1.
New Zealand dollar
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The New Zealand dollar is the currency and legal tender of New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, the Ross Dependency, Tokelau, and a British territory, the Pitcairn Islands. Within New Zealand, it is almost always abbreviated with the dollar sign, in the context of currency trading, it is often informally called the Kiwi, since New Zealand is commonly associated with the indigenous bird and the $1 coin depicts a kiwi. Introduced in 1967, the dollar is subdivided into 100 cents, altogether there are ten denominations—five coins and five banknotes—with the smallest being the 10-cent coin. Formerly there were lower denominations, but those were discontinued due to inflation, the New Zealand dollar is consistently one of the 10 most-traded currencies in the world, being approximately 2. 0% of global foreign exchange market daily turnover in 2013. Prior to the introduction of the New Zealand dollar in 1967, the New Zealand pound was the currency of New Zealand, which had been distinct from the pound sterling since 1933. The pound used the £sd system, in which the pound was divided into 20 shillings and one shilling was divided into 12 pence, switching to decimal currency had been proposed in New Zealand since the 1930s, although only in the 1950s did any plans come to fruition. In 1957, a committee was set up by the Government to investigate decimal currency, the idea fell on fertile ground, and in 1963, the Government decided to decimalise New Zealand currency. The Decimal Currency Act was passed in 1964, setting the date of transition to 10 July 1967, words such as fern, kiwi and zeal were proposed to avoid confusion with the word dollar, which many people at the time associated with the United States dollar. In the end, the dollar was chosen anyway. On Monday 10 July 1967, the New Zealand dollar was introduced to replace the pound at a rate of two dollars to one pound, some 27 million new banknotes were printed and 165 million new coins were minted for the changeover. The New Zealand dollar was pegged to the US dollar at US$1.43 = NZ$1. This rate changed on 21 November of the year to US$1.12 = NZ$1 after the devaluation of the British pound. In 1971 the US devalued its dollar relative to gold, leading New Zealand on 23 December to peg its dollar at US$1.216 with a 4. 5% fluctuation range, keeping the same gold value. From 9 July 1973 to 4 March 1985 the dollars value was determined from a basket of currencies. The NZ$ was floated on 4 March 1985 at the rate of US$0.4444. Since then the value has been determined by the financial markets. The dollars post-float minimum average daily value was US$0.3922 on 22 November 2000, much of this medium-term variation in the exchange rate has been attributed to differences in interest rates. The New Zealand dollars value is often affected by currency trading
2.
Polymer
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A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. Because of their range of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure, Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low molecular mass. The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a distinct from the modern IUPAC definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger, Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science. Polyisoprene of latex rubber is an example of a polymer. In biological contexts, essentially all biological macromolecules—i. e, proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides—are purely polymeric, or are composed in large part of polymeric components—e. g. Isoprenylated/lipid-modified glycoproteins, where small molecules and oligosaccharide modifications occur on the polyamide backbone of the protein. The simplest theoretical models for polymers are ideal chains, Polymers are of two types, Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of natural polymers exist, such as cellulose. Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer, however, other structures do exist, for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being Silly Putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also present in polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides. Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain or network, during the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This is the case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester, the distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue. Laboratory synthetic methods are divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. However, some methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category
3.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
4.
New Zealand falcon
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The New Zealand falcon or kārearea is New Zealands only falcon and the only remaining diurnal bird of prey endemic to New Zealand. Other common names for the bird are bush hawk and sparrow hawk and it is frequently mistaken for the larger and more common swamp harrier. A small population breeds on the Auckland Islands, the species is known from the Chatham Islands from fossil remains. Although protected since 1970, it is considered to be a threatened species, although neutral genetic markers show a recent history of these two forms, the substantial size difference is likely to be driven by ecological adaptation. Conservation management had already avoided mixing of the North Island and South Island populations and it differs from the much larger swamp harrier, common throughout New Zealand, in that it catches other birds on the wing, and seldom eats carrion. An aggressive bird that displays great violence when defending its territory, with a wingspan around 45 cm and weight rarely exceeding 450 g, the New Zealand falcon is slightly over half the size of the swamp harrier, which it usually attacks on sight. The male is about two-thirds the weight of the female, initially, four falcons were relocated to the vineyards from the surrounding hills. After the release of a further 15 birds breeding began to occur - the first time it is thought to have happened since land clearance 150 years ago. A major ongoing threat to the birds is electrocution on electricity distribution transformers with a fifth of the killed in this manner. The New Zealand falcon features on the reverse of the New Zealand $20 note and has twice been used on New Zealand stamps and it was also featured on a collectable $5 coin in 2006. The Royal New Zealand Air Forces aerobatic team is called the Black Falcons, Birds of New Zealand Crichton, Sandy, On a wing and a prayer, Forest & Bird, pp. 21–25 Seaton, Richard, The ecological requirements of the New Zealand falcon in plantation forestry. Unpublished PhD thesis, Massey University, Palmerston North Thomas, Andrew C. W, the Behaviour and Development of New Zealand Falcons Nesting in a Plantation Forest. Unpublished MSc thesis, Massey University, Palmerston North Wingspan Birds of Prey Trust - The national centre for the conservation, education and advocacy of birds of prey in New Zealand
5.
