1.
Law enforcement agency
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A law enforcement agency, in North American English, is a government agency responsible for the enforcement of the laws. Outside North America, such organizations are usually called police services, LEAs which have their ability to apply their powers restricted in some way are said to operate within a jurisdiction. LEAs will have some form of restriction on their ability to apply their powers. Sometimes a LEA’s jurisdiction is determined by the complexity or seriousness of the non compliance with a law, differentiation of jurisdiction based on the seriousness and complexity of the non compliance either by law or by policy and consensus can coexist in countries. Other LEAs have a jurisdiction defined by the type of laws they enforce or assist in enforcing, for example, Interpol does not work with political, military, religious, or racial matters. A LEA’s jurisdiction usually also includes the bodies they support. Jurisdictionally, there can be an important difference between international LEAs and multinational LEAs, even though both are referred to as international, even in official documents. An international law enforcement agency has jurisdiction and or operates in countries and across State borders. International LEAs are typically also multinational, for example Interpol, within a country, the jurisdiction of law enforcement agencies can be organized and structured in a number of ways to provide law enforcement throughout the country. A law enforcement agency’s jurisdiction can be for the country or for a division or sub-division within the country. In Australia for example, each state has its own LEAs, in the United States for example, typically each state and county or city has its own LEAs. Often a LEA’s jurisdiction will be divided into operations areas for administrative. An operations area is called a command or an office. Sometimes the one jurisdiction is covered by more than one LEA, again for administrative and logistical efficiency reasons, or arising from policy. The primary difference between separate agencies and operational areas within the one jurisdiction is the degree of flexibility to move resources between versus within agencies. When multiple LEAs cover the one legal jurisdicition, each agency still typically organises itself into operations areas, when a LEA’s jurisdiction is for the whole country, it is usually one of two broad types, either federal or national. When the country has a constitution a whole of country LEA is referred to as a federal law enforcement agency. The responsibilities of a federal LEA vary from country to country. S, a federal police agency is a federal LEA which also has the typical police responsibilities of social order and public safety as well as federal law enforcement responsibilities
2.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
3.
New Zealand Government
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The Government of New Zealand, formally Her Majestys Government in New Zealand, is the administrative complex through which authority is exercised in New Zealand. As in most parliamentary democracies, the term Government refers chiefly to the executive branch, based on the principle of responsible government, it operates within the framework that the Queen reigns, but the government rules, so long as it has the support of the House of Representatives. The position of Prime Minister, New Zealands head of government, in practice, the Prime Minister is determined by size of each political party, support agreements between parties and leadership votes in the party that leads the Government. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are formally appointed by the Governor-General, however, the Prime Minister chooses the Cabinet, and by convention, the Governor-General respects the Prime Ministers choices. Cabinet ministers are drawn from elected members of the Prime Ministers party in the House of Representatives, a few more ministers are part of the Executive Council but are outside Cabinet. Most ministers have a portfolio of specific responsibilities such as departments or policy areas, the Prime Minister exercises vast political power, especially in the appointment of government officials and civil servants. The Queen of New Zealand is head of state but plays little part in governing the country, however, the legal authority of the state that is vested in the monarch, known as the Crown, remains the source of the executive power exercised by the Government. The Governor-General presides over the Executive Council, but is not a member, New Zealand had been granted responsible government in 1853 following the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, which was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Governments were set up at state and at level, with initially six provinces. The provinces were abolished by the Abolition of Provinces Act 1876, for the purposes of the Act, the provinces formally ceased to exist on 1 January 1877. The first government that formed along political lines did not appear until 1891, when John Ballance formed the Liberal Party and the Liberal Government. The current Government of New Zealand is the Fifth National Government, led by Prime Minister John Key from 2008 until 12 December 2016, the National Party has parliamentary support from the Māori Party, United Future and ACT. Politics of New Zealand, for a description of jurisdictions, politics. Judiciary of New Zealand Westminster system
4.
Wellington
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Wellington is the capital and second most populous urban area of New Zealand, with 405,000 residents. It is at the tip of the North Island, between Cook Strait and the Rimutaka Range. Wellington is the population centre of the southern North Island and is the administrative centre of the Wellington Region. It is the worlds windiest city, with a wind speed of over 26 km/h. Situated near the centre of the country, Wellington was well placed for trade. In 1839 it was chosen as the first major planned settlement for British immigrants coming to New Zealand, the settlement was named in honour of the Arthur Wellesley, the first Duke of Wellington and victor of the Battle of Waterloo. As the nations capital since 1865, the New Zealand Government and Parliament, Supreme Court, despite being much smaller than Auckland, Wellington is also referred to as New Zealands cultural capital. The city is home to the National Archives, the National Library, architectural sights include the Government Building—one of the largest wooden buildings in the world—as well as the iconic Beehive. Wellington plays host to artistic and cultural organisations, including the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra. It has an urban culture, with many cafés, restaurants. One of the worlds most liveable cities, the 2014 Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranked Wellington 12th in the world, Wellingtons economy is primarily service-based, with an emphasis on finance, business services, and government. It is the centre of New Zealands film and special effects industries, Wellington ranks as one of New Zealands chief seaports and serves both domestic and international shipping. The city is served by Wellington International Airport, the third busiest airport in the country, Wellingtons transport network includes train and bus lines which reach as far as the Kapiti Coast and Wairarapa, and ferries connect the city to the South Island. Wellington takes its name from Arthur Wellesley, the first Duke of Wellington and victor of the Battle of Waterloo, his title comes from the town of Wellington in the English county of Somerset. One of the founders of the settlement, Edward Jerningham Wakefield, reported that the settlers took up the views of the directors with great cordiality, in Māori, Wellington has three names. In New Zealand Sign Language, the name is signed by raising the index, middle and ring fingers of one hand, palm forward, to form a W, and shaking it slightly from side to side twice. The citys location close to the mouth of the narrow Cook Strait leads to its vulnerability to strong gales, legends recount that Kupe discovered and explored the district in about the 10th century. The earliest date with hard evidence for Maori living in New Zealand is about 1280, European settlement began with the arrival of an advance party of the New Zealand Company on the ship Tory on 20 September 1839, followed by 150 settlers on the Aurora on 22 January 1840
5.
Stuart Nash
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Stuart Alexander Nash is a politician from New Zealand. He was a member of the House of Representatives for the Labour Party from 2008 to 2011, Nash is the great-grandson of former Prime Minister, Sir Walter Nash. Born and educated in Napier, Nash holds masters degrees in Law, Forestry Science, before moving back to his home town of Napier, he was the Director of Strategic Development at Auckland University of Technology. The tactic didnt work, with Hide winning, though at 9,915 Labour received the highest number of party votes in this electorate at any time under the MMP parliamentary system, placed at number 60 on the party list, Nash failed to get elected. In 2007 Nash contested the Labour Party selection for the Napier seat in the 2008 general election, but lost to Russell Fairbrother, a list MP and the former Napier electorate MP. However Nash was ranked at number 36 on the party list and was elected to parliament as the lowest-ranked candidate who was successful at the election. After becoming a list MP Nash was appointed Labours spokesperson for Revenue, on 15 June 2010, Opposition Leader Phil Goff appointed Nash to be portfolio spokesperson for Forestry, a position formerly held by Mita Ririnui. In February 2011 Phil Goff announced his new line up and Nash was ranked 27th. In the 2011 general election, Nash contested the Napier electorate seat held by National Cabinet Minister Chris Tremain, Nash reduced Tremains 2008 majority of 9,018 votes by 5,300 votes but still came second. As well, Nash was ranked 27 on the Labour list, higher than in 2008, after leaving Parliament, Nash signed on as the chief-of-staff for newly appointed party leader David Shearer. However, Nash resigned after just four months into the job and returned to his town of Napier, citing the birth of his new child. In February 2014, Nash was selected as Labours candidate for Napier to contest the 2014 general election, nationals Tremain had retired and was succeeded by Wayne Walford, and Nash had a majority of 3,850 votes over Walford. The Napier electorate was contested by Garth McVicar for the Conservative Party
6.
