and the woman taken in adultery – a passage known as the Pericope Adulterae or Pericope de Adultera – is a famous passage found in the Gospel of John 7, 53-8,11. They bring in an adulteress, and invite Jesus to pass judgment upon her, should she be stoned, as Moses taught, Jesus first ignores the interruption, and writes on the ground as though he does not hear them. But after the religious leaders continue their challenge, he states that the one who is without sin is the one who should cast the first stone, the religious leaders depart, leaving Jesus and the woman in the midst of the crowd. Jesus then asks the woman if anyone has condemned her, when she answers that no one has condemned her, Jesus says that he, too, does not condemn her, and tells her to go and sin no more. The Jerusalem Bible claims the author of this passage is not John. On the other hand, Leo the Great, cited the passage in his 62nd Sermon, mentioning that Jesus said to the adulteress who was brought to him, ‘Neither will I condemn you, go and sin no more. In the early 400s, Saint Augustine used the passage extensively, the Council of Trent, held between 1545 and 1563, declared that the Latin Vulgate was authentic and authoritative. In terms of quantities, 1 495 Greek manuscripts include the pericope adulterae. Among those 267, however, are some manuscripts which are exceptionally early, the subject of Jesus writing on the ground was fairly common in art, especially from the Renaissance onwards, with examples by artists including those by Pieter Bruegel and Rembrandt. This is very probably a matter of guesswork based on Jeremiah 17,13, there have been other speculations about what Jesus wrote. John 7, 53-8,11 in the New Revised Standard Version,53 Then each of them went home,1 while Jesus went to the Mount of Olives,2 Early in the morning he came again to the temple. All the people came to him and he sat down and began to teach them,5 Now in the law Moses commanded us to stone such women. Now what do you say. ’6 They said this to test him, Jesus bent down and wrote with his finger on the ground. 9 When they heard it, they went away, one by one, beginning with the elders,10 Jesus straightened up and said to her, ‘Woman, where are they. Has no one condemned you. ’11 She said, ‘No one, sir. ’ And Jesus said, ‘Neither do I condemn you. Go your way, and from now on do not sin again. ’ This episode, both let him who is without sin, cast the first stone and go, and sin no more have found their way into common usage. The English idiomatic phrase to cast the first stone is derived from this passage. The passage has been taken as confirmation of Jesus ability to write, otherwise only suggested by implication in the Gospels, in this passage and also in Leviticus 20,10, death is fixed as the penalty of adultery, applicable to both the man and the woman concerned
20.
Gospel of John
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The Gospel According to John is one of the four canonical gospels in the New Testament. It traditionally appears fourth, after the gospels of Matthew, Mark. John begins with the witness and affirmation of John the Baptist and concludes with the death, burial, resurrection, although the Gospel of John is anonymous, Christian tradition historically has attributed it to John the Apostle, son of Zebedee and one of Jesus Twelve Apostles. C. K. Barrett, and later Raymond E. Brown, suggested that a tradition developed around the Johannine Community, and that this tradition gave rise to the gospel. The discovery of a number of papyrus fragments of manuscripts with Johannine themes has led more scholars to recognize that the texts were among the most influential in the early Church. The discourses contained with this gospel seem to be concerned with issues of the debate at the time of composition. It is notable that in John, the community appears to define itself primarily in contrast to Judaism, though Christianity started as a movement within Judaism, it gradually separated from Judaism because of mutual opposition between the two religions. The Gospel of John can be divided into four sections, a prologue, a Book of Signs, a Book of Glory, the narrative of Jesus public ministry, beginning with the introduction of the first disciples of Jesus. It consists of seven miracles, or signs, interspersed with long dialogues, discourses, Amen, amen sayings, in John it is this, and not the cleansing of the Temple, that prompts the authorities to have Jesus executed. The narrative of Jesus Passion, Resurrection, and post-Resurrection appearances and this is followed by Jesus Farewell Discourse, an account of his betrayal, arrest, trial, death, burial, post-Resurrection appearances, and final commission for his followers. Jesus mocking and crowning with thorns, the Ecce homo, the discovery of the empty tomb, the noli me tangere, the Great Commission, and the incredulity of Thomas. The section ends with a conclusion on the purpose of the gospel, that may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, a large majority of scholars believes this chapter to be an addition to the gospel. The Gospel of John is anonymous, traditionally, Christians have identified the author as the Disciple whom Jesus loved mentioned in John 21,24, who is understood to be John son of Zebedee, one of Jesus Twelve Apostles. These identifications, however, are rejected by the majority of biblical scholars. Nevertheless, the author of the fourth Gospel is sometimes called John the Evangelist, a significant minority consider the traditional account of John the Apostles authorship to be genuine. In addition, the ancient external attestation for Johannine authorship is strong, John is usually dated to AD 90–110. It arose in a Jewish Christian community in the process of breaking from the Jewish synagogue, scholars believe that the text went through two to three redactions, or editions, before reaching its current form. John, which regularly describes Jesus opponents simply as the Jews, is more hostile to the Jews than any other body of New Testament writing
21.
Mark 16
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Mark 16 is the final chapter of the Gospel of Mark in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. It begins with the discovery of the empty tomb by Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, there they encounter a man dressed in white who announces the Resurrection of Jesus. The two oldest manuscripts of Mark 16 then conclude with verse 8, which ends with the fleeing from the empty tomb. Many scholars take 16,8 as the ending and believe the longer ending was a later addition. In this 12-verse passage, the author refers to Jesus appearances to Mary Magdalene, the majority of scholars believe that verses 9-20 were not part of the original text, and were an addition by later Christians. Textual critics have identified two distinct endings—the Longer Ending and the Shorter Ending, which appear together in six Greek manuscripts, the Shorter Ending, with slight variations, runs as follows, But they reported briefly to Peter and those with him all that they had been told. And after this, Jesus himself sent out by means of them, from east to west, in one Latin manuscript from c. 430, the Shorter Ending appears without the Longer Ending, Other irregularities in Codex Bobbiensis lead to the conclusion that it was produced by a copyist who was unfamiliar with the material he was copying. Its failure to pick up the narrative from the scene at the end of 16,8 is a point in favor of the latter option. The Council of Trent, reacting to Protestant criticism, defined the Canon of Trent which is the Roman Catholic biblical canon. This passage was used by Protestants during the Protestant Reformation. Mark 16, 9-20 was included in the Rheims New Testament, in most modern-day translations based primarily on the Alexandrian Text, it is included but is accompanied by brackets or by special notes, or both. Mark says the Sabbath is now over and Mary Magdalene, another Mary, the mother of James, and Salome, come to anoint Jesus body, John 19,40 seems to say that Nicodemus had already anointed his body. John 20,1 and Matthew 28,1 simply say Mary went to the tomb, the women wonder how they will remove the stone over the tomb. Upon their arrival, they find the stone already gone and go into the tomb and this shows that, according to Mark, they expected to find a dead Jesus. Instead, they find a man dressed in a white robe who tells them, Dont be alarmed. You are looking for Jesus the Nazarene, who was crucified, see the place where they laid him. But go, tell his disciples and Peter, He is going ahead of you into Galilee, there you will see him, just as he told you
22.