Banknote
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A banknote is a type of negotiable instrument known as a promissory note, made by a bank, payable to the bearer on demand. Banknotes were originally issued by banks, who were legally required to redeem the notes for legal tender when presented to the chief cashier of the originating bank. These commercial banknotes only traded at face value in the served by the issuing bank. Commercial banknotes have primarily been replaced by national banknotes issued by central banks, national banknotes are generally legal tender, meaning that medium of payment is allowed by law or recognized by a legal system to be valid for meeting a financial obligation. Historically, banks sought to ensure that they could always pay customers in coins when they presented banknotes for payment and this practice of backing notes with something of substance is the basis for the history of central banks backing their currencies in gold or silver. Today, most national currencies have no backing in precious metals or commodities and have value only by fiat, with the exception of non-circulating high-value or precious metal issues, coins are used for lower valued monetary units, while banknotes are used for higher values. The idea of using a durable light-weight substance as evidence of a promise to pay a bearer on demand originated in China during the Han Dynasty in 118 BC, the first known banknote was first developed in China during the Tang and Song dynasties, starting in the 7th century. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang Dynasty, as merchants, during the Yuan Dynasty, banknotes were adopted by the Mongol Empire. In Europe, the concept of banknotes was first introduced during the 13th century by such as Marco Polo. Counterfeiting, the forgery of banknotes, is an inherent challenge in issuing currency and it is countered by anticounterfeiting measures in the printing of banknotes. Fighting the counterfeiting of banknotes and cheques has been a driver of security printing methods development in recent centuries. Paper currency first developed in the Tang Dynasty China during the 7th century, although true paper money did not appear until the 11th century, the usage of paper currency later spread throughout the Mongol Empire. European explorers like Marco Polo introduced the concept in Europe during the 13th century, napoleon issued paper banknotes in the early 1800s. Paper money originated in two forms, drafts, which are receipts for value held on account, and bills, the perception of banknotes as money has evolved over time. Originally, money was based on precious metals, Banknotes were seen as essentially an I. O. U. or promissory note, a promise to pay someone in precious metal on presentation. With the gradual removal of precious metals from the system, banknotes evolved to represent credit money. Notes or bills were referred to in 18th century novels and were often a key part of the plot such as a note drawn by Lord X for £100 which becomes due in 3 months time. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang Dynasty, as merchants, before the use of paper, the Chinese used coins that were circular, with a rectangular hole in the middle
6.
James Cook
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Captain James Cook FRS RN was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755 and he saw action in the Seven Years War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. This helped bring Cook to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society, in three voyages Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail, as he progressed on his voyages of discovery he surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, Cook was attacked and killed while attempting to kidnap the native chief of Hawaii during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge which was to influence his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him. James Cook was born on 7 November 1728 in the village of Marton in Yorkshire and baptised on 14 November in the church of St Cuthbert. He was the second of eight children of James Cook, a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, in 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his fathers employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years schooling, he work for his father. For leisure, he would climb a hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude. Cooks Cottage, his parents last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, having moved from England and reassembled, brick by brick. In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved 20 miles to the village of Staithes. Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window. After 18 months, not proving suitable for work, Cook travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to friends of Sandersons, John. The Walkers, who were Quakers, were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade and their house is now the Captain Cook Memorial Museum. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their fleet of vessels. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and his three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea
7.