Armed Offenders Squad
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The Armed Offenders Squad are specialist part-time units of the New Zealand Police based around the country available to respond to high risk incidents utilising specialist tactics and equipment. The AOS was established when front-line police officers did not carry firearms, in contrast to today, where officers continue to not routinely carry, however, now have ready access to firearms if required, including high-powered rifles, and receive firearms training. A new expanding role for the AOS is assisting with planned operations, the detective who investigated the Waitakere killings recommended the creation of a unit to deal with armed offenders spending time with the New South Wales Police Emergency Squad. The AOS was formally started in August 1964 trained by the New Zealand Special Air Service with the philosophy of cordon, contain, One of the highest-profile AOS interventions is their action during the Aramoana massacre on 13–14 November 1990, which involved at least 150 police officers. Officers from the Special Tactics Group were also present at the crisis, sergeant Stewart Guthrie, an NCO in the AOS, was killed in the massacre, although he arrived alone with only a revolver, ahead of the fully equipped team from Dunedin. Roughly 300 police were involved in the raids, four guns and roughly 230 rounds of ammunition were seized and 17 people were arrested. According to the police the raids were a culmination of more than a year of surveillance that uncovered and monitored the training camps, the warrants were executed under the Summary Proceedings Act, the Terrorism Suppression Act, and the Arms Act. Raids were conducted in Wellington, Christchurch, Taupo and Tauranga, allegations of New Zealand Police searching a school bus also surfaced. The AOS were also involved in a shooting on a motorway in Auckland on 23 January 2009, a squad member accidentally shot and killed innocent teenager Halatau Naitoko as a gunman threatened a truck driver, and Naitoko was caught in the line of fire. A former police inspector called for the member who shot Naitoko to be charged while AOS training would be changed to avoid future incidents similar to the Naitoko case. The AOS was involved in the 2009 Napier shootings with the Special Tactics Group, the AOS has fatally shot several people. In November 2009, TV One screened a three part documentary Line of Fire, an incident may fall within the call out criteria of the Special Tactics Group with the AOS providing a cordon and containment response. Deployments can be either emergency call outs or planned operations, between 1996 and 2009, the AOS conducted an average of 513 deployments a year. In 2010-2011, this increased to 992 as the AOS was involved in more planned operations such as assisting in drug raids on clandestine labs, planned operations now account for almost two-thirds of deployments. On average, shots are fired once by the AOS for every 260 deployments. As of 2012, there are 17 squads throughout New Zealand covering all population centres. Members are part-time, come from all branches of the New Zealand Police such as the Criminal Investigation Branch or general duties, in the event of an incident requiring AOS attendance, the on-duty officers will be paged by the communications centre. They then assemble at their base, to arms and get other equipment
7.
Law enforcement
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Most law enforcement is conducted by some type of law enforcement agency, with the most typical agency fulfilling this role being the police. Law enforcement agencies tend to be limited to operating within a specified jurisdiction, various specialized segments of society may have their own internal law enforcement arrangements. For example, military organizations may have military police, outline of law enforcement – structured list of topics related to law enforcement, organized by subject area Criminal law Biosecurity Commons
8.
Militia
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For instance, the members of some U. S. Army National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to maintain the same standards as their full-time counterparts. Militias thus can be military or paramilitary, depending on the instance, some of the contexts in which the term militia is used include, Forces engaged in defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, a subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation, a private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An irregular armed force enabling its leader to exercise military, economic, an official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries, such as the Army Reserve, National Guard, the national police forces in several former communist states such as the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries, but also in the non-aligned SFR Yugoslavia. The term was inherited in Russia and other former CIS countries, in France the equivalent term Milice has become tainted due to its use by notorious collaborators with Nazi Germany. A select militia is composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population, as regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers, Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included the peoples, who ranked low down in the social hierarchy. With these reinforcements, the British armies were twice defeated, the militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which the criollos could manifest their political ambitions. They were a key element in the success of the May Revolution, a decree by Mariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involving criollos, allowing instead their promotion on military merit. The Argentine Civil War was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts and these irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts. This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modern Argentine Army, provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by the new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre, Sarmiento, Avellaneda and Roca. Armenian militia also played a role in the Georgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993, in the Colony of New South Wales Governor Lachlan Macquarie proposed a colonial militia but the idea was rejected. Governor Ralph Darling felt a mounted force was more efficient than a militia. A military volunteer movement attracted wide interest during the Crimean War, following Federation, the various military reserve forces of the Commonwealth of Australia became the Citizen Military Force. In the beginning, members didnt have uniforms and often paraded in business attire and they were given instruction on guerrilla warfare, and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of the Australian Military Forces. After World War I, multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages, only to many of them occupied by Slovene
9.
Ministers of the New Zealand Government
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Ministers, in the New Zealand government, are members of parliament who hold ministerial warrants from the Crown to perform certain functions of government. This includes formulating and implementing policies and advising the Governor-General, ministers collectively make up the executive branch of the New Zealand state. The formal powers of the executive are exercised through the Executive Council, when the Executive Council resolves to issue an order, and the order is signed by the Governor-General, it becomes legally binding. A minister is generally charged with supervising a particular aspect of the governments activities, sometimes, people may be appointed ministers without being given any specific role — they are known as ministers without portfolio. Such appointments have become rare today, although sometimes a person may be appointed to a sinecure portfolio such as Minister of State for similar purposes, the appointment of ministers is officially made by the Governor-General, who must sign a ministerial warrant before it officially comes into effect. Originally, the Executive Council functioned as a group to the Governor. The various ministers serving on the Council, such as the Colonial Secretary, when Parliament was established, however, many believed that they would soon replace these appointed officials, with ministerial positions being given to members of Parliament instead. The Acting Governor, Robert Wynyard, did not agree, however, the issue was controversial, and ended with the Acting Governor attempting to suspend the 1st New Zealand Parliament. Later, in the 2nd New Zealand Parliament, Parliament was victorious, Henry Sewell became Colonial Secretary, Dillon Bell became Colonial Treasurer, Frederick Whitaker became Attorney-General, and Henry Tancred became a minister without portfolio. Since then, all ministers have been appointed from among the ranks of Parliament, later, Parliament made further gains, with the convention being established that the Governor-Generals actions in the Executive Council were bound by the advice that ministers gave. Today, the Executive Council is not used for deliberation - rather, Cabinet is a separate meeting of most government ministers, and formally presents proposals to the whole Executive Council only when a decision has already been reached
10.
Monarchy of New Zealand
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The Crown is the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the New Zealand government, which is a Westminster-style parliamentary democracy. Most of the powers are exercised by the elected parliamentarians, the ministers of the Crown generally drawn from amongst them. The New Zealand monarchy has its roots in the British Crown, from which it has evolved to become a distinctly New Zealand institution, however, the Queen is the only member of the Royal Family with any constitutional role. New Zealand shares the same monarch with the other 15 monarchies in the 54-member Commonwealth of Nations, supports of the monarchy argue it costs New Zealand taxpayers only a small outlay for royal engagements and tours and the expenses of the governor-generals establishment. Monarchy New Zealand states his figure is one dollar per person per year. Thus, New Zealands line of succession remains identical to that of the United Kingdom, as such, the rules for succession are not fixed, but may be changed by a constitutional amendment. The Constitution Act 1986 specifies that should a regent be installed in the United Kingdom, upon a demise of the Crown, the late sovereigns heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for confirmation or further ceremony—hence arises the phrase The King is dead. It is customary, though, for the accession of the new monarch to be proclaimed by the governor-general on behalf of the Executive Council of New Zealand. Following an appropriate period of mourning, the monarch is crowned in the United Kingdom in an ancient ritual. After an individual ascends the throne, he or she continues to reign until death. One of the first post-Second World War examples of New Zealands status as an independent monarchy was the alteration of the title by the Royal Titles Act 1953. This is one of the key differences from the Queens role in England and this is done in reciprocation to the sovereigns Coronation Oath, wherein he or she promises to govern the Peoples of. According to their laws and customs. Though this power stems from the people, all New Zealanders live under the authority of the monarch, the government of New Zealand is defined by the constitution as the Queen acting on the advice of her Executive Council. In the construct of constitutional monarchy and responsible government, the advice tendered is typically binding, meaning the monarch reigns. The Royal Prerogative also extends to foreign affairs, the sovereign or the governor-general conducts treaties, alliances, the governor-general, on behalf of the Queen, also accredits New Zealand high commissioners and ambassadors, and receives similar diplomats from foreign states. In addition, the issuance of passports falls under the Royal Prerogative, the Crown is further responsible for summoning, proroguing, and dissolving the House of Representatives, after which the governor-general usually calls for a general election. The sovereign is responsible for rendering justice for all her subjects, however, she does not personally rule in judicial cases, instead the judicial functions of the Royal Prerogative are performed in trust and in the Queens name by Officers of Her Majestys Court
11.