Gospel of Mark
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The Gospel According to Mark, the second book of the New Testament, is one of the four canonical gospels and the three synoptic gospels. It portrays Jesus as a man of action, an exorcist, a healer. Jesus is also the Son of God, but he keeps his identity secret, all this is in keeping with prophecy, which foretold the fate of the messiah as Suffering Servant. The gospel ends, in its version, with the discovery of the empty tomb, a promise to meet again in Galilee. Traditionally thought to be an epitome of Matthew, which accounts for its place as the gospel in the Bible. The Gospel of Mark is anonymous, early Christian tradition ascribes it to John Mark, a companion and interpreter of the apostle Peter. Hence its author is often called Mark, even though most modern scholars are doubtful of the Markan tradition and instead regard the author as unknown. It was probably written c. AD 66–70, during Neros persecution of the Christians in Rome or the Jewish revolt, as suggested by references to war in Judea. The author used a variety of pre-existing sources, such as stories, apocalyptic discourse. Mark was written in Greek, for an audience of Greek-speaking Christians, Rome, Galilee, Antioch. The gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke bear a resemblance to each other. Their close relationship is termed the problem, and has led to a number of hypotheses explaining their interdependence. The most widely accepted hypothesis is that Mark was the first gospel and was used as a source by both Matthew and Luke, together with additional material. The strongest argument for this is the fact that Matthew and Luke agree with other in their sequence of stories. The 19th century recognition of Mark as the earliest gospel led to the belief that it must therefore be the most reliable, the modern consensus is that Marks purpose was to present a theological message rather than to write history. Marks gospel is nevertheless seen as the most reliable of the four in terms of its overall description of Jesuss life. This recognition allows scholars to chart the evolution of Jesus in the scriptures, Marks Christ, for example, dies with the cry, My God, my God, historical reconstruction suggests that the original despairing death of Jesus has become more and more victorious over time. From the outset, Christians depended heavily on Jewish literature, supporting their convictions through the Jewish scriptures and those convictions involved a nucleus of key concepts, the messiah, the son of God and the son of man, the Day of the Lord, the kingdom of God
23.
Application software
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An application program is a computer program designed to perform a group of coordinated functions, tasks, or activities for the benefit of the user. Examples of an application include a processor, a spreadsheet, an accounting application, a web browser, a media player, an aeronautical flight simulator. The collective noun application software refers to all applications collectively and this contrasts with system software, which is mainly involved with running the computer. Applications may be bundled with the computer and its software or published separately. Apps built for mobile platforms are called mobile apps, in information technology, an application is a computer program designed to help people perform an activity. An application thus differs from a system, a utility. Depending on the activity for which it was designed, an application can manipulate text, numbers, graphics, some application packages focus on a single task, such as word processing, others, called integrated software include several applications. User-written software tailors systems to meet the specific needs. User-written software includes templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, graphics. Even email filters are a kind of user software, users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is. The delineation between system software such as operating systems and application software is not exact, however, and is occasionally the object of controversy. As another example, the GNU/Linux naming controversy is, in part, the above definitions may exclude some applications that may exist on some computers in large organizations. For an alternative definition of an app, see Application Portfolio Management, the word application, once used as an adjective, is not restricted to the of or pertaining to application software meaning. Sometimes a new and popular application arises which only runs on one platform and this is called a killer application or killer app. There are many different ways to divide up different types of application software, web apps have indeed greatly increased in popularity for some uses, but the advantages of applications make them unlikely to disappear soon, if ever. Furthermore, the two can be complementary, and even integrated, Application software can also be seen as being either horizontal or vertical. Horizontal applications are more popular and widespread, because they are general purpose, vertical applications are niche products, designed for a particular type of industry or business, or department within an organization. Integrated suites of software will try to handle every aspect possible of, for example, manufacturing or banking systems, or accounting
24.
Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses
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Jehovahs Witnesses are organized hierarchically, and are led by the Governing Body of Jehovahs Witnesses from the Watch Tower Societys headquarters in Warwick, New York. The Governing Body and its committees supervise operations of one hundred branch offices worldwide. Each branch office oversees the activities of Jehovahs Witnesses in a country or region. Directly appointed by the Governing Body, branch committees supervise administrative functions for congregations in their jurisdiction, congregations are further organized into circuits of about twenty congregations each. The Governing Body directly appoints circuit overseers as its representatives to supervise activities within circuits, headquarters representatives visit groups of branch offices to provide instruction and report the branchs activities to the Governing Body. Each congregation is served by a group of locally recommended male elders and ministerial servants, ministerial servants fulfill clerical and attendant duties, but may also teach and conduct meetings. Each of the Governing Body members claims to be of the class with a hope of heavenly life. There are no elections for membership, new members are selected by the existing body, each of its members serves as chairman, with the position rotating among members alphabetically each year. In practice it sought neither advice nor approval from other anointed Witnesses when formulating policies and doctrines, at the 2012 Annual Meeting of the Watch Tower Society, the faithful and discreet slave was re-defined as referring to the Governing Body only. From 1944, Watch Tower publications had made references to a governing body, identifying it with the board of directors of the Watch Tower Bible. In October 1971, four additional men joined the seven members of the Societys board of directors on what became known as a separate, the Governing Body directly appoints all headquarters representatives, circuit overseers, collectively referred to as traveling overseers, and also appoints branch office committee members. Only branch committee members and traveling overseers are referred to as representatives of the Governing Body, each branch office is referred to as Bethel. The United States branch office, spread across three New York State locations with a staff of more than 5000, also serves as the international headquarters. Branch offices, operated by Witness volunteers known as Bethel families, produce and distribute Bible-based literature, full-time staff at branch offices take a vow of poverty and are members of a religious order. Each branch is overseen by a committee of three or more elders, which is appointed by the Governing Body, a Service Department in each branch corresponds with congregations and supervises the work of traveling overseers. Branch offices may also have departments responsible for printing, translation, each branch office appoints various committees in its jurisdictions communities, with local elders as members. All traveling overseers are appointed by the Governing Body. A branch may appoint qualified local elders as substitute circuit overseers, additional training is provided at their School for Traveling Overseers, and ongoing pastoral care and instruction is provided to them by senior branch office representatives
25.
Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses
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The Governing Body of Jehovahs Witnesses is the ruling council of Jehovahs Witnesses based in the religions Warwick, New York headquarters. The body formulates doctrines, oversees the production of material for publications and conventions. Official publications refer to members of the Governing Body as followers of Christ rather than religious leaders and its size has varied, from seven to eighteen members. New members of the Governing Body are selected by existing members, since its incorporation in 1884, the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania has been directed by a president and board of directors. When the Societys second president, J. F. Rutherford, encountered opposition from directors in 1917, in 1925 he overruled the Watch Tower Societys editorial committee when it opposed publication of an article about disputed doctrines regarding the year 1914. In 1931, the committee was dissolved. In 1943 The Watchtower described the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society as the governing body of anointed Jehovahs Witnesses. For several years, the role and specific identity of the body remained otherwise undefined. A1955 organizational handbook stated that the governing body has been closely identified with the board of directors of this corporation. Three weeks later, on October 20, four additional men joined the seven members of the Societys board of directors on what became known as a separate, the article stated that Watch Tower Society president Charles Taze Russell had been a member of the governing body. Organizational changes at the highest levels of the Watch Tower Society in 1976 significantly increased the powers, the body has never had a legal corporate existence and operates through the Watch Tower Society and its board of directors. Franz claims that in 1971 and again in 1975, the Governing Body debated the extent of the authority it should be given, in 1980, dissent arose among members of the Governing Body regarding the significance of 1914 in Jehovahs Witnesses doctrines. Consequently, dissenting members were expelled from the Brooklyn headquarters staff in the same year, Raymond Franz claimed he was forced to resign from the Governing Body, and he was later disfellowshipped from the religion. The Watch Tower Society responded to the dissent with a severe attitude regarding the treatment of expelled Witnesses. Thus, the attending the meetings of each of these committees will be increased to seven or eight. Under the direction of the Governing Body committee members, these assistants will take part in discussions and this new arrangement goes into effect May 1,1992. For many years now, the number of the remnant of anointed Witnesses has been decreasing, each of the current Governing Body members served as a committee helper before being appointed to the Governing Body itself. The appointment of helpers to the Governing Body committees was described in 2006 as still another refinement, until 2000, the directors and officers of the Watch Tower Society were members of the Governing Body
26.
Corporations of Jehovah's Witnesses
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A number of corporations are in use by Jehovahs Witnesses. They publish literature and perform other operational and administrative functions, representing the interests of the religious organization, the Society has been used as a collective term for these corporations. The oldest and most prominent of their names, Watch Tower Society, has also been used synonymously with the religious organization of Jehovahs Witnesses. Particularly since 2000, Jehovahs Witnesses have maintained a distinction between their corporations and their religious organization, Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania is a non-stock, not-for-profit organization headquartered in the New York City borough of Brooklyn, United States. It is the legal entity used worldwide by Jehovahs Witnesses. It holds the copyrights of most literature published by Jehovahs Witnesses, the society was founded in 1881 with William Henry Conley, a Pittsburgh businessman, as the first president and Charles Taze Russell as secretary-treasurer. The society was incorporated as Zions Watch Tower Tract Society in Pennsylvania on December 15,1884, the corporation was officially renamed Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1896, similar names had been in unofficial use since at least 1892. This corporation is typically cited as the publisher of Jehovahs Witnesses publications, though other publishers are sometimes cited. ”In 1939, it was renamed Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, Inc. and in 1956 the name was changed to Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc. In 2001 the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York was listed among the top forty revenue-generating companies in New York City, Christian Congregation of Jehovahs Witnesses, Inc. was established to organize and administer the congregational affairs of Jehovahs Witnesses in the United States. It filed for incorporation on August 21,2000 in New York State as a “domestic non-profit corporation” in Putnam County, New York. An incorporation record was filed with the State of Florida on March 3,2006, as a foreign non profit corporation with agency in Collier County. All Branch Committee members are appointed by and report to the Governing Body of Jehovahs Witnesses, any of these persons or groups may function as an agency acting at the explicit direction of the Governing Body. Reorganization in 2000 resulted in the creation of several corporate entities to serve the needs of the United States branch of Jehovahs Witnesses. New York, incorporated in 2000 for construction and fleet management, the International Bible Students Association is a corporate not-for-profit organization used by Jehovahs Witnesses in the United Kingdom for the production and distribution of religious literature. The IBSA was founded in 1914 as a corporation of the Bible Students by Charles Taze Russell in London, England, and was the first legal corporation representing Russells ministry in Europe. The Watch Tower Society stated in 1917 that the IBSA, along with its Pennsylvania and New York based corporations were organized for identical purposes, other similarly named corporations operate in various countries to promote the interests of Jehovahs Witnesses. In some countries, Jehovahs Witnesses use the corporation name Christian Congregation of Jehovahs Witnesses, in 2005, the branch office in Canada began using this name for a separate Canadian entity for most correspondence, while retaining Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Canada for other matters. In Mexico the corporation, Congregación Cristiana de los Testigos de Jehová, is used, literature of Jehovahs Witnesses has also referred to the religion generally as the Christian congregation of Jehovahs Witnesses
27.