New Zealand pigeon
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The New Zealand pigeon or kererū is a bird endemic to New Zealand. Māori call it kererū in most of the country but kūkupa and kūkū in some parts of the North Island, commonly called wood pigeon, they are distinct from the wood pigeon of the Northern Hemisphere, which is a member of a different genus. The New Zealand pigeon belongs to the family Columbidae, and the subfamily Treroninae, the members of this subfamily feed largely on fruits, mainly drupes. New Zealand pigeons are members of the pigeon genus Hemiphaga, which is endemic to the New Zealand archipelago, however recently a Hemiphaga bone was found on Raoul Island. The Chatham pigeon or Chatham Island pigeon is traditionally considered a subspecies of the kererū, the New Zealand pigeon is a large, 550–850 grams, arboreal fruit-pigeon found in forests from Northland to Stewart Island/Rakiura, ranging in habitats from coastal to montane. The general morphology is that of a pigeon, in that it has a relatively small head. New Zealand pigeons build flimsy, shallow, twiggy nests and feed crop milk to hatchlings, the mainland New Zealand pigeon grows to some 51 centimetres in length and 650 grams in weight, compared to 55 centimetres and 800 grams for the Chatham Island variant. The head, throat and wings are generally a shiny green-purple colour, the breast is typically white and the bill red with an orange-ish tip. The feet and eyes are red, juveniles have a similar colouration but are generally paler with dull colours for the beak, eyes and feet and a shorter tail. The New Zealand pigeons make occasional soft coo sounds, and their wings make a distinctive whooshing sound as they fly. The birds flight is very distinctive. Birds will often ascend slowly before making impressively steep parabolic dives, it is thought that this behaviour is associated with nesting. As generally accepted, there are three subspecies of New Zealand pigeon, of these, only two survive, H. n. novaseelandiae of mainland New Zealand and H. n. chathamensis of the Chatham Islands. The other subspecies, Norfolk pigeon of Norfolk Island, is now extinct, the subspecies differ in their plumage colour and physical morphology. Few authorities outside New Zealand have followed this, with most still considering it a subspecies, the New Zealand pigeons are commonly regarded as frugivorous, primarily eating fruits from native trees. They play an important ecological role, as they are the only capable of eating the largest native fruits and drupes, such as those of the taraire. While fruit comprises the part of their diets, the New Zealand pigeon also browses on leaves and buds. One of their leaves to eat is from an introduced plant
8.
Prumnopitys ferruginea
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Prumnopitys ferruginea, commonly called miro, is an evergreen coniferous tree which is endemic to New Zealand. Before the genus Prumnopitys was distinguished, it was treated in the related genus Podocarpus as Podocarpus ferrugineus and it grows up to 25 m high, with a trunk up to 1.3 m diameter. The leaves are linear to sickle-shaped, 15–25 mm long and 2–3 mm broad, the plants are dioecious with pollen cones being solitary while those of female plants hang from a curved, scaly stalk. The seeds are dispersed by the Kererū, which eats the very conspicuous berries and passes the seeds in its droppings and it is found growing on both lowland terrain and on hill slopes throughout the two main islands as well as on Stewart Island/Rakiura. The scientific name derives from the rusty colour of dried herbarium specimens of the leaves. Miro is distinguished from the related, and very similar looking mataī in four aspects of its anatomy, its cones, bark, seeds, miro trees have longer, broader leaves with green undersides while those of mataī leaves are white. In addition, the leaves of miro generally narrow to a point, whereas those of mataī are rounded, miro trees have cones of some hue of red in colour while those of mataī are blue-black. Miro also have relatively longer cones which are oval and red in colour, like mataī, the bark of more mature miro trees flakes off to leave a distinctive hammer mark pattern, but unlike mataī, the pattern is not as pronounced nor as colourful. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, international Union for Conservation of Nature
9.
Mount Tapuaenuku
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Tapuae-o-Uenuku, formerly Mount Tapuaenuku, is the highest peak in the northeast of New Zealands South Island. The name translates from Māori as footprint of the rainbow, though is usually regarded as being named after Chief Tapuaenuku. At 2,885 metres it is the highest mountain in New Zealand outside the ranges of the Southern Alps. It dominates the Inland Kaikoura Range, rising high above the valleys of the Clarence and Awatere Rivers. The first European to sight the mountain was James Cook, who called it Mount Odin, the first Europeans to attempt to climb the mountain were Edward John Eyre, Lieutenant-Governor of New Munster, and William John Warburton Hamilton, in 1849. They came within a distance of the summit but were forced to turn back