Corruption in New Zealand
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The Independent Police Conduct Authority is an independent body that considers complaints against New Zealand Police and oversees their conduct. The first New Zealand Ombudsman was appointed in 1962, the Ombudsmans role is to ensure citizens receive fair play in their dealings with government entities. Crime in New Zealand IPCA Ombudsman Serious Fraud Office Finance company collapses, 2006-12 Henderson, John, Cave, Shane, Petrie, national Integrity Systems TI Country Study Report New Zealand 2003. Bribery and corruption page at the Serious Fraud Office Transparency International New Zealand
12.
William Hobson
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Captain William Hobson RN was the first Governor of New Zealand and co-author of the Treaty of Waitangi. William Hobson was born in Waterford, Ireland, the son of Samuel Hobson, some sources put his year of birth in 1793. He joined the Royal Navy on 25 August 1803 as a second-class volunteer and he served in the Napoleonic wars and was later involved in the suppression of piracy in the Caribbean. He became a midshipman in 1806 and some seven years later was a first lieutenant and he was promoted to commander in May 1824 and commanded HMS Scylla between 1826 and 1828. In December 1834, he obtained a commission from Lord Auckland to the East Indies on HMS Rattlesnake, in 1836, he was ordered to Australia, arriving at Hobart on 5 August 1836 and at Sydney 18 days later. On 18 September 1836, HMS Rattlesnake left for Port Phillip District conveying Captain Lonsdale and other officials to the new colony. During the next three months, Hobson and his officers thoroughly surveyed Port Phillip, the portion of which, by direction of Governor Sir Richard Bourke, was named Hobsons Bay. His ship was involved in the founding of Williamstown, on 26 May 1837 Hobson sailed to the Bay of Islands, New Zealand, in response to a request for help from James Busby, the British Resident, who felt threatened by wars between Māori tribes. For three months in 1837 Pōmare II fought with Titore until an agreement was negotiated by Tareha. At the time, the British government recognised the sovereignty of the Māori people, as represented in the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand of October 1835, which Busby had organised. Hobson was appointed Lieutenant Governor under the Governor of New South Wales, Sir George Gipps, on 14 August 1839 Lord Normanby issued him with detailed instructions, giving reasons for intervention in New Zealand and directions for the purchase of land by fair and equal contracts. The Legislative Council comprised the above officials and three Justices of the Peace, Hobson appointed as three Magistrates, Messrs. Upon arrival, Hobson almost immediately drafted the Treaty of Waitangi together with his secretary James Freeman, after obtaining signatures to the Treaty at the Bay of Islands, he travelled to Waitemata Harbour to obtain more signatures and to survey a suitable location for a new capital. After suffering a stroke on 1 March 1840, he was back to the Bay of Islands. He sent Willoughby Shortland and some soldiers to Port Nicholson on 25 May 1840, and their leader, William Wakefield, later travelled to the Bay of Islands to pledge allegiance to the Crown. His suggestion to make Port Nicholson the capital was rejected in favour of Hobsons plan for a new town on Waitemata Harbour, to be named Auckland after the Earl of Auckland. On 11 July 1840 the French frigate LAube arrived at the Bay of Islands on its way to Banks Peninsula as part of the settlement plan of the Nanto-Bordelaise Company, Hobson immediately sent two magistrates to the area to establish the British claim to sovereignty by holding courts. Near the end of 1840, the Port Nicholson settlers sent a petition to Queen Victoria calling for Hobsons dismissal over his treatment of them, Hobson responded on 26 May 1841 to the Foreign Secretary
13.
Royal Irish Constabulary
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The Royal Irish Constabulary was the armed police force of the United Kingdom in Ireland from the early nineteenth century until 1922. About seventy-five percent of the RIC were Roman Catholic and about twenty-five percent were of various Protestant denominations, the Catholics mainly constables and the Protestants officers. In consequence of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, the RIC was disbanded in 1922 and was replaced by the Garda Síochána in the Irish Free State and the Royal Ulster Constabulary in Northern Ireland. The 1822 Act established a force in each province with chief constables, by 1841 this force numbered over 8,600 men. The original force had been reorganised under The Act of 1836, the discipline was strict and the pay low. The police faced civil unrest among the Irish rural poor, and was involved in bloody confrontations during the period of the Tithe War, other deployments were against organisations like the Ribbonmen, which attacked landlords, their property and stock. This was followed by a period of relative calm, the advent of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, founded in 1858, brought a plan for an armed uprising. Direct action began with the Fenian Rising of 1867, Fenians attacked on the more isolated police barracks and smaller stations. This rebellion was put down with ruthless efficiency, the police had infiltrated the Fenians with informers. The RIC presided over a decline in general crime around the country. The unstable rural unrest of the nineteenth century characterised by secret organisations. Policing generally became a routine of controlling misdemeanours such as moonshine distilling, public drunkenness, minor theft, a Land War broke out in the 1879–82 Depression period, causing some general unrest. In Belfast, with its boom, the working population mushroomed. Much of the increase arose from Catholic migration and there were serious riots in 1857,1864,1872 and 1886. As a result, the small Belfast Town Police civic force was disbanded, likewise in 1870, the RIC took over the duties of the Londonderry Borough Police. About 70% of the force in Belfast declared their support of the strikers and were encouraged by Larkin to carry out their own strike for higher wages. It never came to fruition, however, as dissident policemen were transferred out of Belfast four days before the strike was to begin, barrett and six other constables were dismissed and extra British Army troops were deployed to Belfast. The dock strike ended on 28 August 1907, the RICs existence was, increasingly troubled by the rise of the Home Rule campaign in the early twentieth century period prior to World War I
14.
New South Wales Police Force
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The New South Wales Police Force is the primary law enforcement agency of the state of New South Wales, Australia. It is a servant of the Crown, independent of Government, under the Police Regulation Act,1862, the organisation of the NSW Police Force was formally established in 1862 with the unification of all existing independent police units in the state. The authority and responsibility of the police force was given to the inspector general of police. The 1990s were a turbulent period in NSW police history, the Royal Commission into the New South Wales Police Service was held between 1995 and 1997. The Royal Commission uncovered hundreds of instances of bribery, money laundering, drug trafficking, the police commissioner, Tony Lauer, resigned as the level of corruption in the service became clear and his own position untenable. Peter James Ryan was recruited from the UK, wide-ranging reforms occurred as a result of the recommendations of the Royal Commission, including the establishment of a permanent Police Integrity Commission. The minister for justice and police, Troy Grant, is responsible to the NSW parliament for the police portfolio, Grant is a former NSW police officer who served 22 years before entering politics. As of October 2014, the force consists of some 16,467 officers. The motto of the NSW Police Force is the Latin Culpam poena premit comes, the NSW Police insignia includes the motto. The overall mission of the police is to life and property and to detect. Like all other states of Australia, municipalities and shires in NSW have only limited law enforcement responsibilities. The police perform the primary law enforcement role in all areas of the state, the New South Wales Police Force has existed in various forms since the foundation of the colony of New South Wales at Sydney in 1788. Police units were under the rule of the district magistrates, responding to the various forms of crime, a number of independent specialised units were set up. The earliest of these units formed was the Mounted Police, established in 1825 to keep the settlers safe, in 2009, it had 34 horses and was claimed to be the oldest mounted police unit in the world. Other specialist groups formed during this time were the Water Police, the Border Police and the Native Police. After a failed attempt made by Act No.38 of 1850, unified control of the police eventuated in 1862 when the Police Regulation Act was passed, the first inspector general of police, John McLerie, was appointed to assume overall authority and responsibility. The Police Regulation Act, passed in 1935, changed the title to commissioner of police. The position of deputy commissioner was also created, by 1872, there were seventy police stations throughout the colony in sub-districts, with a total of 803 police officers
15.
