1.
Newar language
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Although Nepal Bhasa literally means Nepalese language, the language is not the same as Nepali, the countrys current official language. The two languages belong to different language families, but centuries of contact have resulted in a significant body of shared vocabulary, Newar was Nepals administrative language from the 14th to the late 18th centuries. Since the beginning of the 20th century, Newar has suffered from official suppression, from 1952 to 1991, the percentage of the population in the Kathmandu Valley speaking Newar dropped from 75% to 44%, and Newar culture and language are under threat. The language has been listed as being endangered by UNESCO. The earliest occurrences of the name Nepālabhāṣā can be found in the manuscripts of a commentary to the Nāradasaṃhitā, dated 1380 AD, since then, the name has been used widely on inscriptions, manuscripts, documents and books. Conversely, the term Gorkhali in the national anthem entitled Shreeman Gambhir was changed to Nepali in 1951. On 8 September 1995, following years of lobbying to use the old name, however, the decision was not implemented, and on 13 November 1998, the Minister of Information and Communication issued another directive to use the name Nepal Bhasa instead of Newari. However, the Central Bureau of Statistics has not been doing so, Newar is spoken by over a million people in Nepal according to the 2001 census. In Nepal, Kathmandu Valley, Dolakha District, Banepa, Dhulikhel, Bandipur, Bhimphedi, Panauti, Palpa, Trishuli, Nuwakot, Bhojpur, Chitlang, Narayangarh, Chitwan. West Bengal In Tibet, Khasa With an increase in emigration, various bodies and societies of Newar-speaking people have emerged in such as the US. The exact placement of Newar within the Tibeto-Burman language family has been a source of controversies, the linguist Warren W. Glover classified Newar as a part of Bodic subdivision using Shafers terminology. Professor Van Driem classified Newar within Mahakiranti grouping but he retracted his hypothesis in 2003. Moreover, he proposed a new grouping called Maha-Newari which possibly includes Baram–Thangmi, T. R. Kansakar attributes the difficulty about the placement of Newar is due inability of scholars to connect it with the migration patterns of the Tibeto-Burman speakers. Since Newar separated from rest of the very early in history. He underscored the point that the language evolved from mixed racial/linguistic influences that do not lend easily to a neat classification. The date indicates a time when the language diverged. ɞ Van Driem labelled this branch as Parakiranti. However, he would drop this hypothesis. ʌ All languages within this branch have extensive Indo-Aryan vocabulary. It is hypothesized that either ancient IndoAryan admixture happened before Newar-Thangmi-Baram split or that Thangmi-Baram borrowed through Newari, according to the linguist Glover, Newari and the Chepang language must have diverged around 2200 BC
2.
Nepal
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Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked central Himalayan country in South Asia. Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts and 744 local units including 4 metropolises,13 sub-metropolises,246 municipal councils and 481 village and it has a population of 26.4 million and is the 93rd largest country by area. Bordering China in the north and India in the south, east, Nepal does not border Bangladesh, which is located within only 27 km of its southeastern tip. It neither borders Bhutan due to the Indian state of Sikkim being located in between, Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth. Kathmandu is the capital and largest city. It is a nation with Nepali as the official language. The territory of Nepal has a history since the Neolithic age. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic Age, the era which founded Hinduism, in the middle of the first millennium BCE, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet, the Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal became known as Nepal proper because of its complex urban civilization. It was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala, the Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture, by the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, the country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and Colonial India. In the 20th century, Nepal ended its isolation and forged ties with regional powers. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951, but was suspended by Nepalese monarchs in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War resulted in the proclamation of a republic in 2008, modern Nepal is a federal secular parliamentary republic. Nepal is a nation, ranking 144th on the Human Development Index in 2016. The country struggles with the transition from a monarchy to a republic and it also suffers from high levels of hunger and poverty. Despite these challenges, Nepal is making progress, with the government declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country status by 2022
3.
Nepali language
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Nepali, originally known as Khas Kura, Parbate Bhasa or Gorkhali, is an Indo-Aryan language. It is the language and de facto lingua franca of Nepal. It is also spoken in parts of India, particularly by Indian Gorkha. In India, Nepali language is listed in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India having a status in the Indian state of Sikkim. Nepali developed in proximity to a number of Indo-Aryan languages, most notably the Pahari languages and Magahi, however, owing to Nepals geographical area, it has also been influenced by Tibeto-Burman languages. Nepali is mainly differentiated from Central Pahari, both in grammar and vocabulary, by Tibeto-Burman idioms owing to close contact with the language group. Nepali language shares 40% lexical similarity with the Bengali language, in the nineteenth century, the British resident at Kathmandu Brian Houghton Hodgson observed that it was, in eight-tenths of its vocabulary, substantially Hindi. Historically, the language was first called the Khas language, then Gorkhali or Gurkhali before the term Nepali was adopted, in 1920, during Rana regime in Nepal, the term Nepal which resembled the Nepal Mandala was taken from its people. Soon after that, Nepal Bhasa was renamed into Newari and Parbate/Khas language took over as Nepali language, other names include Parbatiya and Dzongkha Lhotshammikha. It is also known as the Khey language or Partya language among the Newar people and Pahari language among Madhesi, however, due to protests for identity, Newars have restored their languages name as Nepal Bhasa and voices have been raise to re-instate Parbate language in its original name. Nepali developed a significant literature within a period of a hundred years in the 19th century. This literary explosion was fueled by Adhyatma Ramayana, Sundarananda Bara, Birsikka, a collection of folk tales. The contribution of trio-laureates Lekhnath Paudyal, Laxmi Prasad Devkota, the contribution of expatriate writers outside Nepal, especially in Darjeeling and Varanasi in India, is also notable. In the past decade, there have been many contributions to Nepali literature from the Nepali diaspora in Asia, Europe, America, according to the 2011 national census,44.6 percent of the population of Nepal speaks Nepali as a first language. The Ethnologue website reports 12,300,000 speakers within Nepal, Nepali is traditionally spoken in the Hill Region of Nepal, especially in the western part of the country. Although the Newar language dominated the Kathmandu valley, Nepali is currently the most dominant, Nepali is used in government and as the everyday language of a growing portion of the local population. Nevertheless, the use of Nepali in the courts and government of Nepal is being challenged. Recognition of other languages in Nepal was one of the objectives of the Communist Party of Nepals long war
4.
Hindu
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Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion
5.
Newar Buddhism
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Newar Buddhism is the form of Vajrayana Buddhism practiced by the Newar people of the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. It has developed unique socio-religious elements, which include a non-monastic Buddhist society based on the Newar caste system, the ritual priests, vajracharya and shakya form the non-celibate religious sangha while other Buddhist Newar castes like the Urāy act as patrons. Uray also patronise Tibetan Vajrayanin, Theravadin, and even Japanese clerics, as a result, Newar Buddhism seems to preserve some aspects of Indian Buddhism that were not preserved in schools of Buddhism elsewhere. According to the authors of Rebuilding Buddhism, The Theravada Movement in Twentieth-Century Nepal, chachā ritual song and dance and Gunlā Bājan music are other artistic traditions of Newar Buddhism. Although Newar Buddhism was traditionally bound to the Kathmandu Valley and its environs, there is at least one new Newar Buddhist temple in Portland, Oregon. A number of street celebrations are held periodically involving processions. The main events are Samyak, Gunla, Jana Baha Dyah Jatra, Bunga Dyah Jatra, vajracharya List of Buddhist stotras in Nepalbhasha List of Mahaviharas of Newar Buddhism Lewis, Todd L. Popular Buddhist Texts from Nepal, Narratives and Rituals of Newar Buddhism. State University of New York Publications, gellner, David N. Monk, Householder, and Tantric Priest, Newar Buddhism and its Hierarchy of Ritual. - Review of this book Theodore Riccardi Jr. Tuladhar-Douglas, Will, remaking Buddhism for Medieval Nepal, The Fifteenth-century Reformation of Newar Buddhism. Locke, John K. Newar Buddhist Initiation Rites Mahajan, Phra Sujan, the Revival of Theravada Buddhism and its Contribution to Nepalese Society, Thesis, Bangkok, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Bajracharya The Art of Newar Buddhism, The Huntington Archive
6.
Nepal Mandala
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Nepal Mandala is an ancient confederation marked by cultural, religious and political boundaries which lies in present-day central Nepal. It consists of the Kathmandu Valley and surrounding areas, the rule of the indigenous Newars in Nepal Mandala ended with its conquest by the Gorkha Kingdom and the rise of the Shah dynasty in 1768. ref>Outline History of Nepal. Bhaktapur was the capital of Nepal Mandala until the 15th century when three capitals, including Kathmandu and Lalitpur, were established, the extent of Nepal Mandala has been traditionally defined by the locations of 64 Hindu and 24 Buddhist pilgrimage sites. The Hindu shrines consist of 64 Shiva lingas scattered from Brahmeswar in Nuwakot district in the west to Bhimeswar in Dolakha District in the east, the 24 Buddhist pilgrimage sites are spread from the Trishuli River in the west to Dolalghat in the east. When seen as a pattern, they form the picture of the mandala of Chakrasamvara. Nepal Mandala was conceived on the basis of the Chakrasamvara Mandala, the term mandala also means a country, and it has been used to represent traditional political formations such as federation of kingdoms. The area comprising Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur and Dolakha during the Malla period is known as Nepal Mandala. According to the Outline History of Nepal, Nepal Mandala was situated between the Khas and Simraungarh kingdoms, the Khas kingdom extended from Garhwal in the west to the Trishuli River in the east, and from Lake Mansarovar in the north to the Terai in the south. Karnatak, also called Simraungarh, was situated in the Terai, in 1661, Jesuit Fathers Johann Grueber and Albert dOrville travelled from Tibet to India through Nepal. They mentioned in their report that they passed through Cuthi, the first town in the kingdom of Necbal, and arrived in Cadmendu, from Cadmendu, a journey of five days brings one to Hedouda, a market town in the kingdom of Maranga. The town of Hedouda is known as Hetauda today, the oldest inhabitants of Nepal Mandala are Kirat, Newars who are of multiple racial strains that combined over millennia. Newar civilization is a blend of different cultures that came together in Nepal Mandala, according to sociologists, the people of Nepal gradually became known as Newar. The Buddhist text Manjushrimula Kalpa has mentioned Manadeva as being the king of Nepal Mandala, the term Nepal Mandala also appears in the popular Buddhist text Swayambhu Purana. It occurs in an inscription at Gyaneswar, Kathmandu dating from the eighth century during the reign of Licchavi king Jayadeva II. The term Nepal Mandala has been used through the centuries in stone and copper inscriptions and it is also referred to during important Buddhist ceremonies. Nepal Mandala, A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley, Princeton University Press 1982, Kathmandu Valley - The Preservation of Physical Environment and Cultural Heritage - A Protective Inventory, Vol.2, Wien 1975
7.