History of Jehovah's Witnesses
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Jehovahs Witnesses had its origins in the Bible Student movement, which developed in the United States in the 1870s among followers of Christian Restorationist minister Charles Taze Russell. Bible Student missionaries were sent to England in 1881 and the first overseas branch was opened in London in 1900, the group took on the name International Bible Students Association and by 1914 it was also active in Canada, Germany, Australia and other countries. Under Rutherfords direction, the International Bible Students Association introduced significant doctrinal changes that resulted in many members leaving the organization. The group regrew rapidly, particularly in the mid-1930s with the introduction of new preaching methods, in 1931, the name Jehovahs witnesses was adopted, further cutting ties with Russells earlier followers. Substantial organizational changes continued as congregations and teaching programs worldwide came under centralized control, members of the religion suffered persecution in some African countries in the 1960s and 1970s, since 2004 the religion has suffered a series of official bans in Russia. About 1869 Russell attended a meeting in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania of a group he called Second Adventists, Russell became convinced that God would reveal his purpose in the last days of the Gospel age and formed an independent Bible study group in Pittsburgh. Like Wendell, he rejected the concept of hellfire and the immortal soul, Paton had concluded that though their calculations of the timing of Christs return were correct, they had erred about its manner. They subsequently decided that Christs return, or parousia, was invisible, and he met Barbour, accepted his detailed and complex arguments on prophetic chronology and provided him with funds to write a book that combined their views. The book, Three Worlds and the Harvest of This World, was published in early 1877, Russell claimed it was the first book to combine biblical end-time prophecies with the concept of restitution. Russell, Barbour and Paton began traveling to hold meetings to discuss their beliefs. He provided Barbour with additional funds to resurrect The Herald of the Morning, Russell severed his relationship with the magazine in July,1879 after Barbour publicly disputed the concept of the ransom. He began publishing his own magazine, Zions Watch Tower and Herald of Christs Presence. Three years later, on December 15,1884, Russell became the president of the society when it was incorporated in Pennsylvania. He said the corporation was not a society in the ordinary meaning of this term, explaining. A business convenience in disseminating the truth, the groups were autonomous ecclesia, an organizational structure Russell regarded as a return to primitive simplicity. In an 1882 Watch Tower article he said his community of study groups was strictly unsectarian. We have no creed to bind us together or to keep out of our company. The Bible is our standard, and its teachings our only creed
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Bible Student movement
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The Bible Student movement is the name adopted by a Millennialist Restorationist Christian movement that emerged from the teachings and ministry of Charles Taze Russell, also known as Pastor Russell. Members of the movement have referred to themselves as Bible Students, International Bible Students, Associated Bible Students. The origins of the movement are associated with the formation of Zions Watch Tower Tract Society in 1881, a number of schisms developed within the congregations of Bible Students associated with the Watch Tower Society between 1909 and 1932. The most significant split began in 1917 following the election of Joseph Franklin Rutherford as president of the Watch Tower Society two months after Russells death, the schism began with Rutherfords controversial replacement of four of the Societys board of directors and publication of The Finished Mystery. William Schnell, author and former Jehovahs Witness, claims that three-quarters of the original Bible Students who had been associating with the Watch Tower Society in 1921 had left by 1931, in 1930 Rutherford stated that the total number of those who have withdrawn from the Society. These groups range from conservative, claiming to be Russells true followers, to more liberal, Rutherfords faction of the movement retained control of the Watch Tower Society and adopted the name Jehovahs witnesses in July 1931. By the end of the 20th century, Jehovahs Witnesses claimed a membership of 6 million, Russell acknowledged the influence of Adventist ministers including George Storrs, an old acquaintance of William Miller and semi-regular attendee at the Bible study group in Allegheny. Various concepts in the book are still taught by the Bible Student movement and Jehovahs Witnesses and it also revealed an expectation that all of the saints would be taken to heaven in April,1878. Russell continued to develop his interpretations of biblical chronology, in 1877, he published 50,000 copies of the pamphlet The Object and Manner of Our Lords Return, teaching that Christ would return invisibly before the battle of Armageddon. By 1878 he was teaching the Adventist view that the time of the end had begun in 1799, Russell believed that 1878 also marked the resurrection of the sleeping saints and the fall of Babylon which he taught to be Gods final judgment of unfaithful Christendom. In 1882 he outlined his nontrinitarian views concluding that the doctrine is not taught in the Bible, readers of Zions Watch Tower formed thirty Bible study groups in seven states in the United States in 1879–80, with each congregation electing its own elders. In 1880 Russell visited the congregations to conduct six-hour study sessions, three years later, on December 15,1884, Russell became president of the society when it was legally incorporated in Pennsylvania. Russell wrote many articles, books, pamphlets and sermons, which by his death totaled 50,000 printed pages, with almost 20 million copies of his books printed and distributed around the world. In 1886, he wrote the first of what would become a six-volume Bible textbook series called Millennial Dawn, later renamed Studies in the Scriptures, as a consequence, the Bible Students were sometimes called Millennial Dawnists. Russells supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible and his writings, Russell rejected the concept of a formal organization as wholly unnecessary for his followers and declared that his group had no record of its members names, no creeds, and no sectarian name. He wrote in February 1884, By whatsoever names men may call us, elders and deacons were elected by congregations and Russell tolerated a great latitude of belief among members. Disfellowshipping did not mean the wrongdoer was to be shunned in all social circumstances or by all Bible Students, from 1895, Russell encouraged congregations to study his Bible textbook series, Studies in the Scriptures, paragraph by paragraph to properly discern Gods plan for humanity. In 1905 he recommended replacing verse-by-verse Bible studies with what he called Berean Studies of topics he chose, the Watch Tower Society opened overseas branches in London, Germany, and Australia and Switzerland
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Watch Tower Society presidency dispute (1917)