Te Kooti's War
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Te Kootis War was among the last of the New Zealand wars, the series of 19th century conflicts between the Māori and the colonising European settlers. The conflict was sparked by Te Kootis return to New Zealand after two years of internment on the Chatham Islands, from where he had escaped with almost 200 Māori prisoners of war and their families. Te Kooti, who had been held without trial on the island for two years, told the government he and his followers wished to be left in peace and would fight only if pursued and attacked. But two weeks after their return to New Zealand, members of Te Kootis party found themselves being pursued by a force of militia, government troops, Te Kootis force routed them in an ambush, seizing arms, ammunition, food and horses. The engagement was the first in what became a guerrilla war, involving more than 30 expeditions by colonial. Te Kooti was finally granted sanctuary by the Māori king in 1872 and moved to the King Country and he was formally pardoned by the government in February 1883 and died in 1893. Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki was born about 1832 into the Ngati Maru sub-tribe of the Māori people in Poverty Bay on the shore of East Cape. The protests were part of a movement to recover occupied land, despite his involvement in land politics, Te Kooti stayed clear of the Pai Mārire religion when it spread to the East Coast in early 1865. He fought with kūpapa Māori and government troops against Pai Mārire men, women and children in the siege of Waerenga-a-Hika in October 1865. Te Kooi claimed to have killed two Pai Mārire fighters in the battle, but was accused of being a spy and was arrested after the siege ended. His repeated pleas to be told of what offence he had accused of. Prisoners were kept in conditions with minimal health care and forced to build roads and barracks. In April 1867, a year after their arrival, prisoners were told they would not be repatriated until East Coast land confiscations had been determined, by 1868 the mood of the exiles darkened as they realised there were no plans to return them to New Zealand. A total of 298 people—163 men,64 women and 71 children—sailed out of the Chatham Islands, arriving at a cove at Whareongaonga, south of Turanga. The letter also asked that they be left in peace and not be pursued as they made their way to the interior of the North Island, while in the Chathams Te Kooti also learned of the sale of disputed Poverty Bay land in which he held an interest. The transactions involved many of those, both Māori and European settler, whom he killed in his Poverty Bay campaigns. Te Kooti rejected the demand, declaring he would fight if he was pursued and attacked. Te Kooti intended to settle in the village of Tauranga
16.
New Zealand Wars
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The New Zealand Wars were a series of armed conflicts that took place in New Zealand from 1845 to 1872 between the New Zealand government and the Māori. The colonial government summoned thousands of British troops to mount major campaigns to overpower the Māori King Movement and also acquire farming, guerilla-style tactics were used by both sides in later campaigns, often fought in dense bush. Over the course of the Taranaki and Waikato campaigns the lives of about 1800 Māori and 800 Europeans were lost, historians, however, have debated whether Māori signatories fully understood this last point, due to the possible mistranslation of the word sovereignty in the treaty copies. The majority of Māori wanted to sign in order to consolidate peace and they also wished to acquire the technological culture of the British. All pre-treaty colonial land-sale deals had taken place directly between two parties, in the early period of contact Māori generally sought trade with Europeans. The British and the French established mission stations, and missionaries received land from iwi for houses, schools, churches, as part of the Treaty of Waitangi, colonial authorities decreed that Māori could sell land only to the Crown. The various conflicts of the New Zealand wars span a period. The earliest conflicts in the 1840s happened at a time when Māori were still the predominant power, the first armed conflict between Māori and the European settlers took place on 17 June 1843 in the Wairau Valley, in the north of the South Island. The clash was sparked when settlers led by a representative of the New Zealand Company—which held a title deed to a block of land—attempted to clear Māori off the land ready for surveying. The party also attempted to arrest Ngāti Toa chiefs Te Rauparaha, fighting broke out and 22 Europeans were killed, as well as four to six Māori. Several Europeans were slain after being captured, in early 1844, the new Governor, Robert FitzRoy, investigated the incident and declared the settlers were at fault. The Wairau Affray—described as the Wairau Massacre in early texts—was the only armed conflict of the New Zealand Wars to take place in the South Island. The Flagstaff War took place in the far north of New Zealand, around the Bay of Islands, in 1845 George Grey arrived in New Zealand to take up his appointment as governor. At this time Hone Heke challenged the authority of the British, there were many causes of the Flagstaff War and Heke had a number of grievances in relation to the Treaty of Waitangi. Despite the fact that Tāmati Wāka Nene and most of Ngāpuhi sided with the government, after the Battle of Ruapekapeka Heke and Kawiti were ready for peace. It was Tāmati Wāka Nene they approached to act as the intermediary to negotiate with Governor Grey, the fighting in the north ended and there was no punitive confiscation of Ngāpuhi land. The Hutt Valley campaign of 1846 came as a sequel to the Wairau Affray, Ngāti Toa chief Te Rauparaha was also taken into custody during the campaign, he was detained without charge in Auckland for two years. The bloodshed heightened settlers fears in nearby Wanganui, which was given a military force to guard against attack
17.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
18.
Laura Bush
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Laura Lane Welch Bush is the wife of the 43rd President of the United States, George W. Bush, and was the First Lady from 2001 to 2009. Bush graduated from Southern Methodist University in 1968 with a degree in education. After attaining her masters degree in science at the University of Texas at Austin. Bush met her husband, George W. Bush, in 1977. The couple had twin daughters in 1981, Bushs political involvement began during her marriage. She campaigned with her husband during his unsuccessful 1978 run for the United States Congress, as First Lady of Texas, Bush implemented many initiatives focused on health, education, and literacy. She became First Lady after her husband was inaugurated as president on January 20,2001, polled by The Gallup Organization as one of the most popular First Ladies, Bush was involved in national and global concerns during her tenure. She continued to advance her trademark interests of education and literacy by establishing the semi-annual National Book Festival in 2001 and she also advanced womens causes through The Heart Truth and Susan G. Komen for the Cure organizations. She represented the United States during her trips, which tended to focus on HIV/AIDS. Laura Lane Welch was born on November 4,1946 in Midland, Texas, Bush is of English, French, and Swiss ancestry. Her father was a builder and later successful real estate developer. Early on, her parents encouraged her to read, leading to what would become her love of reading and she said, I learned at home from my mother. When I was a girl, my mother would read stories to me. I have loved books and going to the library ever since, in the summer, I liked to spend afternoons reading in the library. I enjoyed the Little House on the Prairie and Little Women books, reading gives you enjoyment throughout your life. Bush has also credited her second grade teacher, Charlene Gnagy, on the night of November 6,1963, Laura Welch ran a stop sign and struck another car, resulting in the death of its driver. The victim was her friend and classmate Michael Dutton Douglas. By some accounts, Douglas had been Bushs boyfriend at one time, Bush and her passenger, both 17, were treated for minor injuries
19.
Bamyan
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Bamyan, also spelled Bamiyan and Bamian, is the capital of Bamyan Province in central Afghanistan. Bamyan was the site of an early Hindu–Buddhist monastery from which Bamyan takes its name, bamyans name is translated as ‘The Place of Shining Light’. Many statues of Buddha are carved into the sides of cliffs facing Bamyan city, in 2008, Bamyan was found to be the home of the worlds oldest oil paintings. The city of Bamyan has a population of 100,000 and it has four districts and a total land area of 3,539 hectares. The total number of dwellings in this city are 4,435, the Bamiyan valley marked the most westerly point of Buddhist expansion and was a crucial hub of trade for much of the second millennium CE. It was a place where East met West and its archaeology reveals a blend of Greek, Turkish, Persian, Chinese and Indian influence. Situated on the ancient Silk Route, the town was at the crossroads between the East and West when all trade between China and the Middle East passed through it, the Hunas made it their capital in the 5th century. Because of the cliff of the Buddhas, the ruins of the Monks caves, Shar-i-Gholghola, and its local scenery, it is one of the most visited places in Afghanistan. The Shar-i-Zohak mound ten miles south of the valley is the site of a citadel that guarded the city, the town is the cultural center of the Hazara ethnic group of Afghanistan. Most of the lives in downtown Bamyan. The valley is cradled between the mountain ranges of the Hindu Kush and the Koh-i-Baba. Bamyan is a town with a bazaar at its center. It has no infrastructure of electricity, gas, or water supplies, according to Sister Cities International, Bamyan has established a sister city relationship with Gering, Nebraska, United States. It has an airport with a gravel runway, mountains cover ninety percent of the province, and the cold, long winter, lasting for six months, brings temperatures of three to twenty degrees Celsius below zero. Mainly Daizangi Hazara people live in the area, transportation facilities are increasing, but sparse. Notably Bamyan is now connected by road to Kabul through Parwan province, the connection between Maidan Shar and Bamyan –136 km long – makes it possible to reach Kabul in a 2 hour drive. The connection is almost completed missing just 15 km of paving The main crops are wheat, barley, mushung, when crops are damaged by unusually harsh weather, residents herd their livestock down to Ghazni and Maidan Provinces to exchange for food. The city and the province are served by Bamyan Airport, a new airport has been completed in 2015 with an asphalt runway
20.