Maithils
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The Maithil homeland forms an important part of Hindu mythology as it is said to be the birthplace of Sita, the wife of Ram. Pure Maithil culture is said to be found in the villages of Madhubani district in Bihar, Mithila first gained prominence after being settled by Indo-Aryan peoples who established the Videha kingdom. During the late Vedic period, Videha became one of the political and cultural centers of South Asia, along with Kuru. The Kings of the Videha Kingdom where called Janakas, the Videha Kingdom later became incorporated into the Vajji confederacy which was based in Mithila. From the 11th century to the 20th century, Mithila was ruled by various indigenous dynasties, the first of these where the Karnatas who where of Parmar Rajput origin, the Oinwar dynasty who where Maithil Brahmins and the Khandavalas of Raj Darbhanga who where also Maithil Brahmins. It was during this period that the capital of Mithila was shifted to Darbhanga, Maithils are those who reside of North of the Ganges, based around Darbhanga and the rest of North Bihar. Maithili speaking districts that are inhabited by Maithils in India are Muzzafarpur, Sitamarhi, Darbhanga, Saharsa, Purnea, Madhepura, Supaul, Madhubani, Darbhanga in particular played an important role in the history of Mithila and is considered one of its core centers. It was the center of Raj Darbhanga who ruled most of the region, Madhubani was also where Madhubani paintings originated from which is a major part of Maithil culture. Sitamarhi is claimed by many to be the birthplace of Goddess Sita with Sitakund being a pilgrimage site. Most of the region from Jhapa to Parsa in Nepal form Nepalese Mithila and this area was part of the kingdom of Videha, with its capital at Janakpur. The kingdom appears in the Ramayana, according to it and other ancient texts, it is the birthplace of Janaka, many people claim Janakpur to be the birthplace of Goddess Sita also but this is disputed as many consider Sitamarhi as Her birthplace. Maithils in Nepal have been working towards a Free Maithil state, many ethnic groups and castes inhabit the Mithila region, these include Maithil Brahmins, Rajputs, Bhumihars, Karan Kayasthas, Ahirs, Kurmis, Koeris, Baniyas and many more. Maithil Brahmins are the Hindu Brahmin community of the Mithila region and they are one of the five Pancha-Gauda Brahmin communities. They are also noted for panjis, the genealogical records maintained for the last twenty-four generations. Rajputs are scattered throughout the region and are divided into various sub-clans with the most prominent being the Gandhawarias who ruled estates mainly in Saharsa, the Rajputs of Mithila maintain social and marital relations with Rajputs in other states. It is an ancient language, from which Nepali, Bengali, the script of the inscription is little different from modern Maithili script. However, during the 20th century most Maithili writers gradually adopted Devanagari script for Maithili, some traditional pandits still use Tirhutā or Mithilākshara script for pātā. Fonts for this script were developed in 2003, historically most Maithils never left their homeland – a life that kept them isolated in their own localities
8.
Tibeto-Burman languages
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The name derives from the most widely spoken of these languages, namely Burmese and the Tibetic languages. These languages also have extensive literary traditions, dating from the 12th and 7th centuries respectively, most of the other languages are spoken by much smaller communities, and many of them have not been described in detail. Some taxonomies divide Sino-Tibetan into Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman branches, however, other scholars deny that Tibeto-Burman comprises a monophyletic group. Van Driem argues that the Sino-Tibetan family should be called Tibeto-Burman, others exclude a relationship with Chinese altogether. During the 18th century, several scholars noticed parallels between Tibetan and Burmese, both languages with extensive literary traditions, others identified related languages in the highlands of southeast Asia and southwest China. The name Tibeto-Burman was first applied to this group in 1856 by James Logan, the third volume of the Linguistic Survey of India was devoted to the Tibeto-Burman languages of British India. Julius Klaproth had noted in 1823 that Burmese, Tibetan and Chinese all shared common basic vocabulary, several authors, including Ernst Kuhn in 1883 and August Conrady in 1896, described an Indo-Chinese family consisting of two branches, Tibeto-Burman and Chinese-Siamese. The Tai languages were included on the basis of vocabulary and typological features shared with Chinese, jean Przyluski introduced the term sino-tibétain as the title of his chapter on the group in Antoine Meillet and Marcel Cohens Les Langues du Monde in 1924. The Tai languages have not been included in most Western accounts of Sino-Tibetan since the Second World War, the link to Chinese is now accepted by most linguists, with a few exceptions such as Roy Andrew Miller and Christopher Beckwith. More recent controversy has centred on the proposed primary branching of Sino-Tibetan into Chinese, most of the Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken in inaccessible mountain areas and many are unwritten, which has greatly hampered their study. It is generally easier to identify a language as Tibeto-Burman than to determine its precise relationship with other languages of the group. These subgroups are here surveyed on a geographical basis, the southernmost group are the Karen languages, spoken by three million people on both sides of the Burma–Thailand border. They differ from all other Tibeto-Burman languages in having a word order, attributed to contact with Tai–Kadai. The most widely spoken Tibeto-Burman language is Burmese, the language of Myanmar, with over 32 million speakers. All languages of the Loloish subgroup show significant Austroasiatic influence, the Pai-lang songs, transcribed in Chinese characters in the 1st century, appear to record words from a Lolo-Burmese language, but arranged in Chinese order. The Tibeto-Burman languages of southwest China have been influenced by Chinese over a long period. The grouping of the Bai language, with one million speakers in Yunnan, is particularly controversial, the Naxi language of northern Yunnan is usually included in Lolo-Burmese, though other scholars prefer to leave it unclassified. The hills of northwestern Sichuan are home to the small Qiangic and Rgyalrongic groups of languages, the most easterly Tibeto-Burman language is Tujia, spoken in the Wuling Mountains on the borders of Hunan, Hubei, Guizhou and Chongqing
9.
Indo-Aryan peoples
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Indo-Aryan peoples are a diverse Indo-European ethnolinguistic group of speakers of Indo-Aryan languages. There are over one billion native speakers of Indo-Aryan languages, most of them native to South Asia and these migrations started approximately 1,800 BCE, after the invention of the war chariot, and also brought Indo-Aryan languages into the Levant and possibly Inner Asia. 1800–1400 BCE in the steppes around the Aral sea, present-day Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, the proto-Indo-Iranians were influenced by the Bactria-Margiana Culture, south of the Andronovo culture, from which they borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices. The Indo-Aryans split off around 1800-1600 BCE from the Iranians, whereafter the Indo-Aryans migrated into the Levant, horseplay at Harappa - People Fas Harvard - Harvard University A tale of two horses - Frontline
10.
Nepal Bhasa language
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Although Nepal Bhasa literally means Nepalese language, the language is not the same as Nepali, the countrys current official language. The two languages belong to different language families, but centuries of contact have resulted in a significant body of shared vocabulary, Newar was Nepals administrative language from the 14th to the late 18th centuries. Since the beginning of the 20th century, Newar has suffered from official suppression, from 1952 to 1991, the percentage of the population in the Kathmandu Valley speaking Newar dropped from 75% to 44%, and Newar culture and language are under threat. The language has been listed as being endangered by UNESCO. The earliest occurrences of the name Nepālabhāṣā can be found in the manuscripts of a commentary to the Nāradasaṃhitā, dated 1380 AD, since then, the name has been used widely on inscriptions, manuscripts, documents and books. Conversely, the term Gorkhali in the national anthem entitled Shreeman Gambhir was changed to Nepali in 1951. On 8 September 1995, following years of lobbying to use the old name, however, the decision was not implemented, and on 13 November 1998, the Minister of Information and Communication issued another directive to use the name Nepal Bhasa instead of Newari. However, the Central Bureau of Statistics has not been doing so, Newar is spoken by over a million people in Nepal according to the 2001 census. In Nepal, Kathmandu Valley, Dolakha District, Banepa, Dhulikhel, Bandipur, Bhimphedi, Panauti, Palpa, Trishuli, Nuwakot, Bhojpur, Chitlang, Narayangarh, Chitwan. West Bengal In Tibet, Khasa With an increase in emigration, various bodies and societies of Newar-speaking people have emerged in such as the US. The exact placement of Newar within the Tibeto-Burman language family has been a source of controversies, the linguist Warren W. Glover classified Newar as a part of Bodic subdivision using Shafers terminology. Professor Van Driem classified Newar within Mahakiranti grouping but he retracted his hypothesis in 2003. Moreover, he proposed a new grouping called Maha-Newari which possibly includes Baram–Thangmi, T. R. Kansakar attributes the difficulty about the placement of Newar is due inability of scholars to connect it with the migration patterns of the Tibeto-Burman speakers. Since Newar separated from rest of the very early in history. He underscored the point that the language evolved from mixed racial/linguistic influences that do not lend easily to a neat classification. The date indicates a time when the language diverged. ɞ Van Driem labelled this branch as Parakiranti. However, he would drop this hypothesis. ʌ All languages within this branch have extensive Indo-Aryan vocabulary. It is hypothesized that either ancient IndoAryan admixture happened before Newar-Thangmi-Baram split or that Thangmi-Baram borrowed through Newari, according to the linguist Glover, Newari and the Chepang language must have diverged around 2200 BC
11.