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An acrimonious battle ensued between Rutherford and four of the societys seven directors, who accused him of autocratic behavior and sought to reduce his powers. He subsequently replaced them with four new sympathetic directors, the four ousted directors later gained 12 legal opinions that Rutherfords actions were unlawful. The leadership crisis divided the Bible Student community and helped contribute to the loss of one-seventh of the Watch Tower adherents by 1919, Watch Tower Society president Charles Taze Russell died on October 31,1916, in Pampa, Texas during a cross-country preaching trip. On January 6,1917, Joseph Rutherford, aged 47, was elected president of the Watch Tower Society, unopposed, at a convention in Pittsburgh. By June, the dispute surrounding Rutherfords election as president was turning into what he called a storm that ruptured the Watch Tower Society for the remainder of 1917. In January 1917, Bethel pilgrim Paul S. L. Johnson had been sent to England with orders to inspect the management and he dismissed two managers of the corporation, seized its funds and attempted to reorganize the body. Opinions on the need for the by-laws were sharply divided and he claimed it was a matter of efficiency and said the work of the Watch Tower Society peculiarly requires the direction of one mind. Bible Student Francis McGee, a lawyer and an assistant to the New Jersey Attorney-General, responded and he says he is that one mind. By June, four board members—Robert H. Hirsh, Alfred I, ritchie, Isaac F. Hoskins and James D. Wright—had decided they had erred in endorsing Rutherfords powers of management. They claimed Rutherford had become autocratic, refusing to open the Watch Tower Societys books for scrutiny, a week later, four of the directors requested an immediate board meeting to seek information on the societys finances. Even Hirsh, who had appointed by the board on March 29,1917 following the resignation of Henry C. Rockwell, was said to have no standing because his appointment had taken place in New York rather than Allegheny. Rutherford claimed to have known these facts since 1909 and to have conveyed them to Russell on more than one occasion. On July 12, Rutherford traveled to Pittsburgh and exercised his right under the charter to fill what he claimed were four vacancies on the board. Macmillan and Pennsylvania Bible Students W. E. Spill, John A. Bohnet, when the resolution failed to gain a majority, Rutherford exercised shareholder proxies provided for the annual meeting in New York the previous January to secure their expulsion. A month later the four ousted directors responded with a rebuttal of Rutherfords statement. The publication, Light After Darkness, contained a letter by Pierson, dated July 26, although he believed both sides of the conflict had displayed a measure of wrongs, Pierson had decided Rutherford had been wrong to appoint new directors. Their advice from lawyers, they said, was that Rutherfords course was wholly unlawful
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Watch Tower Society unfulfilled predictions
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Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society publications have made a series of predictions about Christs Second Coming and the advent of Gods Kingdom, each of which has gone unfulfilled. Further expectations were held for the arrival of Armageddon in 1975, the Watch Tower Society has acknowledged errors, which it said helped sift the unfaithful from its ranks, but says adherents remained confident that Gods Word had not failed. The Watch Tower Society is now the legal and administrative arm of Jehovahs Witnesses and its representatives assert that they have been given insight into the true meaning of the Bible and the unique ability to discern the signs of Christs second coming. The creed incorporated Adams fall and the entry of sin, evil, the kingdom would be inaugurated through two phases, one destructive, the other constructive. In the first phase, earthly institutions would be overturned in a period known as the Battle of Armageddon. This would be followed by an era of reconstruction, in which sickness, pain and death would be removed. Prior to the establishment of the kingdom, a little flock of 144,000 anointed Christians would undergo physical transformation from physical to spiritual form to achieve immortality. Since 1925 the Society has taught that Armageddon will be a war waged by God. The year would bring the beginning of the exercise of power of Gods kingdom. The failure of Russells prediction did not significantly alter the movements short-term, in early 1881 Russell asserted that 1878 had, indeed, been a milestone year, marking the point at which the nominal Christian churches were cast off from Gods favor. By 1881 Russell had found a basis for extending the harvest to a new date. He explained, Coming to the spring of 1878 and we naturally and not unreasonably expected some change of our condition, and all were more or less disappointed when nothing supernatural occurred. Russell wrote that the light upon our pathway still shines and is more and more glorious, the second failure in 1881 precipitated a more serious crisis in the Bible Student ranks and for several years Russells followers waited for the belated translation to occur. Yet many members found it inconceivable that their earthly departure might be delayed that long, after 1881 physical death was defined as one of the ways in which some of the saints might undergo their translation. Russells Studies in the Scriptures series had explicitly identified October 1914 as the end of the times of the Gentiles. It would bring the beginning of Christs millennial reign and all his followers expected the translation of the saints to rule with the revealed Christ that year. D. The result, he wrote, was that all present governments will be overthrown and dissolved, along with the destruction of what God calls Babylon, and what men call Christendom. But bear in mind that the end of 1914 is not the date for the beginning, as 1914 approached, excitement mounted over the expected change of anointed Christians
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Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs
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Since 1976 all doctrinal decisions have been made by the Governing Body of Jehovahs Witnesses, a group of elders at the religions Brooklyn headquarters. These teachings are disseminated through The Watchtower magazine and other publications of Jehovahs Witnesses and they see their mission as primarily evangelical, to warn as many people as possible in the remaining time before Armageddon. All members of the religion are expected to take a part in preaching. Witnesses refer to all their beliefs collectively as the Truth, doctrines of Jehovahs Witnesses are established by their Governing Body. The Governing Body seeks neither advice nor approval from any anointed Witnesses other than high-ranking members at the Brooklyn headquarters, at the 2012 Annual Meeting of the Watch Tower Society, the faithful and discreet slave was defined as referring to the Governing Body only. Jehovahs Witnesses are directed to welcome changes to their religions doctrine, Watch Tower Society publications strongly discourage Witnesses from formulating doctrines and private ideas reached through independent Bible research. Members who promote privately developed teachings contrary to those of the Governing Body may be expelled and shunned, the organization is said to be theocratic, ruled from the divine Top down, and not from the rank and file up. Witnesses teach that people must choose between God’s organization and Satan’s, Watch Tower Society publications urge Witnesses to demonstrate loyalty to the organization without dissent, even at the cost of family ties. Loyalty to the organization is said to require full involvement in public preaching, disagreement with the Watch Tower Societys concept of Gods organization figured prominently in events that led to a 1980 purge of high-level members at the religions Brooklyn headquarters. A summary by a Governing Body committee of wrong teachings being promoted as new understandings included the suggestion that God did not have an organization on earth. Witnesses believe that after the death of the apostles, the Church embarked on a Great Apostasy, although many of their eschatological teachings have changed over the years, Jehovahs Witnesses have consistently claimed to be the only true religion. The entire Protestant canon of scripture is seen as the inspired, Jehovahs Witnesses consider the Bible to be scientifically and historically accurate and reliable and interpret much of it literally, while also accepting it contains much symbolism. Jehovahs Witnesses base all of their beliefs on the Bible, as interpreted by the Governing Body and they use the terms Hebrew and Christian Greek Scriptures rather than Old and New Testament to avoid implication that the Old Testament is outdated or inferior. Jehovahs Witnesses believe God is the Creator and Supreme Being, Witnesses reject the Trinity doctrine, which they consider unscriptural. They view God as the Father, an invisible spirit person separate from the Son, the Holy Spirit is described as Gods active force, rather than the third part of the Trinity. Witnesses teach that God must be distinguished by his personal name—Jehovah, the name is a common modern Latinized form of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton, or four-letter name, transliterated as YHWH. The use of his name is regarded as vital for true worship. The title, LORD, is used by Witnesses when speaking about God