Wiki
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A wiki is a website that provides collaborative modification of its content and structure directly from the web browser. In a typical wiki, text is written using a markup language. A wiki is run using wiki software, otherwise known as a wiki engine, there are dozens of different wiki engines in use, both standalone and part of other software, such as bug tracking systems. Some wiki engines are open source, whereas others are proprietary, some permit control over different functions, for example, editing rights may permit changing, adding or removing material. Others may permit access without enforcing access control, other rules may also be imposed to organize content. Wikipedia is not a wiki but rather a collection of hundreds of wikis. There are at least tens of thousands of other wikis in use, both public and private, including functioning as knowledge management resources, notetaking tools, community websites. The English-language Wikipedia has the largest collection of articles, as of September 2016, ward Cunningham, the developer of the first wiki software, WikiWikiWeb, originally described it as the simplest online database that could possibly work. Wiki is a Hawaiian word meaning quick, Wiki promotes meaningful topic associations between different pages by making page link creation intuitively easy and showing whether an intended target page exists or not. A wiki is not a carefully crafted site created by experts and professional writers, instead, it seeks to involve the typical visitor/user in an ongoing process of creation and collaboration that constantly changes the website landscape. A wiki enables communities of editors and contributors to write documents collaboratively, all that people require to contribute is a computer, Internet access, a web browser and a basic understanding of a simple markup language. A single page in a website is referred to as a wiki page, while the entire collection of pages. A wiki is essentially a database for creating, browsing, a wiki allows non-linear, evolving, complex and networked text, while also allowing for editor argument, debate and interaction regarding the content and formatting. A defining characteristic of wiki technology is the ease with which pages can be created and updated, generally, there is no review by a moderator or gatekeeper before modifications are accepted and thus lead to changes on the website. Many wikis are open to alteration by the public without requiring registration of user accounts. Many edits can be made in real-time and appear almost instantly online, however, this feature facilitates abuse of the system. Private wiki servers require user authentication to edit pages, and sometimes even to read them, maged N. Kamel Boulos, Cito Maramba and Steve Wheeler write that the open wikis produce a process of Social Darwinism. Unfit sentences and sections are ruthlessly culled, edited and replaced if they are not considered fit, while such openness may invite vandalism and the posting of untrue information, this same openness also makes it possible to rapidly correct or restore a quality wiki page
21.
East Timor
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East Timor or Timor-Leste, officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is a sovereign state in Maritime Southeast Asia. It comprises the half of the island of Timor, the nearby islands of Atauro and Jaco, and Oecusse. The countrys size is about 15,410 km2, nine days later, it was invaded and occupied by Indonesia and was declared Indonesias 27th province the following year. The Indonesian occupation of East Timor was characterised by a highly violent decades-long conflict between separatist groups and the Indonesian military, in 1999, following the United Nations-sponsored act of self-determination, Indonesia relinquished control of the territory. East Timor became the first new state of the 21st century on 20 May 2002 and joined the United Nations. In 2011, East Timor announced its intention to gain status in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations by applying to become its eleventh member. It is one of two predominantly Christian nations in Southeast Asia, the other being the Philippines. In Indonesian, the country is called Timor Timur, thus using the Portuguese name for the island followed by the word for east, the official names under the Constitution are Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste in English, República Democrática de Timor-Leste in Portuguese and Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste in Tetum. Humans first settled in East Timor 42,000 years ago, descendants of at least three waves of migration are believed still to live in East Timor. The first is described by anthropologists as people of the Veddo-Australoid type, around 3000 BC, a second migration brought Melanesians. The earlier Veddo-Australoid peoples withdrew at this time to the mountainous interior, finally, proto-Malays arrived from south China and north Indochina. Hakka traders are among those descended from this final group, Timorese origin myths tell of ancestors that sailed around the eastern end of Timor arriving on land in the south. Some stories recount Timorese ancestors journeying from the Malay Peninsula or the Minangkabau highlands of Sumatra, austronesians migrated to Timor, and are thought to be associated with the development of agriculture on the island. Thirdly, Proto-Malays arrived from south China and north Indochina, before European colonialism, Timor was included in Chinese and Indian trading networks, and in the 14th century was an exporter of aromatic sandalwood, slaves, honey, and wax. It was the abundance of sandalwood in Timor that attracted European explorers to the island in the early 16th century. During that time, European explorers reported that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms, the Portuguese established outposts in Timor and Maluku. Effective European occupation of a part of the territory began in 1769, when the city of Dili was founded. For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a trading post until the late nineteenth century, with minimal investment in infrastructure, health
22.
Solomon Islands
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The countrys capital, Honiara, is located on the island of Guadalcanal. The islands have been inhabited for thousands of years, in 1568, the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to visit them, naming them the Islas Salomón. Britain defined its area of interest in the Solomon Islands archipelago in June 1893, during World War II, the Solomon Islands campaign saw fierce fighting between the United States and the Empire of Japan, such as in the Battle of Guadalcanal. The official name of the then British overseas territory was changed from the British Solomon Islands Protectorate to Solomon Islands in 1975, self-government was achieved in 1976, independence was obtained two years later. Today, Solomon Islands is a monarchy with the Queen of Solomon Islands, currently Queen Elizabeth II. Manasseh Sogavare is the current prime minister, in 1568, the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to visit the Solomon Islands archipelago, naming it Islas Salomón after the wealthy biblical King Solomon. It is said that they were given name in the mistaken assumption that they contained great riches. During most of the period of British rule the territory was named the British Solomon Islands Protectorate. On 22 June 1975 the territory was renamed Solomon Islands, when Solomon Islands became independent in 1978 they retained the name. The definite article, the, is not part of the official name but is sometimes used. It is believed that Papuan-speaking settlers began to arrive around 30,000 BC, austronesian speakers arrived c.4000 BC also bringing cultural elements such as the outrigger canoe. Between 1200 and 800 BC the ancestors of the Polynesians, the Lapita people, the first European to visit the islands was the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira, coming from Peru in 1568. The people of Solomon Islands were notorious for headhunting and cannibalism before the arrival of the Europeans, missionaries began visiting the Solomons in the mid-19th century. They made little progress at first, because blackbirding led to a series of reprisals, the evils of the labour trade prompted the United Kingdom to declare a protectorate over the southern Solomons in June 1893. Traditional trade and social intercourse between the western Solomon Islands of Mono and Alu and the societies in the south of Bougainville, however. Missionaries settled in the Solomons under the protectorate, converting most of the population to Christianity, in the early 20th century several British and Australian firms began large-scale coconut planting. Economic growth was slow, however, and the islanders benefited little, journalist Joe Melvin visited in 1892, as part of his undercover investigation into blackbirding. In 1908 the islands were visited by Jack London, who was cruising the Pacific on his boat, with the outbreak of the Second World War most planters and traders were evacuated to Australia and most cultivation ceased
23.
Autonomous Region of Bougainville
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The Autonomous Region of Bougainville, previously known as the North Solomons Province, is an autonomous region in Papua New Guinea. The largest island is Bougainville Island, and the province also includes Buka Island, the capital is temporarily Buka, though it is expected that Arawa will be the permanent provincial capital. The population of the province is 249,358, Bougainville Island is ecologically and geographically part of the Solomon Islands archipelago but is not politically part of the nation of Solomon Islands. Buka, Bougainville, and most of the Solomons are part of the Solomon Islands rain forests ecoregion, the island was named after the French explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville, who made expeditions to the Pacific. He is also the namesake of the tropical flowering vines of the genus Bougainvillea), in 1885, the island was taken over by a German administration as part of German New Guinea. Australia occupied it in 1914 during World War I, after the war the League of Nations designated it as a mandatory power and administered the island from 1918 until the Japanese invaded it in 1942 during World War II. Australia took over administration of the island when that war ended in 1945 and it administered British and German New Guinea, but was not the official colonial power. During World War II, the island was occupied by Australian, American and it was an important base for the RAAF, RNZAF and USAAF. On 8 March 1944, during the Pacific War, American forces were attacked by Japanese troops on Hill 700 on this island, the battle lasted five days, ending with a Japanese retreat. The island is rich in copper and gold, a large mine was established at Panguna in the early 1970s by Bougainville Copper Limited, a subsidiary of Rio Tinto. Activists proclaimed the independence of Bougainville in 1975 and in 1990, in 1988, the Bougainville Revolutionary Army increased their activity significantly. Prime Minister Sir Rabbie Namaliu ordered the Papua New Guinea Defence Force to put down the rebellion, the PNGDF retreated from permanent positions on Bougainville in 1990, but continued military action. The conflict involved pro-independence and loyalist Bougainvillean groups as well as the PNGDF, the war claimed an estimated 15,000 to 20,000 lives. The Sandline affair was an incident that resulted from use of these mercenary troops. President John Momis confirmed that Bougainville will hold a referendum some time before 2020 once the region has resolved some remaining issues. The governments of both Bougainville and Papua New Guinea have set a date of June 15,2019 for the vote. However, certain criteria on Bougainvilles part must be met before any vote can occur, including having a viable economy, the Bougainville conflict ended in 1997, after negotiations brokered by New Zealand. A peace agreement was completed in 2000 and, together with disarmament, the parties agreed to have a referendum in the future on whether the island should become politically independent
24.