Kathmandu Valley
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The Kathmandu Valley, located in Nepal, lies at the crossroads of ancient civilizations of Asia, and has at least 130 important monuments, including several pilgrimage sites for Hindus and Buddhists. There are seven World Heritage Sites within the valley, historically, the valley and adjoining areas made up a confederation known as the Nepal Mandala. Until the 15th century, Bhaktapur was its capital, when two other capitals, Kathmandu and Lalitpur, were established. After the annexation of the valley by the Gorkha Kingdom, and subsequent conversion of the valley as the capital of their empire, the Kathmandu Valley is the most developed and populated place in Nepal. The majority of offices and headquarters are located in the valley and it is popular with tourists for its unique architecture, and rich culture that includes the highest number of jatras in Nepal. The valley itself was referred to as Nepal Proper by British historians, thousands of people died and tens of thousands of buildings and structures collapsed in Kathmandu Valley in the April 2015 Nepal earthquake. The city of Kathmandu is named after a structure in Durbar Square called by the Sanskrit name Kāsṣtha mandapa Wooden shelter and it was destroyed in the 2015 earthquake. This unique temple, also known as the Maru Sattal, was built in 1596 by King Lakshminarasimha Malla, the entire structure contained no iron nails or supports and was made entirely from wood. Legend has it that the used for this two-story pagoda was obtained from a single tree. The Kathmandu Valley may have been inhabited as early as 300 BCE, the earliest known inscription is dated 185 CE. The oldest firmly dated building in the valley is almost 1,992 years old. As with the tales of the Buddhas visit, there is no evidence supporting Ashoks visit, the Licchavis, whose earliest inscriptions date to 464, were the next rulers of the valley and had close ties with the Gupta Empire of India. His victory in the Battle of Kirtipur was the beginning of his conquest of the valley, the Newars are the indigenous inhabitants and the creators of the historic civilization of the valley. The language is known as Nepal Bhasa. They are understood to be the descendants of the various ethnic, scholars have also described the Newars as a nation. They have developed a division of labour and an urban civilization not seen elsewhere in the Himalayan foothills. They are known for their contributions to art, sculpture, architecture, culture, literature, music, industry, trade, agriculture and cuisine, newa architecture consists of the pagoda, stupa, shikhara, chaitya and other styles. The valleys trademark is the pagoda which may have originated in this area and spread to India, China, Indochina
12.
Hinduism
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Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
13.
Buddhism
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Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
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Himalayas
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The Himalayas, or Himalaya, form a mountain range in Asia separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The Himalayan range has the Earths highest peaks, including the highest, the Himalayas include over a hundred mountains exceeding 7,200 metres in elevation. By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia – Aconcagua, in the Andes – is 6,961 metres tall. The Himalayas are spread across five countries, Bhutan, India, Nepal, China, the Himalayan range is bordered on the northwest by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, on the north by the Tibetan Plateau, and on the south by the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Some of the major rivers, the Indus, the Ganges, and the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra, rise in the Himalayas. The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia, many Himalayan peaks are sacred in Hinduism and Buddhism. Lifted by the subduction of the Indian tectonic plate under the Eurasian Plate and its western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies just south of the northernmost bend of Indus river. Its eastern anchor, Namcha Barwa, is just west of the bend of the Tsangpo river. The range varies in width from 400 kilometres in the west to 150 kilometres in the east, the name of the range derives from the Sanskrit Himā-laya, from himá and ā-laya. They are now known as the Himalaya Mountains, usually shortened to the Himalayas, formerly, they were described in the singular as the Himalaya. This was also previously transcribed Himmaleh, as in Emily Dickinsons poetry and Henry David Thoreaus essays. The mountains are known as the Himālaya in Nepali and Hindi, the Himalaya or The Land of Snow in Tibetan, the Hamaleh Mountain Range in Urdu, the flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice, the amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east along the southern front of the range. This diversity of altitude, rainfall and soil conditions combined with the high snow line supports a variety of distinct plant. The extremes of high altitude combined with extreme cold favor extremophile organisms, the unique floral and faunal wealth of the Himalayas is undergoing structural and compositional changes due to climate change. The increase in temperature is shifting various species to higher elevations, the oak forest is being invaded by pine forests in the Garhwal Himalayan region. There are reports of early flowering and fruiting in some species, especially rhododendron, apple. The highest known tree species in the Himalayas is Juniperus tibetica located at 4,900 metres in Southeastern Tibet, the Himalayan range is one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consists mostly of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock
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Ethnic group
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An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities, such as common ancestral, language, social, cultural or national experiences. Unlike other social groups, ethnicity is often an inherited status based on the society in which one lives, in some cases, it can be adopted if a person moves into another society. Ethnic groups, derived from the historical founder population, often continue to speak related languages. By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is possible for individuals or groups to leave one ethnic group. Ethnicity is often used synonymously with terms such as nation or people. In English, it can also have the connotation of something exotic, generally related to cultures of more recent immigrants, the largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of individuals, while the smallest are limited to a few dozen individuals. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a pan-ethnicity, whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis. The term ethnic is derived from the Greek word ἔθνος ethnos, the inherited English language term for this concept is folk, used alongside the latinate people since the late Middle English period. In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan, as the Septuagint used ta ethne to translate the Hebrew goyim the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews. The Greek term in antiquity could refer to any large group, a host of men. In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of peculiar to a race, people or nation, the abstract ethnicity had been used for paganism in the 18th century, but now came to express the meaning of an ethnic character. The term ethnic group was first recorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972, depending on the context that is used, the term nationality may either be used synonymously with ethnicity, or synonymously with citizenship. The process that results in the emergence of an ethnicity is called ethnogenesis, the Greeks at this time did not describe foreign nations but had also developed a concept of their own ethnicity, which they grouped under the name of Hellenes. Herodotus gave an account of what defined Greek ethnic identity in his day, enumerating shared descent. Whether ethnicity qualifies as a universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used. Many social scientists, such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf and they regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups. According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently, one is between primordialism and instrumentalism. In the primordialist view, the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as a given, even coercive
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Caste
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Its paradigmatic ethnographic example is the division of Indian society into rigid social groups, with roots in Indias ancient history and persisting until today. However, the significance of the caste system in India has been declining as a result of urbanization. The term is applied to non-human populations like ants and bees. The English word caste derives from the Spanish and Portuguese casta, when the Spanish colonized the New World, they used the word to mean a clan or lineage. The use of the caste, with this latter meaning, is first attested to in English in 1613. Modern Indias caste system is based on the social groupings called jāti, the system of varnas appears in Hindu texts dating back to 1000 BCE and envisages the society divided into four classes, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The texts do not mention any separate, untouchable category in varna classification, scholars believe that the system of varnas was a theoretical classification envisioned by the Brahmins, but never truly operational in the society. The practical division of the society had always been in terms of jātis, which are not based on any specific principle, but could vary from ethnic origins to occupations. The jātis have been endogamous groups without any fixed hierarchy but subject to vague notions of rank articulated over time based on lifestyle, starting with the British colonial Census of 1901 led by Herbert Hope Risley, all the jātis were grouped under the theoretical varnas categories. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the varnas, as it provided a convenient shorthand, upon independence from Britain, the Indian Constitution listed 1,108 castes across the country as Scheduled Castes in 1950, for positive discrimination. The Untouchable communities are sometimes called Scheduled Castes, Dalit or Harijan in contemporary literature, in 2001, Dalits were 16. 2% of Indias population. Most of the 15 million bonded child workers are from the lowest castes, independent India has witnessed caste-related violence. Indias National Crime Records Bureau records crimes against scheduled castes and scheduled tribes – the most disadvantaged groups - in a separate category, the socio-economic limitations of the caste system are reduced due to urbanization and affirmative action. Nevertheless, the system still exists in endogamy and patrimony, and thrives in the politics of democracy. The globalization and economic opportunities from foreign businesses has influenced the growth of Indias middle-class population, some members of the Chhattisgarh Potter Caste Community are middle-class urban professionals and no longer potters unlike the remaining majority of traditional rural potter members. The co-existence of the middle-class and traditional members in the CPCC has created intersectionality between caste and class, there is persistence of caste in Indian politics. Caste associations have evolved into caste-based political parties, political parties and the state perceive caste as an important factor for mobilization of people and policy development. It is not politics that gets caste-ridden, it is caste that gets politicized, the Nepalese caste system resembles that of the Indian jāti system with numerous jāti divisions with a varna system superimposed for a rough equivalence
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Polity