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Jehovah's Witnesses practices
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Since 1976 they have also been based on decisions made at closed meetings of the religions Governing Body. Instructions regarding activities and acceptable behavior are disseminated through The Watchtower magazine and other official publications, members practice a strict moral code, which forbids premarital and homosexual sex, adultery, smoking, drunkenness and drug abuse, and blood transfusions. Discipline within congregations is maintained by a system of judicial committees, the threat of shunning also serves to deter other members from dissident behavior. Meetings for worship and study are held at Kingdom Halls, and are open to the public, Witnesses are assigned to a congregation in which territory they reside and are expected to attend weekly meetings as scheduled by the Watch Tower Society and congregation elders. The meetings are devoted to study of the Bible and Witness doctrines. During meetings and in formal circumstances, Witnesses refer to one another as Brother and Sister. He says they are important in helping new converts adopt a different way of life. According to The Watchtower, one role of the frequency and length of meetings is to protect Witnesses from becoming involved in the affairs of the world. The form and content of the meetings is established by the religions Brooklyn headquarters, two meetings each week are divided into five distinct sections, lasting a total of about four hours. Meetings are opened and closed with hymns and brief prayers delivered from the platform, Witnesses are urged to prepare for all meetings by studying Watch Tower literature from which the content is drawn and looking up the scriptures cited in the articles. Kingdom Halls are typically functional in character, and contain no religious symbols and these larger gatherings are usually held at rented stadiums or auditoriums. Their most important and solemn event is the celebration of the Lords Evening Meal, members may use their own words to express the ideas in the printed material, though personal ideas derived from independent study are discouraged. Jehovahs Witnesses commemorate Christs death as a ransom or propitiatory sacrifice by observing the Lords Evening Meal and they celebrate it once per year, noting that it was instituted on the Passover, an annual festival. They observe it on Nisan 14 according to the ancient Jewish luni-solar calendar, Jehovahs Witnesses are taught that this is the only celebration the Bible commands Christians to observe. Of those who attend the Memorial, a small minority worldwide partake of the unleavened bread and this is because Jehovahs Witnesses believe that the majority of the faithful have an earthly hope. Only those who believe they have a hope, the remnant of the 144,000 anointed, partake of the bread. In 2015, the number of persons who partook worldwide was 15,177, the Memorial, held after sunset, includes a talk on the meaning of the celebration and the circulation among the audience of unadulterated red wine and unleavened bread. Jehovahs Witnesses believe the bread symbolizes Jesus Christs body which he gave on behalf of mankind, and they do not believe in transubstantiation or consubstantiation
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Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses
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The Watch Tower Society has stated that its early leaders promoted incomplete, even inaccurate concepts. The Governing Body of Jehovahs Witnesses says that, unlike Old Testament prophets, its interpretations of the Bible are not inspired or infallible, Jehovahs Witnesses state that this increase in knowledge needs adjustments. Watch Tower publications also say that unfulfilled expectations are partly due to eagerness for Gods Kingdom, Jehovahs Witnesses teach the imminent end of the current world society, or system of things by Gods judgment, leading to deliverance for the saved. This judgment will begin with false religion, which identify as the harlot, Babylon the Great. They apply this designation to all other religions and they do not currently place their expectations on any specific date, but believe that various events will lead up to the end of this system of things, culminating in Armageddon. Armageddon is understood to include the destruction of all earthly governments by God, after Armageddon, God will extend his heavenly kingdom to include earth. They believe that after Armageddon, based on such as John 5,28,29. This judgment will be based on their actions after resurrection, not on past deeds, at the end of the thousand years a final test will take place when Satan is brought back to mislead perfect mankind. The end result will be a fully tested, glorified human race, Watch Tower Society publications teach that Jesus Christ returned invisibly and began to rule in heaven as king in October 1914. They believe the Greek word parousia is more understood as an extended invisible presence. From this, they conclude that Daniel chapter 4 prophesied a period of 2,520 years and they equate this period with the Gentile Times or the appointed times of the nations, a phrase taken from Luke 21,24. Secular historians date the event of Jerusalems destruction to within a year of 587 BC and they teach that after the war of Armageddon, Jesus will rule over earth as king for 1000 years after which he will hand all authority back to Jehovah. They also believe their preaching is part of the sign, often alluding to the text of Matthew 24,14, and then the end shall come. Watch Tower Society publications claim that the other religions have misrepresented God. Witness publications identify the United Nations as the beast to whom the ten kings of Revelation 17,12,13 give their power, Watch Tower Society eschatological teachings are based on the earliest writings of Charles Taze Russell, but have undergone significant changes since then. Many of the changes reflect altered views on the significance of the dates 1874,1914,1918, the Second Adventists affiliated with Nelson H. Barbour expected a visible and dramatic return of Christ in 1873, and later in 1874. They agreed with other Adventist groups that the time of the end had started in 1799, soon after the 1874 disappointment, Barbours group decided Christ had returned to the earth in 1874, but invisibly. Writing in his journal The Herald of the Morning in 1875, Barbour outlined his views and connected the years 1874,1878,1881
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144,000
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It has significance in several religious movements. In the Mayan calendar, a baktun is a period of 144,000 days. Revelation 14,1 Then I looked, and behold, on Mount Zion stood the Lamb, Revelation 14, 3–5 And they were singing a new song before the throne and before the four living creatures and before the elders. No one could learn that song except the 144,000 who had been redeemed from the earth, for it is these who have not defiled themselves with women, for they are virgins. It is these who follow the Lamb wherever he goes and these have been redeemed from mankind as firstfruits for God and the Lamb, and in their mouth no lie was found, for they are blameless. The numbers 12,000 and 144,000 are variously interpreted in traditional Christianity, some, taking the numbers in Revelation to be symbolic, believe it represents all of Gods people throughout history in the heavenly Church. One suggestion is that the number comes from 12, a symbol for totality, one understanding is that the 144,000 are recently converted Jewish evangelists sent out to bring sinners to Jesus Christ during the seven year tribulation period. They believe that people are anointed by God to become part of the spiritual Israel of God. Individual Witnesses indicate their claim of being anointed by partaking of the bread, nearly 12,000 Witnesses worldwide—an increase of more than 3,000 since 1995—claim to be of the anointed remnant of the 144,000. The Christian Skoptsy sect in Russia believed that the Messiah would come when there were 144,000 Skoptsy believers and he must find these people during his lifetime and lay the foundation of victory over Satans world. 144,000 is alleged to have been the number of Sahaba of Muhammad, the number is also given as the total number of prophets in Islam, although this has also been reported as 124,000 or 244,000. The actual number of prophets or Sahaba is not known, however,25 prophets are mentioned by name in the Quran, the number 144,000 is also significant in various New Age religious movements. The Church Universal and Triumphant teaches that Sanat Kumara and the Lords of the Flame also brought 144,000 souls with them from Venus, raëlism also states that there are 144,000 chosen people to continue humanity in case of an upcoming disaster. The satirical Church of the Subgenius believes that somewhere between 144 and 144,000 people will be taken with the Xists aboard the pleasure saucers, a Baktun is 20 Katun cycles of the ancient Maya Long Count calendar, which contains 144,000 days