Australian Federal Police
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The Australian Federal Police is the federal police agency of the Commonwealth of Australia. The role of the AFP is to enforce Australian federal criminal law and to protect federal-government and national interests from crime in Australia, the AFP is Australias international law enforcement and policing representative, and the Governments chief source of advice on policing issues. The AFP was formed on 19 October 1979 under the Australian Federal Police Act 1979 after the merging of the former Commonwealth Police, in November 1979, the Federal Narcotics Bureau was transferred to the new agency. The AFP fell within the portfolio of the Home Affairs Ministry, the minister responsible for the AFP was the Minister for Home Affairs Jason Clare, MP. Before the creation of this portfolio at the start of the Rudd government in November 2007. Key priorities of the AFP are set by the Australian Minister for Home Affairs and Justice, the current ministerial direction was issued by then Minister for Home Affairs, Brendon OConnor, MP, on 1 July 2010. The AFP enforces federal law and protects federal and national interests from crime in Australia, the AFP provides community policing to the Australian Capital Territory, the Jervis Bay Territory, Norfolk Island, Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands. The AFP provides protective security for the Australian Government, the AFP is Australias international law enforcement and policing representative, and is the chief adviser on policing issues to the Australian government. The AFP maintains an international liaison network, officers are posted to 33 international posts. The AFP works closely and collaboratively with all Australian police forces and criminal investigative agencies, the AFP consists of a workforce of more than 6,500. The Australian Federal Police Act 1979 is the base for the employment of all AFP staff. Each employee is described in the legislation as an AFP employee, in addition, the Commissioner may appoint any person as a special member of the AFP. A special member may be given any powers and duties of an AFP member under the Act but is not regarded as a special constable, industrial representation of AFP staff solely rests with the Australian Federal Police Association branch of the Police Federation of Australia. Members of the AFP outside the ACT and other federal territory do not exercise the powers, obligations, consequently, they are identified by each state as federal agents, that is, a member of a law enforcement agency, not a police service. Assault rifle-armed AFP officers are situated in chambers of the Australian Parliament as of 2015. It is the first time in Australian history that parliament has been guarded by armed personnel, the AFP provides community policing services to the ACT, under a contractual agreement between the Australian Government and the ACT government. This AFP portfolio, ACT Policing, is the successor of the ACT Police, the mission of ACT Policing is to keep the peace and preserve public safety for the residents of the ACT. Key sections of ACT Policing include general duties, crime and safety management, criminal investigations, crime prevention, traffic operations, the head of ACT Policing is known as the chief police officer of the ACT
25.
Afghanistan
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Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia. It has a population of approximately 32 million, making it the 42nd most populous country in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north and its territory covers 652,000 km2, making it the 41st largest country in the world. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khiljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, the political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, King Amanullah unsuccessfully attempted to modernize the country and it remained peaceful during Zahir Shahs forty years of monarchy. A series of coups in the 1970s was followed by a series of wars that devastated much of Afghanistan. The name Afghānistān is believed to be as old as the ethnonym Afghan, the root name Afghan was used historically in reference to a member of the ethnic Pashtuns, and the suffix -stan means place of in Persian. Therefore, Afghanistan translates to land of the Afghans or, more specifically in a historical sense, however, the modern Constitution of Afghanistan states that he word Afghan shall apply to every citizen of Afghanistan. An important site of historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and it has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire. Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, in more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well, after 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan, among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, the region at the time was referred to as Ariana
26.
Provincial Reconstruction Team
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PRTs were first established in Afghanistan in early 2002, and as of 2008 operate there as well as in Iraq. While the concepts are similar, PRTs in Afghanistan and Iraq had separate compositions and missions and their common purpose, however, was to empower local governments to govern their constituents more effectively. A PRT included a component, civilian police advisors. In a US-led PRT, this included a representative from USAID, the Department of State, the Department of Agriculture. They were assisted by public diplomacy and reporting staff, a PRT in Afghanistan was commanded by a military officer, generally of the rank of Lieutenant Colonel or Commander. The staff generally numbered between sixty and one hundred persons, by 2009, the military still dominated the role within PRTs as only three to four civilians were posted to each team of eighty to two hundred and fifty personnel. The lack of civilian personnel civilian executive agencies was a concern of CENTCOM commanders. Activities in Afghanistan focused on extending the reach of the government into the provinces. In an Iraq PRT, the Team Leader was a civilian who reports to the US Department of State, while civil affairs members were present on the team, there were more civilians than military personnel on the team. Functional areas included rule of law, reconstruction and development, agriculture, some Iraq PRTs were embedded into the Brigade Combat Team with which they are colocated. The BCT retaine responsibility for providing security for the team members. Public diplomacy was an element to successful Provincial Reconstruction Team projects. PRTs, in Afghanistan, were tasked with an area of a province and coordinate, develop. These projects enabled the population to become familiar with and trust the U. S. counterinsurgency efforts in Afghanistan. Projects supported by PRTs were created and approved by the ranks of the provincial government in Afghanistan. The ability of PRTS to conduct Public diplomacy and their ability to work with the government made counterinsurgency objectives obtainable. The PRT’s civil affairs line of operation exerted a large amount of public diplomacy, CA operations were responsible, along with the provincial government, for implementation and supervision of projects in the province. These projects included public affairs like humanitarian supply distribution, like school, Civil affairs operations were responsible for reaching out to the population to determine what is needed to make society stable and secure from the insurgent ideology
27.
Thailand
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Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand, formerly known as Siam, is a country at the centre of the Indochinese peninsula in Southeast Asia. With a total area of approximately 513,000 km2, Thailand is the worlds 51st-largest country and it is the 20th-most-populous country in the world, with around 66 million people. The capital and largest city is Bangkok, Thailand is a constitutional monarchy and has switched between parliamentary democracy and military junta for decades, the latest coup being in May 2014 by the National Council for Peace and Order. Its capital and most populous city is Bangkok and its maritime boundaries include Vietnam in the Gulf of Thailand to the southeast, and Indonesia and India on the Andaman Sea to the southwest. The Thai economy is the worlds 20th largest by GDP at PPP and it became a newly industrialised country and a major exporter in the 1990s. Manufacturing, agriculture, and tourism are leading sectors of the economy and it is considered a middle power in the region and around the world. The country has always been called Mueang Thai by its citizens, by outsiders prior to 1949, it was usually known by the exonym Siam. The word Siam has been identified with the Sanskrit Śyāma, the names Shan and A-hom seem to be variants of the same word. The word Śyâma is possibly not its origin, but a learned, another theory is the name derives from Chinese, Ayutthaya emerged as a dominant centre in the late fourteenth century. The Chinese called this region Xian, which the Portuguese converted into Siam, the signature of King Mongkut reads SPPM Mongkut King of the Siamese, giving the name Siam official status until 24 June 1939 when it was changed to Thailand. Thailand was renamed Siam from 1945 to 11 May 1949, after which it reverted to Thailand. According to George Cœdès, the word Thai means free man in the Thai language, ratcha Anachak Thai means kingdom of Thailand or kingdom of Thai. Etymologically, its components are, ratcha, -ana- -chak, the Thai National Anthem, written by Luang Saranupraphan during the extremely patriotic 1930s, refers to the Thai nation as, prathet Thai. The first line of the anthem is, prathet thai ruam lueat nuea chat chuea thai, Thailand is the unity of Thai flesh. There is evidence of habitation in Thailand that has been dated at 40,000 years before the present. Similar to other regions in Southeast Asia, Thailand was heavily influenced by the culture and religions of India, Thailand in its earliest days was under the rule of the Khmer Empire, which had strong Hindu roots, and the influence among Thais remains even today. Voretzsch believes that Buddhism must have been flowing into Siam from India in the time of the Indian Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire, later Thailand was influenced by the south Indian Pallava dynasty and north Indian Gupta Empire. The Menam Basin was originally populated by the Mons, and the location of Dvaravati in the 7th century, the History of the Yuan mentions an embassy from the kingdom of Sukhothai in 1282
28.