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A polity is any kind of political entity. A polity, like a state, does not need to be a sovereign unit, the most preeminent polities today are Westphalian states and nation-states, commonly referred to as nations. It therefore encapsulates a vast multitude of organisations, many of form the fundamental apparatuses of contemporary states such as their subordinate civil. Polities do not need to be in control of any geographic areas, as not all political entities, the historical Steppe Empires originating from the Eurasian Steppe are the most prominent example of non-sedentary polities. These polities differ from states because of their lack of a fixed, defined territory, Empires also differ from states in that their territories are not statically defined or permanently fixed, and consequently that their body politic was also dynamic and fluid. It is useful, then, to think of a polity as a political community, a polity can be defined either as a faction within a larger entity or, at different times, as the entity itself. Kurds in Iraqi Kurdistan, for example, are parts of their own separate and they are also, though, members of the sovereign state of Iraq which is itself a polity, albeit one which is much less specific and, as a result, much less cohesive. It is therefore possible for an individual to belong to more than one polity at a time, thomas Hobbes was a highly significant figure in the conceptualisation of polities, and in particular of states. Hobbes considered notions of the state and the body politic in his most notable work, in previous centuries, body politic was also understood to mean the physical person of the sovereign, emperor, king or dictator in monarchies and despotisms, and the electorate in republics. In present times, it may refer to representation of a group. Cabinets in liberal democracies are chosen to represent the body politic, politeia Political system Dictionary of the History of Ideas, analogy of the body politic
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Licchavi (kingdom)
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Licchavi was an ancient kingdom in Nepal, which existed in the Kathmandu Valley from approximately 400 to 750 CE. The Licchavi clan originated from Vaishali in modern northern Bihar and conquered Kathmandu and this was likely through Mithila, a region now situated mainly in India with a small part in Nepal. A table of the evolution of certain Gupta characters used in Licchavi inscriptions prepared by Gautamavajra Vajrācārya can be found online. It is believed that a branch of the Lichhavi clan, having lost their fortune in Bihar, came to Kathmandu. In the Buddhist Pali canon, the Licchavi are mentioned in a number of discourses, most notably the Licchavi Sutta, the popular Ratana Sutta, the Mahayana Vimalakirti Sutra also spoke of the city of Vaisali as where the lay Licchavi bodhisattva Vimalakirti was residing. The earliest known record of the kingdom is an inscription of Manadeva 1. It mentions three preceding rulers, suggesting that the Licchavi dynasty began in the late 4th century, the Licchavi were ruled by a Maharaja, who was aided by a prime minister, in charge of the military and of other ministers. Nobles, known as samanta influenced the court whilst simultaneously managing their own landholdings, at one point, between approximately 605 and 641, a prime minister called Amsuvarman actually assumed the throne. The population provided land taxes and conscript labour to support the government, most local administration was performed by village heads or leading families. The economy was agricultural, relying on rice and other grains as staples, villages were grouped into dranga for administration. Lands were owned by the family, nobles, temples or groups of Brahmans. Trade was also important, with many settlements positioned along trading routes. Tibet and India were both trading partners, settlements already filled the entire valley during the Licchavi period. Further settlement was made east toward Banepa, west toward Tisting, the following list was adapted from The Licchavi Kings, by Tamot & Alsop, and is approximate only, especially with respect to dates
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Malla (Nepal)
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The Malla Dynasty was a ruling dynasty of Nepal c. They have claimed Kshatriya status themselves, the Mallas means wrestlers in Sanskrit. The first of the Malla kings came to power in Kathmandu Valley around 1200, the Malla period was a golden one that stretched over 600 years, though it was peppered with fighting over the valuable trade routes to Tibet. The Mallas were noted for their patronisation of the Maithili language which was afforded a status to that of Sanskrit in the Malla court. Maithil Brahmin priests were invited to Kathmandu and many Maithil families settled in Kathmandu during Malla rule, beginning in the early twelfth century, leading notables in Nepal began to appear with names ending in the term malla, indicating a person of great strength and power. Arimalla was the first king to be so called, and the practice of adopting such a name was followed regularly by rulers in Nepal until the eighteenth century. This long Malla period witnessed the continued importance of the Kathmandu Valley as a political, cultural, other areas also began to emerge as significant centers in their own right, increasingly connected to the Kathmandu Valley. The time of the earlier Malla kings was not one of consolidation, in the twelfth century, Muslim Turks set up a powerful kingdom in India at Delhi, and in the thirteenth century they expanded their control over most of northern India. During this process, all of the kingdoms in India underwent a major reshuffling. This process resulted in an increasing militarization of Nepals neighbors and sections of Nepal as well and these Khas kings expanded into parts of western Tibet and sent raiding expeditions into the Kathmandu Valley between 1275 and 1335. In 1312 the Khas king, Ripumalla, visited Lumbini and had his own inscription carved on Ashokas pillar and he then entered the Kathmandu Valley to worship publicly at Matsyendranath, Pashupatinath, and Swayambhunath. These acts were all public announcements of his overlordship in Nepal, the first Malla rulers had to cope with several disasters. In 1255, one-third of the population of Kathmandu were killed when the valley suffered an earthquake with the right below the city. A devastating Muslim invasion by Sultan Shams-ud-din of Bengal in 1345-46, during the reign of Jayaraja Deva, left plundered Hindu, the invasion however did not leave a lasting cultural effect. In India the damage was widespread and many Hindus were driven into the hills and mountains of Nepal. In fact, none of the buildings in the valley proper dates from before this raid. He is said to have destroyed the Lichchhavi palaces of Managriha and he also damaged all the temples in the Kathmandu valley except the Changu Narayan Temple, which he could not locate as it lies some hills away from Kathmandu. He returned after 3 days of looting and burning, apart from this, the earlier Malla years were largely stable
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Mahajanapada
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A Mahājanapada is one of the sixteen kingdoms or oligarchic republics that existed in ancient India from the sixth centuries BCE to fourth centuries BCE. Two of them were most probably ganas i. e. republics, the 6th century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history. Archaeologically, this corresponds in part to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture. The term Janapada literally means the foothold of a tribe, the fact that Janapada is derived from Jana points to an early stage of land-taking by the Jana tribe for a settled way of life. This process of first settlement on land had completed its final stage prior to the times of the Buddha, the Pre-Buddhist north-west region of the Indian sub-continent was divided into several Janapadas demarcated from each other by boundaries. In Pāṇinis Ashtadhyayi, Janapada stands for country and Janapadin for its citizenry, each of these Janapadas was named after the Kshatriya tribe who had settled therein. Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations which were in existence before the time of the Buddha and they do not give any connected history except in the case of Magadha. He omits the nations from Uttarapatha like the Kamboja and Gandhara, the more extended horizon of the Bhagvati and the omission of all countries from Uttarapatha clearly shows that the Bhagvati list is of later origin and therefore less reliable. The first reference to the Angas is found in the Atharva-Veda where they find mention along with the Magadhas, Gandharis, the Jaina Prajnapana ranks Angas and Vangas in the first group of Aryan people. It mentions the cities of ancient India. It was also a center of trade and commerce and its merchants regularly sailed to distant Suvarnabhumi. Anga was annexed by Magadha in the time of Bimbisara and this was the one and only conquest of Bimbisara. The Country of Assaka or the Ashmaka tribe was located in Dakshinapatha or southern India, in Buddhas time, the Assakas were located on the banks of the river Godavari. The capital of the Assakas was Potana or Potali, which corresponds to Paudanya of Mahabharata, the Ashmakas are also mentioned by Pāṇini. They are placed in the north-west in the Markendeya Purana and the Brhat Samhita, the river Godavari separated the country of the Assakas from that of the Mulakas. The commentator of Kautiliyas Arthashastra identifies Ashmaka with Maharashtra, the country of Assaka lay outside the pale of Madhyadesa. It was located on a high road, the Dakshinapatha. At one time, Assaka included Mulaka and abutted Avanti, the country of the Avantis was an important kingdom of western India and was one of the four great monarchies in India in the post era of Mahavira and Buddha
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Licchavi (clan)
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The Licchavis were the most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji mahajanapada of ancient India. Vaishali the capital and homeland of the Licchavis, was the capital of the Vajji mahajanapada also and it was later occupied by Ajatashatru, who annexed the Vajji territory into his kingdom. Kautilya in his Arthaśāstra, describes the Licchavis as a tribal confederation, a Buddhist text, the Mahāparinibbāna Suttanta refers them as Kshatriyas and one of the claimants of the relics of Buddha. They have claimed Kshatriya status themselves, according to the Dīgha Nikāya, the Licchavis were of the Vasiṣṭha gotra. Buhler assumes that, in the Manusmriti, the Licchavis are placed in the category of the Vratya Kshatriyas, buddhaghośa in his Paramatthajotikā, traced the origin of the Licchavis to Benaras. The date of the establishment of the Licchavi domination over the area consisting of present-day north Bihar, by the time of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha this clan was already well settled in the area around their capital Vaiśālī. Buddhist tradition has preserved the names of a number of eminent Licchavis, the Kalpasūtra of Bhadravāhu refers to the nine Licchavi gaṇarājas who along with the nine Malla gaṇarājas and the eighteen Kāśī-Kośala gaṇarājas formed a league against Magadha. The leader of this alliance was Chetaka, whose sister Trishala was the mother of Mahavira, only scattered reports of the Licchavi government system survive. The introductory portions of the Cullakalinga Jātaka and the Ekapaṇṇa Jātaka mention the Licchavi as having 7,707 Rājās, the number is one of convention, and unlikely to have been exact. It does demonstrate that Licchavi, unlike most of its neighbours, was not an absolute monarchy, ultimate authority rested with the 7,707 raja who met each year to elect one of their member as ruler and a council of nine to assist him. It was far from a democracy as only a portion of the Licchavi population qualified to vote. Those with raja status were only the heads of households who belonged to the kshatriya varna. The seat of the Licchavi administration was in Vaiśālī, the capital of the Vajjiian confederacy, the Rājā was the highest executive and judicial authority. The introductory portion of the Bhaddasāla Jātaka mentions about a tank, the assembly hall where these Gaṇarājas met for discussion was known as the Santhāgāra. The Aṭṭhakathā mentions about the three chief functionaries of the Licchavi administration, the Rājā, the Uparājā and the Senāpati, the introductory portion of the Ekapaṇṇa Jātaka adds one more with it, the Bhāṇḍāgārika. According to the Aṭṭhakathā, an accused criminal had to pass through seven layers of judges and these judges were the Viniccaya Mahāmātta, the Vohārika, the Sūttadhāra, Aṭṭhakūlakā. Then the Senāpati and the Uparājā, the final judge was the Rājā, who could find him guilty, whereupon the convict received the punishment prescribed in the Paveṇipotthaka for the offence committed by him. In the Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta, he is described as the Licchavidauhitra and these probably suggest Licchavi occupation of Magadha immediately before the rise of the imperial Guptas, although there is no direct evidence to prove it