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Kingdom songs
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Kingdom songs are the hymns sung by Jehovahs Witnesses at their religious meetings. With the 1966 release of Singing and Accompanying Yourselves with Music in Your Hearts, subsequent collections were released in 1984 and in 2009, each retaining, retiring, or revising previous songs and introducing new songs. By 2012, an edition of their current hymnal Sing to Jehovah was available in 171 languages, in addition to songbooks containing sheet music and lyrics, releases in various audio formats have included vocals in several languages, piano instrumentals, and orchestral arrangements. The orchestral arrangements, referred to as Kingdom Melodies, are drawn from the three most-recent collections, in the late 19th century, the Bible Students used many well-known songs and melodies. They also used well-known melodies with their own lyrics and these melodies were often works of famous composers, including Ludwig van Beethoven and Joseph Haydn. In 1877, Charles Taze Russell and Nelson H. Barbour announced Songs of the Morning in their book Three Worlds, Songs of the Bride, a collection of 144 songs, was published in 1879. In 1890, Poems and Hymns of the Millennial Dawn—with 151 poems and 333 songs, most of which were well-known compositions—was released and became the groups official hymnal until 1928. This was followed by lyrics for 11 songs appearing in the February 1,1896 issue of The Watchtower, under the title Zions Glad Songs of the Morning, written by members of the denomination. A supplement of 81 songs was released in 1900, many written by a single individual, two revised editions of this hymnal were released between 1902 and 1908. In 1905, the 333 songs published in 1890 along with musical notation were released under the title and this book was released in a number of other languages, mainly in a shortened form. In 1925, Kingdom Hymns was published, with 80 songs intended for children, in 1928 Songs of Praise to Jehovah was released, which included 337 songs. Following the adoption of the name Jehovahs witnesses in 1931, the Kingdom Service Song Book was released in 1944 and this was followed by the release of Songs to Jehovahs Praise in 1950, with 91 songs. Some of the music was from hymn tunes of other churches or based on themes from classical music, (for example, Beethovens Piano Sonata no.23 in F minor, others used relatively new music, some of which is still used. Singing and Accompanying Yourselves with Music in Your Hearts was released in 1966, Melodies identified as not having been written by Jehovahs Witnesses were not retained. For the first time, a policy was adopted of including material written and composed by Jehovahs Witnesses. In 1984, Sing Praises to Jehovah was released, with 225 songs and it was subsequently introduced in many other languages. Many songs in Sing Praises to Jehovah were present in the two books, some that were found not to have been written by members of Jehovahs Witnesses were excluded. In 2009, the release of a new hymnal, Sing to Jehovah, was announced and it contains 135 songs, including 42 new songs, and alterations to the melodies and lyrics of others
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Jehovah
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Jehovah is a Latinization of the Hebrew יְהֹוָה, one vocalization of the Tetragrammaton יהוה, the proper name of the God of Israel in the Hebrew Bible. The consensus among scholars is that the historical vocalization of the Tetragrammaton at the time of the redaction of the Torah is most likely Yahweh. The historical vocalization was lost because in Second Temple Judaism, during the 3rd to 2nd centuries BCE, the Hebrew vowel points of Adonai were added to the Tetragrammaton by the Masoretes, and the resulting form was transliterated around the 12th century as Yehowah. The derived forms Iehouah and Jehovah first appeared in the 16th century, Jehovah was popularized in the English-speaking world by William Tyndale and other pioneer English Protestant translations such as the Geneva Bible and the King James Version. Most scholars believe Jehovah to be a form derived by combining the Latin letters JHVH with the vowels of Adonai. Some hold that there is evidence that a form of the Tetragrammaton similar to Jehovah may have been in use in Semitic, others say that it is the pronunciation Yahweh that is testified in both Christian and pagan texts of the early Christian era. They also point out that the English form Jehovah is quite simply an Anglicized form of Yehovah, dennio, in an article he wrote, in the Journal of Biblical Literature, said, Jehovah misrepresents Yahweh no more than Jeremiah misrepresents Yirmeyahu. The settled connotations of Isaiah and Jeremiah forbid questioning their right, according to a Jewish tradition developed during the 3rd to 2nd centuries BCE, the Tetragrammaton is written but not pronounced. When read, substitute terms replace the name where יְהֹוָה appears in the text. Based on this reasoning, the form יְהֹוָה has been characterized by some as a hybrid form and this form, which first took effect in works dated 1278 and 1303, was adopted in Tyndales and some other Protestant translations of the Bible. In the 1560 Geneva Bible, the Tetragrammaton is translated as Jehovah six times, four as the proper name, in the 1611 King James Version, Jehovah occurred seven times. In the 1885 English Revised Version, the form Jehovah occurs twelve times and it is also used in Christian hymns such as the 1771 hymn, Guide Me, O Thou Great Jehovah. The most widespread theory is that the Hebrew term יְהֹוָה has the points of אֲדֹנָי. Taking the spellings at face value may have been as a result of not knowing about the Qre perpetuum, resulting in the transliteration Yehowah, emil G. Hirsch was among the modern scholars that recognized Jehovah to be grammatically impossible. יְהֹוָה appears 6,518 times in the traditional Masoretic Text, the pronunciation Jehovah is believed to have arisen through the introduction of vowels of the qere—the marginal notation used by the Masoretes. For a few frequent words the marginal note was omitted, referred to as qre perpetuum. One of these frequent cases was Gods name, which was not to be pronounced in fear of profaning the ineffable name. Instead, wherever יהוה appears in the kethib of the biblical and liturgical books, it was to be read as אֲדֹנָי and this combination produces יְהֹוָה and יֱהֹוִה respectively
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Jehovah's Witnesses publications