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami
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The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake occurred at 00,58,53 UTC on 26 December with the epicentre off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. The shock had a moment magnitude of 9. 1–9.3 and it was one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history. Indonesia was the country, followed by Sri Lanka, India. It is the third-largest earthquake ever recorded on a seismograph and had the longest duration of faulting ever observed and it caused the entire planet to vibrate as much as 1 centimetre and triggered other earthquakes as far away as Alaska. Its epicentre was between Simeulue and mainland Indonesia, the plight of the affected people and countries prompted a worldwide humanitarian response. In all, the community donated more than US$14 billion in humanitarian aid. The event is known by the community as the Sumatra–Andaman earthquake. The resulting tsunami was given names, including the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, South Asian tsunami, Indonesian tsunami, the Christmas tsunami. The tsunami was initially documented as moment magnitude 8.8, in February 2005 scientists revised the estimate of the magnitude to 9.0. Although the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center has accepted these new numbers, the most recent studies in 2006 have obtained a magnitude of Mw 9. 1–9.3. Dr. Hiroo Kanamori of the California Institute of Technology believes that Mw 9.2 is a representative value for the size of this great earthquake. The hypocentre of the earthquake was approximately 160 km off the western coast of northern Sumatra. The northern section of the Sunda megathrust ruptured over a length of 1,300 km, the earthquake was felt in Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Singapore and the Maldives. Splay faults, or secondary pop up faults, caused long and this quickly elevated the height and increased the speed of waves, causing the complete destruction of the nearby Indonesian town of Lhoknga. Of all the seismic moment released by earthquakes in the 100 years from 1906 through 2005 and this quake, together with the Good Friday earthquake and the Great Chilean earthquake, account for almost half of the total moment. The much smaller but still catastrophic 1906 San Francisco earthquake is included in the diagram for perspective, Mw denotes the magnitude of an earthquake on the moment magnitude scale. Since 1900 the only recorded with a greater magnitude were the 1960 Great Chilean earthquake. The only other recorded earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater were off Kamchatka, Russia, on 4 November 1952 and Tōhoku, each of these megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean
29.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
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2002 Bali bombings
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The 2002 Bali bombings occurred on 12 October 2002 in the tourist district of Kuta on the Indonesian island of Bali. A further 209 people were injured, various members of Jemaah Islamiyah, a violent Islamist group, were convicted in relation to the bombings, including three individuals who were sentenced to death. On 8 November 2008, Imam Samudra, Amrozi Nurhasyim and Huda bin Abdul Haq were executed by firing squad on the prison of Nusakambangan at 00,15 local time. On 9 March 2010, Dulmatin, nicknamed the Genius – believed to be responsible for setting off one of the Bali bombs with a mobile phone – was killed in a shoot-out with Indonesian police in Jakarta. The bombing occurred during one of the busiest tourist periods of the year in Kuta Beach, damage to the densely populated residential and commercial district was immense, destroying neighbouring buildings and shattering windows several blocks away. The car bomb left a one metre deep crater. The local Sanglah hospital was ill-equipped to deal with the scale of the disaster and was overwhelmed with the number of injured, particularly burn victims. There were so many people injured by the explosion that some of the injured had to be placed in pools near the explosion site to ease the pain of their burns. Many of the injured were forced to be flown extreme distances to Darwin and it was reportedly packed with human excrement. A report released in August 2005 by the United States-Indonesia Society described the events as follows, The investigators were thus able to recreate the bombers activities. Amrozi, Idris and Ali Imron had simply walked into a dealership and purchased a new Yamaha motorbike, Imron used the motorbike to plant the small bomb outside the U. S. Consulate. Idris then rode the motorbike as Imron drove two suicide bombers in the Mitsubishi to the district in Kuta. He stopped near the Sari Club, instructed one suicide bomber to put on his explosives vest, the first bomber headed to Paddys Pub. Idris then left the bomber, who had only learned to drive in a straight line. Idris picked up Imron on the Yamaha and the duo headed back into Denpasar, Idris dialed the number of the Nokia to detonate the bomb at the Consulate. The two suicide bombers exploded their devices, Imron and Idris dropped the motorbike at a place where it eventually attracted the attention of the caretaker. Hundreds more people suffered horrific burns and other injuries, the largest group among those killed were holidayers from Australia with 88 fatalities. On 14 October, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1438 condemning the attack as a threat to international peace, there were many acts of individual heroism
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Assistant commissioner
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Assistant commissioner is a rank used in many police forces around the globe. It is also a used in revenue administrations in many countries. In all services, the insignia consists of crossed and wreathed tipstaves, as a rank, it is roughly equivalent to that of a brigadier or major-general in the army. The rank of assistant commissioner is used by one police agency and he is also given magisterial powers in the capacity of sub-divisional magistrate to settle disputes. The civil service defined itself as key wheels on which the engine of the state has to move. Derived from the legacy of the former British Empire- Assistant commissioner selection is made after passing the CSS exam. In Bangladesh, Assistant Commissioner is the entry level post of field Administration of the Administrative Service while the entry post of central Administration is Assistant Secretary. In the New Zealand Police, the rank of assistant commissioner is junior to the rank of deputy commissioner and is senior to the rank of superintendent, Assistant commissioner is the top rank that can be achieved by a sworn member other than by statutory appointment. There are currently five assistant commissioners with separate areas of responsibility, staff Department heads or Directors of the Singapore Police Force are led by Assistant Commissioners. The assistant commissioner is also the second-in-command of the City of London Police, the rank is not used in other British police forces. But is equivalent to Chief constable
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Superintendent (police)
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Superintendent, often shortened to super, is a rank in British police services and in most English-speaking Commonwealth nations. In many Commonwealth countries, the version is superintendent of police. The rank is used in most British Overseas Territories and in many former British Colonies. In some countries, such as Italy, the rank of Superintendent is a low rank, in Australia, the rank of superintendent is the next senior rank from chief Inspector and is less senior than a chief superintendent or an assistant commissioner. Some officers also hold the rank of chief superintendent and detective superintendent. Superintendents wear an epaulette bearing one pip below a crown, the rank badge as a lieutenant-colonel. In Canada, the rank of superintendent is usually the senior rank up from inspector. Some police forces also have the rank of staff superintendent or regional superintendent. Superintendents of Police are officers of the elite Indian Police Service and their rank badge is the state emblem above one star, although those selected for higher rank or with fifteen or more years service wear the state emblem above two stars. In the Republic of Ireland the rank of superintendent is between inspector and chief superintendent, there are usually two or three assigned to each division. There were 178 superintendents in the Garda Síochána at the beginning of 2006, in the Irish language, a Garda superintendent is a ceannfort, which translates literally as headman. Ard-Cheannfort is a superintendent or high headman. Ceannfort is also used for the rank of commandant, equivalent to major. Each police district is commanded by a superintendent, districts are sub-units of divisions, which are commanded by chief superintendents. In the Italian State Police, the ranks of superintendent are medium non-commissioned officers ranks, senior to Agents and Assistants, in official comparisons, they are equal to Sergeants. Superintendent general and superintendent are, respectively, the ranks of the commander, the rank of superintendent is senior to the rank of intendent. The number of stars in the insignia of superintendent general and superintendent are, respectively, four, the rank insignia of superintendent general and superintendent are also distinguished in being in red epaulets instead of the dark blue of the other ranks. In New Zealand, the rank of superintendent is above inspector, superintendents are typically appointed as district commanders, and the rank is also held by the commandant of the Royal New Zealand Police College
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Royal New Zealand Police College
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The Royal New Zealand Police College is the central training institution for police recruits and police officers in New Zealand. It is located at Papakowhai, approximately 2 km north of Porirua City, recruits at the college undergo a rigorous five-month training course. There are around six intakes of recruits admitted each year, wings consist of 40 to 100 recruits. Trainees are taught a variety of skills relating to vehicle use, firearms use, forensic techniques, negotiation. Successful graduates become probationary constables for a period of two years, as well as ongoing officer training, the RNZPC hosts other non-police related courses, conferences and events. The college is home to the New Zealand Police Museum. The Memorial Building has a covered with plaques dedicated to New Zealand Police Officers killed on duty. The college was opened by HRH Prince Charles on April 1,1981, prior to this, the facility was based at Trentham Military Camp
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Inspector