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Vajji
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Vajji or Vrijji was a confederacy of neighbouring clans including the Licchavis and one of the principal mahājanapadas of Ancient India. The area they ruled constitutes the region of Mithila in northern Bihar, both the Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya and the Jaina text Bhagavati Sutra included Vajji in their lists of solasa mahājanapadas. The name of this mahājanapada was derived from one of its ruling clans, the Vajji state is indicated to have been a republic. This clan is mentioned by Pāṇini, Chanakya and Xuanzang, the territory of Vajji was located north of the Ganges in Bihar and extended up to the Madhesh region. On the west, the Gandaki River was probably the boundary between Vajji and the Malla mahājanapada and possibly also separated it from the Kosala mahājanapada, on the east, its territory probably extended up to the forests along the banks of the rivers Koshi and Mahananda. The capital of this mahājanapada was Vaishali, other important towns and villages were Kundapura or Kundagrama, Bhoganagara and Hatthigama. The rulers of Vajji were a confederacy of the eight clans of whom the Vajjis, the Licchavis, the Jñatrikas, manudeva was a famous king of the Licchavi who desired Amrapali after he saw her dance in Vaishali. The identities of the four clans are not certain. Known as the Vajji Sangha “Vajji Confederation”, Vajji consisted of several janapadas, gramas and gosthas, eminent people were chosen from each khanda as representatives to the Vajji gana parishad “peoples council of Vajji”. These representatives were called gana mukhyas, the chairman of the council was titled ganapramukha but often he was addressed as a king although his post was neither dynastic nor hereditary. The other executives were the mahabaladhrikrita, the binishchayamatya or chief justice, the capital was Vaishali, a prosperous city. In the introductory portion of the Ekapanna Jataka, Vaishali was described as encompassed by a wall with the three gates with watch towers. The main gosthas were the Licchavis, Mallas and Śakyas, around 600 BCE, the Licchavis were disciples of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. During their lifetimes, both Mahavira and Gautama Buddha visited Vaishali several times, kingdoms of Ancient India List of rulers of Mithila
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Malla (India)
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Malla was one of the republics of ancient India that constituted the mahajanapadas. The republic is notable for being the death place of Mahavira. Malla was one of the solasa mahajanapadas of ancient India mentioned in the Anguttara Nikaya and it was named after the ruling clan of the same name. The Mahabharata mentions the territory as the Mallarashtra, the Malla mahajanapada was situated north of Magadha. The mahajanapada was divided into two parts and the river Kakuttha was probably the dividing line. The capital of two parts were Kusavati and Pava, modern Fazilnagar,12 miles from Kasia. Kusinara and Pava are very important in the history of Buddhism since Buddha took his last meal and was ill at Pava. The Mallas were a clan of eastern India at the time of Gautama Buddha and they are frequently mentioned in Buddhist. The Mahabharata mentions that the second Pandava Bhima is said to have conquered the chief of the Mallas in course of his expedition to eastern India, the Mahabharata mentions Mallas along with the Angas, Vangas, and Kalingas as eastern tribes. The Mallas were republican people with their dominion consisting of nine territories, the Mallas, like the Licchavis, are mentioned by Manusmriti as Vratya Kshatriyas. They are called Vasishthas in the Mahapparnibbana Suttanta, the Mallas were a brave and warlike people. Jainism and Buddhism found many followers among the Mallas, the Mallas originally had a monarchical form of government but later they switched to Gana of which the members called themselves rajas. The Gana were taking decisions from their Santhagara, the Mallas appeared to have formed alliance with Lichchhavis for self-defense. They however, lost their independence not long after Buddha’s death, the two main towns of the Malla mahajanapada were Pava, where the Jain founder Mahavira died and Kusinara, where Buddha went to his Mahaparinirvaṇa. The Cullavagga of the Vinaya Pitaka mentions another town named Anupiya, a fourth town called Uruvelakappa is mentioned in the Anguttara Nikaya. The fifth town was named as Bhoganagara, kingdoms of Ancient India Gaṇa sangha Koliya Sankrityayan, Rahul. Buddhacharya- Life and Teachings of the Buddha
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Vedic period
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The Vedic period was the period in Indian history during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed. During the early part of the Vedic period, the Indo-Aryans settled into northern India, scholars consider Vedic civilisation to have been a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures. The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of large, around the beginning of the Common Era, the Vedic tradition formed one of the main constituents of the so-called Hindu synthesis. The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE, after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which ended c.1900 BCE, groups of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into north-western India and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley. The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the Rigveda-samhita, which was composed between c and they brought with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the zone between the Zeravshan River and Iran. It was a mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements. At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra, Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug probably borrowed from the BMAC religion and his rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers. These migrations may have been accompanied with violent clashes with the people who inhabited this region. The Rig Veda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus, the Rig Veda describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices or obey the commandments of gods. Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. Internecine military conflicts between the tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rig Veda. Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of Ten Kings, which took place on the banks of the river Parushni. The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a confederation of ten tribes— Puru, Yadu, Turvasha, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Bhalanas, Paktha, Siva, Vishanin. Bharatas lived around the regions of the river Saraswati, while Purus, their western neighbours. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab, division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war
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Sanskrit
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
26.
Gorkha Kingdom
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Gorkhā was a former kingdom in the confederation of 24 states known as Chaubisi rajya located in present-day western Nepal. The Kingdom of Gorkha extended from the Marshyangdi River in the west to the Trishuli River in the east, the inhabitants of Gorkha were known as Gorkhali. Shah/Jha/Khan controlled whole area of Ganges and Brahmaputra basin or simply whole land between Himalayas and Vindhyas, soon the empire divided into several kingdoms. Mughal Empire, Bengal and Gorakhpur formed after division, from 1736, the Gorkhalis engaged in a campaign of expansion begun by King Nara Bhupal Shah, which was continued by his son, King Prithvi Narayan Shah and grandson Prince Bahadur Shah. Over the years, they conquered huge tracts of land to the east and west of Gorkha, among their conquests, the most important and valuable acquisition was the wealthy Newar confederacy of Nepal Mandala centered in the Kathmandu Valley. Starting in 1745, the Gorkhalis mounted a blockade in a bid to starve the population into submission, the Newars appealed to the British East India Company for help, and in 1767, it sent an expedition under Captain Kinloch which ended in failure. The three Newar capitals of Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur fell to the Gorkhalis between 1768 and 1769, the Gorkhali king subsequently moved his capital to Kathmandu. In 1788, the Gorkhalis turned their attention north and invaded Tibet and they seized the border towns of Kyirong and Kuti, and forced the Tibetans to pay an annual tribute. When the Tibetans stopped paying it, the Gorkhalis invaded Tibet again in 1791 and this time the Chinese army came to Tibets defence and advanced close to Kathmandu. The alarmed Gorkhalis appealed to the British East India Company for help, eventually, the Gorkhalis were forced to sign a peace treaty under which they had to pay tribute to Beijing every five years. The Gorkha dominion reached its height at the beginning of the 19th century, extending all along the Himalayan foothills from Kumaon and they were made to return much of the occupied territories after their defeat in the Anglo-Nepalese War. The Gorkha dominion continued to be known as Gorkha Rajya until the beginning of the 20th century, since the 1930s, the name Nepal was used to refer to the entire country as the capital was located in Kathmandu. The name Gorkha Sarkar was also changed to Nepal government, similarly, the Gorkhali language was renamed as Nepali in 1933. The term Gorkhali in the national anthem entitled Shreeman Gambhir was changed to Nepali in 1951. The government newspaper, launched in 1901, is known as Gorkhapatra. The Shah dynasty ruled Nepal until 2008 when it became a republic following a peoples movement, today, Gorkha District, roughly corresponding to the old kingdom, is one of the 75 administrative districts of Nepal. The community name is actually Gorkha/ Gorkhali as it was also called even in Nepal. Not to be confused with the inhabitants of the old Gorkha Kingdom only and their history goes back to the Anglo-Gorkha War and the Sugauli Treaty of 1816
27.
Newa art
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Newa art is the art form practiced over centuries by Newa people. The pictorial art consists of, Paubha Wall paintings Paintings on the walls of temples Paintings in manuscripts The Newars are the creators of most examples of art, traditional Newar art is basically religious art. Newar devotional paubha painting, sculpture and metal craftsmanship are world-renowned for their exquisite beauty, the earliest dated paubha discovered so far is Vasudhara Mandala which was painted in 1365 AD. The murals on the walls of two 15th-century monasteries in the kingdom of Mustang in the Nepal Himalaya provide illustrations of Newar works outside the Kathmandu Valley. Stone sculpture, wood carving, repoussé art and metal statues of Buddhist, the Peacock Window of Bhaktapur and Desay Madu Jhya of Kathmandu are known for their wood carving. Building elements like the carved Newar window, roof struts on temples, from as early as the seventh century, visitors have noted the skill of Newar artists and craftsmen who left their influence on the art of Tibet and China. Newars introduced the technique into Bhutan and they were commissioned to paint murals on the walls of monasteries there. Sandpainting of mandala made during festivals and death rituals is another specialty of Newar art, besides exhibiting a high level of skill in traditional religious art, Newar artists have been at the forefront in introducing Western art styles in Nepal. Raj Man Singh Chitrakar is credited with starting watercolor painting in the country, bhaju Man Chitrakar, Tej Bahadur Chitrakar and Chandra Man Singh Maskey were other pioneer artists who introduced modern style paintings incorporating concepts of lighting and perspective. Paubhas or thangkas were painted by Chitrakars. Newa people Nepal Bhasa Thangka Newa architecture Chitrakar http, //www. himalasia. org/chitrakars. htm
28.