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The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society produces a significant amount of printed and electronic literature, primarily for use by Jehovahs Witnesses. Their best known publications are the magazines, The Watchtower and Awake, the Watchtower was first published by Charles Taze Russell, founder of the Bible Student movement, in 1879, followed by the inception of the Watch Tower Society in 1881. Supporters adopted the name Jehovahs witnesses in 1931, along with books and brochures, other media are also produced, including CDs, MP3s and DVDs, and Internet downloads and video streaming. New publications are released at Jehovahs Witnesses annual conventions. Most literature produced by Jehovahs Witnesses is intended for use in their evangelizing work, publications for preaching are also routinely studied by members, both privately and at their meetings for worship. Their most widely distributed publications are, New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures and this is the Bible translation primarily used by Jehovahs Witnesses. Published in over 100 languages bi-monthly, a general-interest monthly magazine covering topics from a religious perspective. The Watchtower Announcing Jehovahs Kingdom, published in 240 languages monthly, the Witness then visits the student on a regular basis, generally considering a chapter on each visit. Students are requested to examine the material prior to the arrival of the Bible study conductor, using the questions at the bottom of each page, Jehovahs Witnesses customarily read each paragraph aloud together with the student, and then ask the question provided for that paragraph. Students are encouraged to read the scriptures cited in the material, Jehovahs Witnesses previously offered their literature for a price determined by the branch office in each country, to cover printing costs. Since 2000, Jehovahs Witnesses have offered their publications free of charge globally, printing is funded by voluntary donations from Witnesses and members of the public. Jehovahs Witnesses accept donations if offered by householders, and are instructed to invite donations in countries where soliciting funds is permitted, others, such as the organizational manual Organized to Do Jehovahs Will and Watchtower Library CD-ROM, are typically reserved for members. Certain publications are limited to members in appointed positions, such as the manual for congregation elders, Pay Attention to Yourselves, some publications are typically distributed only to members, but may be supplied to other interested individuals on request or made available in public libraries. These include the biblical encyclopedia Insight on the Scriptures and Jehovahs Witnesses official history book Jehovahs Witnesses—Proclaimers of Gods Kingdom, many of these publications are also available from their website in the Watchtower Online Library. In addition to Jehovahs Witnesses widely distributed journals, various publications have received attention from the media, Aid to Bible Understanding was the first doctrinal and biblical encyclopedia of Jehovahs Witnesses, published in full in 1971. Raymond Franz, a member of the Governing Body who left the organization claimed to have been one of the researchers. Research for the led to new interpretations of some concepts. It was replaced in 1988 by Insight on the Scriptures, which much of the original content from Aid to Bible Understanding
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The Watchtower
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The Watchtower Announcing Jehovahs Kingdom is an illustrated religious magazine, published monthly in 302 languages by Jehovahs Witnesses via the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Along with its magazine, Awake. Jehovahs Witnesses distribute The Watchtower—Public Edition in their door-to-door ministry, the Watchtower—Public Edition is the most widely circulated magazine in the world, with an average print run of approximately 62 million copies bimonthly, as of 2017. The Watchtower—Study Edition is used at meetings, with an average monthly print run of around 15 million. The publication was started by Charles Taze Russell on July 1,1879 under the title Zions Watch Tower, in 1908 the name was changed to The Watch Tower and Herald of Christs Presence. In 1920, the Watch Tower Society reprinted all issues from 1879–1919 in seven volumes, known as the Watchtower Reprints, which have since been reprinted by various Bible Student groups. The stated purpose of The Watchtower is to draw attention to the kingdom of God, according to the magazines mission statement, THIS MAGAZINE, The Watchtower, honors Jehovah God, the Ruler of the universe. It comforts people with the news that Gods heavenly Kingdom will soon end all wickedness. It promotes faith in Jesus Christ, who died so that we might gain everlasting life and this magazine has been published continuously since 1879 and is nonpolitical. It adheres to the Bible as its authority, previously, each issue of the Watchtower contained study articles and other regular features and was distributed to the general public. In 2008, content was divided into a Public Edition distributed to non-Witnesses and a Study Edition, the Public Edition of The Watchtower contains biblical articles relating to a theme shown on the cover. In January 2013, The Watchtower—Public Edition was reduced from 32 to 16 pages, as of the January 2016 issue, the Public Edition is published every two months. The Study Edition contains study articles written for the Watchtower Study, as well as other intra-organizational information directed to current, congregations of Jehovahs Witnesses worldwide discuss the same article each week at the Watchtower Study. They are encouraged to put the information in their own words and to draw attention to scripture application, supporting arguments, the Writing Committee of the Governing Body of Jehovahs Witnesses oversees the research, editing, and development of the articles. The articles are submitted by writing committees from worldwide branch offices. Women are permitted to write articles that are not of a doctrinal nature, the names of the authors, and other publishing staff are not provided. Articles are produced under the authority and supervision of the Governing Body, the magazine is printed in nineteen countries, about 25% of the total is printed at one of the organizations printeries in Georgetown, Ontario, Canada. As of January 2017, each issue of the Public Edition has a print run of approximately 62 million copies—the highest magazine circulation in the world
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Awake!
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Awake. is an illustrated religious magazine published every second month by Jehovahs Witnesses via the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. It is considered to be a magazine of The Watchtower. Awake. is the second most widely distributed magazine in the world, the magazine was originally published every other Wednesday under the name The Golden Age on October 1,1919, by the International Bible Students Association. On October 6,1937, it was renamed Consolation and continued to be published bi-weekly until July 31,1946. On August 22,1946, the magazine was renamed Awake. and until 2005 was published semi-monthly in major languages, monthly in many languages, as of January 2006, the magazine was published monthly, and as of 2016 it is published every second month. The stated purpose of the magazine has changed over time, contains articles about general-interest topics such as nature, geography, family life, and also the Bible and biblical history, from the Watchtower Bible And Tract Societys perspective. It has also presented medical opinions of various medical conditions, conditions that have been featured in Awake. include dementia, stroke, infectious diseases, bipolar disorder, and postpartum depression. Many issues claim that mankind is living in the end times, the magazines editor under the titles of The Golden Age and Consolation was Clayton J. Woodworth, who later served on the boards of several corporations of Jehovahs Witnesses. When the magazine was renamed Awake, publication is overseen by the Writing Committee of the Governing Body of Jehovahs Witnesses. The magazine is printed in nineteen countries, about 25% of the total is printed at one of the organizations printeries in Toronto, Canada. Awake. is considered to be the second most widely distributed magazine in the world, the magazine is distributed by Jehovahs Witnesses in the course of their house-to-house ministry. They are also distributed by approaching people in places, given informally to acquaintances and professionals, or left as reading material in places such as bus terminals. Awake. is available, in selected languages, on compact disc and via download in MP3, AAC, PDF. Until March 1990, Awake. was available for a charge that varied over time. For example, in the United States, the suggested donation per issue was $0.05 in 1950, the Watch Tower Society supported Swaggart in the case, arguing that the perceived sale of religious literature should be exempt from taxation. Jehovahs Witnesses publications List of Watch Tower Society publications List of magazines by circulation The Watchtower and Awake