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Inspector is both a police rank and an administrative position, both used in a number of contexts. However, it is not an equivalent rank in police force. In Australian police forces, the rank of Inspector is generally the senior rank from Senior Sergeant and is less senior than a superintendent in the other Australian police forces. Members holding the rank usually wear an epaulette featuring three silver pips, the rank badge as a Captain in the army. In addition to the rank of Inspector, some police forces use other ranks such as Detective Inspector. In Austria a similar scheme was used as in Germany, at some point the police inspector was completely removed from the list of service ranks. In most Canadian police services the rank of Inspector is the first above the Staff Sergeant rank and it is usually immediately below the rank of Superintendent. Senior Inspectors are an administrative rank in Canadas police forces and are considered to be the first level of senior management. Some larger police services have the Staff Inspector rank, which lies between Inspector and Superintendent, in the French National Police, inspecteur is a former rank of members of the Command and Management Corps. There were several grades of Inspecteur, with senior detectives holding the grades of commissaire. See French National Police for current ranks, in the French customs, inspecteur is the first rank of members of the Command and Management Corps. In contemporary Germany, Inspektor is a service rank. It is the lowest and therefore the entry rank of the gehobener Dienst requiring a degree from a three-year administrative college, the rank is not used in the German police services, there the equivalent of Inspektor is Kommissar. In earlier times the service track was called Inspektorenlaufbahn ranging from Inspektor, Oberinspektor, Amtmann. The title is used on professional areas that require an inspection service. In some regions the Inspektor is a name for any police officer just like in Austria. In the Hong Kong Police Force, inspector is the senior to station sergeant but junior to chief inspector. Rank badge of probationary inspector is one pip on his/her epaulette,2 silver pips for inspector of police
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Interpol
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The International Criminal Police Organization, ICPO or INTERPOL, is an intergovernmental organization facilitating international police cooperation. It was established as the International Criminal Police Commission in 1923, it chose INTERPOL as its address in 1946. Interpol has a budget of around €78 million, most of which is provided through annual contributions by its membership of 190 countries. The organizations headquarters is in Lyon, France and it is the second largest political organization after the United Nations in terms of international representation. In 2013, the Interpol General Secretariat employed a staff of 756 and its current Secretary-General is Jürgen Stock, the former deputy head of Germanys Federal Criminal Police Office. He replaced Ronald Noble, a former United States Under Secretary of the Treasury for Enforcement, Interpols current President is Meng Hongwei, Deputy Minister of Public Security of China. In the first part of the 20th century, several efforts were taken to formalize international police cooperation, among these efforts were the First International Criminal Police Congress in Monaco in 1914, and the International Police Conference in New York in 1922. The Monaco Congress failed because it was organized by legal experts and political officials, not by police professionals, while the New York Conference failed to attract international attention. Founding members included police officials from Austria, Germany, Belgium, Poland, China, Egypt, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Romania, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom joined in 1928. The United States did not join Interpol until 1938, although a US police officer unofficially attended the 1923 congress, following Anschluss in 1938, the organization fell under the control of Nazi Germany, and the Commissions headquarters were eventually moved to Berlin in 1942. Most members withdrew their support during this period, from 1938 to 1945, the presidents of Interpol included Otto Steinhäusl, Reinhard Heydrich, Arthur Nebe, and Ernst Kaltenbrunner. All were generals in the SS, and Kaltenbrunner was the highest ranking SS officer executed after the Nuremberg Trials. After the end of World War II in 1945, the organization was revived as the International Criminal Police Organization by officials from Belgium, France, Scandinavia and its new headquarters were established in Saint-Cloud, a suburb of Paris. They remained there until 1989, when they were moved to their present location in Lyon, until the 1980s, Interpol did not intervene in the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in accordance with Article 3 of its Charter, which prohibited intervention in political matters. In July 2010, former Interpol President Jackie Selebi was found guilty of corruption by the South African High Court in Johannesburg for accepting bribes worth €156,000 from a drug trafficker. After being charged in January 2008, Selebi resigned as president of Interpol and was put on extended leave as National Police Commissioner of South Africa. In November 2016, Meng Hongwei, a politician from the Peoples Republic of China, was elected president at the 85th Interpol General Assembly, the role of Interpol is defined by the general provisions of its constitution. To establish and develop all institutions likely to contribute effectively to the prevention and suppression of ordinary law crimes, Article 3 states, It is strictly forbidden for the Organization to undertake any intervention or activities of a political, military, religious or racial character
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Law enforcement in Australia
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Law enforcement in Australia is facilitated by Police, Sheriffs, Bailiffs, Rangers and various other Inspectors and Officers on federal, state/territory and local levels. A number of specialist agencies also administer a variety of legislation related to white-collar crime. Different types of law enforcement officers are employed by agencies that carry out similar duties to officers/agencies of similar names/types in different jurisdictions. For example Police Officers are generally employed by a police force and are responsible for enforcing the criminal law of their respective state. Similarly, Sheriffs Officers or Bailiffs in each state and territory are normally responsible for the enforcement of the judgments of the courts exercising civil law jurisdictions, in Australia there are two main levels of law enforcement, state and federal. As each state enacts its own laws, general law enforcement duties are the responsibility of various state-based law enforcement agencies, the state police carry out the bulk of community policing throughout the entire state. Federal law enforcement is carried out by two main federal agencies, the Australian Federal Police and the Australian Border Force. Unlike some other countries under the Commonwealth such as Great Britain itself, Australian state and federal police routinely carry firearms. While on duty, most officers duty belts consist of, a handgun, a Taser, a baton, pepper spray, a set of handcuffs, ammunition magazines, gloves, torch. Local governments in Australia will often have their own force of authorised officers to enforce local laws pertaining solely to their local government jurisdiction. The primary federal law enforcement agency in Australia is the Australian Federal Police, the AFP are responsible for the investigation of federal offences and have federal jurisdiction throughout Australia. The AFP was created in 1979, having been the result of an amalgamation of the now defunct Commonwealth Police and this makes it quite young as many of the various state police forces were established in the 19th century. Unlike AFP officers Border Force officers do not have fully fledged federal police powers and they may however detain persons for state or federal crimes or warrants until that person can be presented to a federal or state law enforcement officer with the appropriate powers. Australian Border Force officers have the authority to carry firearms where a supervisor gives approval, in practice only maritime officers and specialist counter terrorism officers carry firearms. Military Police, also known as Service Police, are the law enforcement branches of the services of a military tasked with enforcing, in Australia, each service of the Australian Defence Force maintains its own independent police force made up of military personnel from that service. Law enforcement duties in the Australian Army are provided by the Royal Australian Corps of Military Police, mPs provide everything from general law enforcement duties on military installations to investigations, close personal protection and more. The Australia New Zealand Policing Advisory Agency was established in October 2007, ANZPAA is a joint initiative of the Australian and New Zealand Police Commissioners and funded by contributions to Australia and New Zealand Police jurisdictions. ANZPAAs strategic direction is set by ANZPAA’s board and the Australia New Zealand Council of Police Professionalisation, more information www. anzpaa. org. au The Australasian Police Professional Standards Committee was an organisation that served all police jurisdictions around Australia and New Zealand
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Constable
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A constable is a person holding a particular office, most commonly in criminal law enforcement. The office of constable can vary significantly in different jurisdictions, a constable is commonly the rank of an officer within the police. Other persons may be granted powers of a constable without holding the title of constable, historically, the title comes from the Latin comes stabuli and originated from the Roman Empire, originally, the constable was the officer responsible for keeping the horses of a lord or monarch. The title was imported to the monarchies of medieval Europe, and in many developed into a high military rank. However, in the Channel Islands a constable is an elected office-holder at the parish level, historically, a constable could also refer to a castellan, the officer charged with the defense of a castle. Even today, there is a Constable of the Tower of London, an equivalent position is that of Marshal, which derives from Old High German marah horse and schalh servant, and originally meant stable keeper, which has a similar etymology. The position of constable originated from the Roman Empire, by the 5th century AD the Count of the Stable was responsible for the keeping of horses at the imperial court. The West European term constable itself was adopted, via the Normans, as konostaulos in the Komnenian and Palaiologan periods, in most medieval nations, the constable was the highest-ranking officer of the army, and was responsible for the overseeing of martial law. The Constable of France, under the French monarchy, was the First Officer of the Crown of France and was responsible for commanding the army. His symbol of office was a held by a hand issuing out of a cloud. Some constables were prominent military commanders in the period, such as Bertrand du Guesclin who served from 1370 to 1380. Some authorities place the origins of constables in England earlier, attributing the creation of the office during the reign of King Alfred, the term was also used at the local level within the feudal system however, describing an officer appointed to keep order. He has record as to matters of fact, not matters of judgment, in Bractons time, anyone seeing a misdeed was empowered to make an arrest. The role of the constable in Bractons description was as the eyes and ears of the court, finding evidence, by extension, the constable was also the strong arm of the court, marking the basic role of the constable that continues into the present-day. In 1285, King Edward I of England passed the Statute of Winchester, together these led to all counties having various constabularies of full-time professionals. The lowest rank of the forces and constabularies is constable. Specific legislation for the Royal Parks of London continued the office of Parks Constable. However, the Royal Parks Constabulary was disbanded in 2001, the Kew Constabulary are sworn in under the same legislation and remain as the holders of the office of Parks Constable