Newari literature
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Nepal Bhasa literature refers to literature in the Newar language. The language has the fourth oldest literature among the Sino-Tibetan languages, the earliest known document in Newar is called The Palmleaf from Uku Bahal which dates from 1114 during the Thakuri period. The earliest dated inscription in Newari is dated Nepal Sambat 293. From the 14th century onwards, a number of stone inscriptions in the Kathmandu Valley. The first books appeared in the 14th century, Nepal Bhasa literature can be broadly divided into four periods. The literary genres prevalent during this era consist of chronicles, epics, stories, scientific manuals mainly dealing with astrology and medicine, didactic poems, the kings and queens of the Malla dynasty were keen lyricists and playwrights. Dance dramas written at the time continue to be performed during annual festivals, king Mahindra Malla is regarded as the first Newari poet. Other notable poets among the Malla kings include Siddhi Narsingh Malla, Pratap Malla, Ranjit Malla, Siddhi Narsingh Malla was the first Newari playwright. He wrote a play entitled Ekadashibrata in 1633 based on a Hindu story. His most famous work is Katti Pyakhan which is shown annually at Patan Durbar Square, the queens Riddhi Laxmi, considered to be Nepals first woman poet, Jaya Laxmi and Bhuvan Laxmi were also prominent songwriters. Among the public, Jagat Keshari of Banepa in the east of the Kathmandu Valley is celebrated for a dedicated to Goddess Chandeswari. In the later part of the Classical Period, Rajendra Bikram among the Shah kings is famed for writing Mahasatwa Pakhyan, pundit Sundarananda is known for his epics while Amritananda, besides composing poetry, wrote a grammar of Newari. After the Gorkha conquest of Nepal in 1768 and the advent of the Shah dynasty, overt suppression was started by the Rana dynasty. In 1906, official documents written in Newari were declared illegal, the use of the language for business and literary purposes was forbidden. Books were confiscated and writers were jailed, as a result, not only literary creations but also writing for general purposes almost ceased, and the distance between the spoken and the written language began to widen. A small number of hymns and religious stories were produced during this period, notable writers of the era were Swami Abhayananda, Hari Bhakta Mathema, Man Bahadur Joshi and Bir Bahadur Malla. During this period, a new generation of writers emerged who asserted themselves by producing literary works defying government restrictions, the renaissance aimed to restore the Newar languagess lost glory and stimulate creative literature. The activities of this period laid the foundation for the course of the language
29.
Lhasa Newar
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Lhasa Newar refers to the expatriate Newar traders and artisans who traveled between the Kathmandu Valley and Tibet from centuries ago. The Nepalese merchants conducted trade between Nepal, Tibet and Bengal, India over the Silk Road, and acted as a bridge for economic, along with the merchants, there were colonies of artisans in various parts of Tibet who were engaged in creating Buddhist art. They were major players in the exchange of art styles across the Himalaya, the thousand-year-old Lhasa Newar tradition came to an end after the caravan route linking India and Tibet through Sikkim was shut down by the Sino-Indian War in 1962. Subsequently, the merchants and craftsmen based in Tibet closed up shop, according to folklore, Singha Sartha Aju was the first merchant to travel to Tibet. The history of the Lhasa Newars officially dates from the century with the marriage of Nepalese Princess Bhrikuti with Tibetan King Songtsän Gampo. The traders and artisans who accompanied Bhrikuti to Lhasa as part of her retinue established commercial and cultural ties between Nepal and Tibet, in the 1640s, a treaty was negotiated under which Newar merchants were allowed to establish 32 business houses in Lhasa. It was also agreed that Nepal would mint coins for Tibet, by this time, the number of traders had risen considerably. Eighteenth-century traveler Ippolito Desideri noted that merchants of Nepal were numerous in Lhasá, the Newars were also organized into pala societies which arranged the celebration of festivals and provided a place for get-togethers. The merchants celebrated Mohani and other feasts like they did in Kathmandu, there were 10 palas originally in Lhasa, and seven remained active until recent times—Chyatangya, Chhusingsyar, Ghorasyar, Jhwala, Lhakam, Kun and Tarunsyar. The Newars in Shigatse and other places in Tibet had their own palas, returning merchants and craftsmen were called Lhasa Newars. Most of them were Buddhist Newars like the Uray, Bajracharya, Shakya, there were also many Shresthas and Maharjans among them. Newar traders exported finished products from Nepal and India to Tibet and brought goods from Tibet. Metal utensils, sacred statues and rice from Nepal, and textiles, the Lhasa Newars brought back gold dust, wool, musk pods, pelts and yak tails which were forwarded to Kolkata. Mule, donkey and yak caravans transported the goods over the Himalaya. In Nepal, porters carried the loads over the mountains on their backs, the trade route connecting India and Tibet goes over the Himalaya. The Lhasa Newars used the Gyirong and Kuti passes to the north of Kathmandu to travel to Lhasa, from the 1930s, a new caravan route over the lower Nathu La and Jelep La passes on the border between Sikkim and Tibet became more popular. These passes were approached through Gangtok in Sikkim and Kalimpong in West Bengal, the Lhasa Newars lived in Lhasa, Shigatse and Gyantse in Tibet and in Kolkata and Kalimpong in India for years at a time. Lhasa, as a center on the Silk Road, attracted merchant caravans from across Central Asia with whom the Lhasa Newars engaged in trade, a few business houses also maintained shops in Leh, Ladakh which lies on the caravan route to Kashgar in Chinese Central Asia
30.
Newa architecture
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Newa architecture is an indigenous style of architecture used by the Newari people in the Kathmandu valley in Nepal. It is a used in buildings ranging from stupas and chaitya monastery buildings to courtyard structures. The style is marked by striking brick work and a style of wood carving rarely seen outside Nepal. The style has been exported by Nepalese architects including Arniko, a few of the most prominent Newari-style pagodas include, Pashupatinath Temple Taleju Bhawani temple Kathmandu Durbar Square - The nine storyed Palace. Nepal Mandala, A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley, Princeton University Press 1982, Kathmandu Valley - The Preservation of Physical Environment and Cultural Heritage - A Protective Inventory, Vol.2, Wien 1975
31.
Newa cuisine
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Newa cuisine is a subset of Nepalese cuisine that has developed over centuries among the Newars of Kathmandu, Nepal. Newa cuisine is the most celebrated food variety in the country consists of over 200 dishes. Food is the part of Newar culture. Different kind of foods are prepared for different occasions, considering the climate, Newars are renowned for their sumptuous feasting. Dishes served during feasts and festivals have symbolic significance, food is eaten with bare hands. It is customary to wash hands before and after a meal
32.
Human Development Index
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The Human Development Index is a composite statistic of life expectancy, education, and per capita income indicators, which are used to rank countries into four tiers of human development. A country scores higher HDI when the lifespan is higher, the level is higher. The 2010 Human Development Report introduced an Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, while the simple HDI remains useful, it stated that the IHDI is the actual level of human development, and the HDI can be viewed as an index of potential human development. The origins of the HDI are found in the annual Human Development Reports produced by the Human Development Reports Office of the United Nations Development Programme, nobel laureate Amartya Sen, utilized Haqs work in his own work on human capabilities. The following three indices are used,1, Life Expectancy Index = LE −2085 −20 LEI is 1 when Life expectancy at birth is 85 and 0 when Life expectancy at birth is 20. Education Index = MYSI + EYSI22.1 Mean Years of Schooling Index = MYS15 Fifteen is the maximum of this indicator for 2025. 2.2 Expected Years of Schooling Index = EYS18 Eighteen is equivalent to achieving a degree in most countries. Income Index = ln − ln ln − ln II is 1 when GNI per capita is $75,000 and 0 when GNI per capita is $100. Finally, the HDI is the mean of the previous three normalized indices, HDI = LEI ⋅ EI ⋅ II3. Standard of living, as indicated by the logarithm of gross domestic product per capita at purchasing power parity. This methodology was used by the UNDP until their 2011 report, the formula defining the HDI is promulgated by the United Nations Development Programme. The 2016 Human Development Report by the United Nations Development Programme was released on March 21,2017, below is the list of the very high human development countries, = increase. The number in brackets represents the number of ranks the country has climbed relative to the ranking in the 2015 report, the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index is a measure of the average level of human development of people in a society once inequality is taken into account. The rankings are not relative to the HDI list above due to the exclusion of countries which are missing IHDI data. Countries in the top quartile of HDI with a missing IHDI, New Zealand, Singapore, Hong Kong, Liechtenstein, Brunei, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Andorra, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Kuwait. The 2015 Human Development Report by the United Nations Development Programme was released on December 14,2015, below is the list of the very high human development countries, = increase. The number in brackets represents the number of ranks the country has climbed relative to the ranking in the 2014 report, the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index is a measure of the average level of human development of people in a society once inequality is taken into account. Note, The green arrows, red arrows, and blue dashes represent changes in rank, the rankings are not relative to the HDI list above due to the exclusion of countries which are missing IHDI data
33.
UNDP
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The United Nations Development Programme is the United Nations global development network. Headquartered in New York City, UNDP advocates for change and connects countries to knowledge, experience and it provides expert advice, training and grants support to developing countries, with increasing emphasis on assistance to the least developed countries. The status of UNDP is that of an executive board within the United Nations General Assembly, the UNDP Administrator is the third highest-ranking official of the United Nations after the United Nations Secretary-General and Deputy Secretary-General. UNDP also encourages the protection of rights and the empowerment of women in all of its programmes. The UNDP Human Development Report Office also publishes an annual Human Development Report to measure, in addition to a global Report, UNDP publishes regional, national, and local Human Development Reports. UNDP is funded entirely by contributions from member nations. The organization operates in 177 countries, where it works with governments to meet development challenges. Additionally, the UNDP works internationally to help achieve the Millennium Development Goals. Currently, the UNDP is one of the main UN agencies involved in the development of the Post-2015 Development Agenda, UNDP works with nations on their own solutions to global and national development challenges. As they develop local capacity, they draw on the people of UNDP, the UNDP was founded on 22 November 1965 with the merger of the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance and the Special Fund. The rationale was to avoid duplication of activities, the EPTA was set up in 1949 to help the economic and political aspects of underdeveloped countries while the Special Fund was to enlarge the scope of UN technical assistance. The Special Fund arose from the idea of a Special United Nations Fund for Economic Development, while countries such as the Nordic countries were proponents of such a United Nations controlled fund. The concept of SUNFED was dropped to form the Special Fund and this Special Fund was some compromise over the SUNFED concept, it did not provide investment capital, but only helped to bring pre-conditions for private investment. With the US proposing and creating the International Development Association within the World Banks umbrella, the EPTA, in 2013, UNDP’s entire budget was approximately US$5 billion. The following table lists the top 15 DAC5 Digit Sectors to which UNDP has committed funding, the UNDP claims on the IATI Registry website that the data covers 100% of development flows. UNDP’s offices and staff are on the ground in 177 countries, working with governments, UNDP links and coordinates global and national efforts to achieve the goals and national development priorities laid out by host countries. UNDP also supports existing democratic institutions by increasing dialogue, enhancing national debate, UNDP also works at the macro level to reform trade, encourage debt relief and foreign investment, and ensure the poorest of the poor benefit from globalisation. On the ground, UNDP sponsors developmental pilot projects, promotes the role of women in development, in this way, UNDP works with local leaders and governments to provide opportunities for impoverished people to create businesses and improve their economic condition
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Prakrit
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A Prakrit is any of several Middle Indo-Aryan languages. The Ardhamagadhi Prakrit, which was used extensively to write the scriptures of Jainism, is considered to be the definitive form of Prakrit. Prakrit grammarians would give the full grammar of Ardhamagadhi first, for this reason, courses teaching Prakrit are often regarded as teaching Ardhamagadhi. Other Prakrits are reported in old sources but are not attested. Alternatively, Prakrit can be taken to mean derived from an original, Prakrit is foremost a native term, designating vernaculars as opposed to Sanskrit. The Prakrits became literary languages, generally patronized by ancient Indian kings identified with the Kshatriya Varna of Hinduism, the earliest extant usage of Prakrit is the corpus of inscriptions of Emperor Aśoka. Besides this, Prakrit appears in literature in the form of Pāli Canon of Theravada Buddhists, Prakrit canon of the Jains, Prakrit grammars and in lyrics, plays and epics of the times. The various Prakrit languages are associated with different patron dynasties, with different religions and different literary traditions, each Prakrit represents a distinct tradition of literature within the history of Pakistan, India and Nepal. In linguistic terms, this is used in contrast with saṃskṛta, Dramatic Prakrits were those that were devised specifically for use in dramas and other literature. Whenever dialogue was written in a Prakrit, the reader would also be provided with a Sanskrit translation, none of these Prakrits came into being as vernaculars, but some ended up being used as such when Sanskrit fell out of favor. The phrase Dramatic Prakrits often refers to three most prominent of them, Shauraseni, Magadhi Prakrit, and Maharashtri Prakrit, however, there were a slew of other less commonly used Prakrits that also fall into this category. These include Pracya, Bahliki, Daksinatya, Sakari, Candali, Sabari, Abhiri, Dramili, there was an astoundingly strict structure to the use of these different Prakrits in dramas. Maharashtri Prakrit, the ancestor of modern Marathi, is an interesting case. Maharashtri was often used for poetry and as such, diverged from proper Sanskrit grammar mainly to fit the language to the meter of different styles of poetry, the new grammar stuck, which led to the unique flexibility of vowels lengths – amongst other anomalies – in Marathi. Ardhamagadhi Dramili Elu Gandhari Magadhi Maharashtri Paisaci Shauraseni Jain Maharashtri Jain Shauraseni Apabransh National Institute of Prakrit Study, shravanabelagola, Karnataka, India Banerjee, Satya Ranjan. The Eastern School of Prakrit Grammarians, a linguistic study, deshpande, Madhav, Sanskrit & Prakrit, sociolinguistic issues. Pischel, R. Grammar of the Prakrit Languages
35.
Society of Jesus
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The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre
36.
Maithili language
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Maithili is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Mithila region which is today mainly situated in northern Bihar of India and a few districts of the Nepal Terai. It is one of the largest languages in India and the second largest language in Nepal, less commonly, it was written with a Maithili variant of Kaithi, a script used to transcribe other neighboring languages such as Bhojpuri, Magahi, and Awadhi. In 2002, Maithili was included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, which allows it to be used in education, government and it is recognized as one of the largest languages in India and is the second most widely used language in Nepal. In 2007, Maithili was included in the Interim Constitution of Nepal 2063, Part 1, in the past, Maithili was written primarily in Mithilakshar, but today it is written in the Devanagari script. Native speakers are referred to as Maithils, Madhubani and Darbhanga constitute cultural and linguistic centers. Native speakers also reside in Delhi, Kolkata, Ranchi and Mumbai, in Nepal, Maithili is spoken mainly in the Outer Terai districts including Sarlahi, Mahottari, Dhanusa, Sunsari, Siraha and Saptari Districts. Janakpur is an important linguistic centre of Maithili, in the 19th century, linguistic scholars considered Maithili as a dialect of Eastern Hindi languages and grouped it with other languages spoken in Bihar. Hoernlé compared it with Gaudian languages and recognised that it shows similarities with Bengali languages than with Hindi. Grierson recognized it as a language and published the first grammar in 1881. Chatterji grouped Maithili with Magadhi Prakrit, the standard form of Maithili is spoken in Darbhanga and Madhubani districts in Bihar, India. Several geographic variations of Maithili dialects are spoken in India and Nepal, including Dehati, Some dialects such as Bantar, Barmeli, Musar and Tati are spoken only in Nepal, while the Kortha, Jolaha and Thetiya dialects are spoken in India. All the dialects are intelligible to native Maithili speakers, other dialects include, Thēthi is spoken between the western part of the Mahottari and the eastern part of the Sarlahi districts of Nepal, and in adjacent areas in Bihar. The Madhubani dialect spoken in north India is generally considered to be the standard form, central Maithili is also considered as the standard form. The Kulhaiya dialect is spoken in most of north-eastern Bihar, Maithili dates back to the 14th century. The Varna Ratnākara is the earliest known text, preserved from 1507. The name Maithili is derived from the word Mithila, an ancient kingdom of which King Janaka was the ruler, Maithili is also one of the names of Sita, the wife of King Rama and daughter of King Janaka. Scholars in Mithila used Sanskrit for their work and Maithili was the language of the common folk. In 1324, Ghyasuddin Tughluq, the emperor of Delhi invaded Mithila, defeated Harasimhadeva, entrusted Mithila to his family priest Kameshvar Jha, a Maithil Brahmin of the Oinwar dynasty
37.
Mithila (region)
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Mithila is a geographical and cultural region located in the northern part of South Asia. The native language is known as Maithili and its speakers are referred to as Maithils, Mithila is bounded on the north by the Himalayas and on the south, west and east by the Ganges, Kaushiki and Gandaki respectively. The majority of the Mithila region falls within modern day India more specifically the state of Bihar, Mithila was also the ancient name of the city of Janakpur. The name is used to refer to the Videha Kingdom itself. The Mithila kingdom existed on the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain, an area today is spread over more than half of Indias Bihar state. Although Janakpur was the capital of Mithila during the ancient period, the name Mithila is derived after mythical King Miti which in Dhatki language means Soil. He was supposed to have created from the body of his father King Nimi. He established the capital of his kingdom at Mithilapuri and hence the region came to be called Mithila, since he was born out of body of his father, he took the title Janaka. After this, the Kings of Mithila were called Janaka, another name of the region was Tirabhukti meaning bound by rivers. This was later corrupted into Tirhut, Mithila first gained prominence after being settled by Indo-Aryan peoples who established the Videha kingdom. During the late Vedic period, Videha became one of the political and cultural centers of South Asia, along with Kuru. The Kings of the Videha Kingdom where called Janakas, the Videha Kingdom later became incorporated into the Vajji confederacy which was based in the city of Vaishali which is also in Mithila. From the 11th century to the 20th century, Mithila was ruled by various indigenous dynasties, the first of these where the Karnatas who where of Parmar Rajput origin, the Oinwar dynasty who where Maithil Brahmins and the Khandavalas of Raj Darbhanga who where also Maithil Brahmins. It was during this period that the capital of Mithila was shifted to Darbhanga, Mithila is distinct geographical region with natural boundaries like rivers and hills. It is largely a flat and fertile alluvial plain criss-crossed by numerous river which originate from the Himalayas, the flat plains and fertile sources have meant that Mithila has a rich variety of biotic resources however frequent flood have restricted the people from taking advantage of these. Mithila has seven major rivers, Mahananda, Gandak, Kosi, Bagmati, Kamala, Balan, and they flow from the Himalaya mountains in the north to the Ganges river in the south. These rivers regularly flood, depositing silt onto the farmlands and sometimes causing death or hardship, Maithili language speakers are referred to as Maithils and they are an Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group. There are an estimated 35 million Maithils in India alone, the vast majority of them are Hindu but there is a small Muslim minority
38.
Tibet
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Tibet is a region on the Tibetan Plateau in Asia, spanning about 2.4 million km2 and nearly a quarter of Chinas territory. Tibet is the highest region on Earth, with an elevation of 4,900 metres. The highest elevation in Tibet is Mount Everest, Earths highest mountain, the Tibetan Empire emerged in the 7th century, but with the fall of the empire the region soon divided into a variety of territories. The current borders of Tibet were generally established in the 18th century, following the Xinhai Revolution against the Qing dynasty in 1912, Qing soldiers were disarmed and escorted out of Tibet Area. The region subsequently declared its independence in 1913 without recognition by the subsequent Chinese Republican government, later, Lhasa took control of the western part of Xikang, China. There are tensions regarding Tibets political status and dissident groups that are active in exile and it is also said that Tibetan activists in Tibet have been arrested or tortured. The economy of Tibet is dominated by agriculture, though tourism has become a growing industry in recent decades. The dominant religion in Tibet is Tibetan Buddhism, in there is Bön, which is similar to Tibetan Buddhism. Tibetan Buddhism is an influence on the art, music. Tibetan architecture reflects Chinese and Indian influences, staple foods in Tibet are roasted barley, yak meat, and butter tea. The Tibetan name for their land, Bod བོད་, means Tibet or Tibetan Plateau, although it meant the central region around Lhasa. The Standard Tibetan pronunciation of Bod, is transcribed Bhö in Tournadre Phonetic Transcription, Bö in the THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription and Poi in Tibetan pinyin. Tibetan people, language, and culture, regardless of where they are from, are referred to as Zang although the geographical term Xīzàng is often limited to the Tibet Autonomous Region. The term Xīzàng was coined during the Qing dynasty in the reign of the Jiaqing Emperor through the addition of a prefix meaning west to Zang, the best-known medieval Chinese name for Tibet is Tubo. This name first appears in Chinese characters as 土番 in the 7th century, in the Middle Chinese spoken during that period, as reconstructed by William H. Baxter, 土番 was pronounced thux-phjon and 吐蕃 was pronounced thux-pjon. Other pre-modern Chinese names for Tibet include Wusiguo, Wusizang, Tubote, the English word Tibet or Thibet dates back to the 18th century. Historical linguists generally agree that Tibet names in European languages are loanwords from Semitic Ṭībat orTūbātt, itself deriving from Turkic Töbäd, literally, according to Matthew Kapstein, From the perspective of historical linguistics, Tibetan most closely resembles Burmese among the major languages of Asia. More controversial is the theory that the Tibeto-Burman family is part of a larger language family, called Sino-Tibetan
39.
Bihar
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Bihar is a state in the eastern part of India. It is the 13th-largest state of India, with an area of 94,163 km2. The third-largest state of India by population, it is contiguous with Uttar Pradesh to its west, Nepal to the north, the Bihar plain is split by the river Ganges which flows from west to east. On November 15,2000, southern Bihar was ceded to form the new state of Jharkhand, only 11. 3% of the population of Bihar lives in urban areas, which is lowest in India after Himachal Pradesh. Additionally, almost 58% of Biharis are below the age of 25, the official languages of the state are Hindi and Urdu. Other languages commonly used within the state include Bhojpuri, Maithili, Magahi, Bajjika, in ancient and classical India, Bihar was considered a centre of power, learning, and culture. From Magadha arose Indias first empire, the Maurya empire, as well as one of the worlds most widely adhered-to religions, Magadha empires, notably under the Maurya and Gupta dynasties, unified large parts of South Asia under a central rule. Another region of Bihar is Mithila which was a centre of Brahmanical learning. Since the late 1970s, Bihar has lagged far behind other Indian states in terms of social, the state government has, however, made significant strides in developing the state. The name Bihar is derived from the Sanskrit and Pali word, Vihara, the region roughly encompassing the present state was dotted with Buddhist vihara, the abodes of Buddhist monks in the ancient and medieval periods. Medieval writer Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani records in the Tabakat-i-Nasiri that in 1198, Bakhtiyar Khalji committed a massacre in a town now known as Bihar Sharif, chirand, on the northern bank of the Ganga River, in Saran district, has an archaeological record from the Neolithic age. Regions of Bihar—such as Magadha, Mithila and Anga—are mentioned in religious texts, the power centre of ancient Bihar was in the region of modern-day southwestern Bihar called Magadha, which remained the centre of power, learning, and culture in India for 1000 years. The Haryanka dynasty, founded in 684 BC, ruled Magadha from the city of Rajgriha, the two well-known kings from this dynasty were Bimbisara and his son Ajatashatru, who imprisoned his father to ascend the throne. Ajatashatru founded the city of Pataliputra which later became the capital of Magadha and he declared war and conquered the Vajji of north Bihar, another powerful Mahajanapada north of Ganges with its capital at Vaishali. Vaishali was ruled by the Licchavi clan, who had a form of government where the king was elected from the number of rajas. The Haryanka dynasty was followed by the Shishunaga dynasty, later the Nanda Dynasty ruled a vast tract stretching from Bengal to Punjab. The Nanda dynasty was replaced by the Maurya Empire, Indias first empire, the Maurya Empire and the religion of Buddhism arose in the region that now makes up modern Bihar. The Mauryan Empire, which originated from Magadha in 325 BC, was founded by Chandragupta Maurya and it had its capital at Pataliputra
40.
Bodhisattva
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Bodhisattvas are a popular subject in Buddhist art. In early Indian Buddhism, the term bodhisattva was primarily used to specifically to Gautama Buddha in his former life. The Jataka tales, which are the stories of the Buddhas past lives, depict the various attempts of the bodhisattva to embrace qualities like self-sacrifice, mount Potalaka, for example, is one of Bodhisattvayana. Because Hinayana was disliked and the terms Śrāvaka-Bodhisattva or Pratyekabuddha-Bodhisattva were not widely used, nevertheless, bodhisattva retained an implied reference to someone on the path to become an arhat or pratyekabuddha. In contrast, the goal of Mahayanas bodhisattva path is to achieve Samyaksambodhiṃ, when, during his discourses, he recounts his experiences as a young aspirant, he regularly uses the phrase When I was an unenlightened bodhisatta. The term therefore connotes a being who is bound for enlightenment, in other words, in the Pāli canon, the bodhisatta is also described as someone who is still subject to birth, illness, death, sorrow, defilement, and delusion. Some of the lives of the Buddha as a bodhisattva are featured in the Jataka tales. According to the Theravāda monk Bhikkhu Bodhi, the path is not taught in the earliest strata of Buddhist texts such as the Pali Nikayas which instead focus on the ideal of the Arahant. In later Theravada literature, the bodhisatta is used fairly frequently in the sense of someone on the path to liberation. He also quotes an inscription from the 10th Century king of Sri Lanka, Mahinda IV, paul Williams writes that some modern Theravada meditation masters in Thailand are popularly regarded as bodhisattvas. Like perhaps some of the early Mahāyāna forest hermit monks, or the later Buddhist Tantrics and they are widely revered, worshipped, and held to be arhats or bodhisattvas. Mahāyāna Buddhism is based principally upon the path of a bodhisattva, according to Jan Nattier, the term Mahāyāna was originally even an honorary synonym for Bodhisattvayāna, or the Bodhisattva Vehicle. The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra contains a simple and brief definition for the term bodhisattva and this definition is given as the following. Because he has enlightenment as his aim, a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is so called, the early Rastrapalapariprccha sutra also promotes a solitary life of meditation in the forests, far away from the distractions of the householder life. The Rastrapala is also critical of monks living in monasteries and in cities who are seen as not practicing meditation. These texts seem to indicate the initial Bodhisattva ideal was associated with a strict forest asceticism, Mahāyāna Buddhism encourages everyone to become bodhisattvas and to take the bodhisattva vows. With these vows, one makes the promise to work for the enlightenment of all sentient beings by practicing the six perfections. Indelibly entwined with the vow is merit transference
41.
Manjushri
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Mañjuśrī is a bodhisattva associated with prajñā in Mahayana Buddhism. In Tibetan Buddhism, he is also a yidam and his name means Gentle Glory in Sanskrit. Mañjuśrī is also known by the name of Mañjuśrīkumārabhūta, literally Mañjuśrī, Still a Youth or, less literally. Scholars have identified Mañjuśrī as the oldest and most significant bodhisattva in Mahāyāna literature, Mañjuśrī is first referred to in early Mahayana sutras such as the Prajnaparamita sutras and through this association very early in the tradition he came to symbolize the embodiment of prajñā. The Lotus Sutra assigns him a land called Vimala, which according to the Avatamsaka Sutra is located in the East. His pure land is predicted to be one of the two best pure lands in all of existence in all the past, present and future, when he attains buddhahood his name will be Universal Sight. In the Lotus Sūtra, Mañjuśrī also leads the Nagarajas daughter to enlightenment, an example of a wisdom teaching of Mañjuśrī can be found in the Saptaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra. This sūtra contains a dialogue between Mañjuśrī and the Buddha on the One Samadhi, constantly thus practicing, day or night, whether sitting, walking, standing or lying down, finally one reaches an inconceivable state without any obstruction or form. This is the Samadhi of One Act, within Vajrayana Buddhism, Mañjuśrī is a meditational deity, and considered a fully enlightened Buddha. In Shingon Buddhism, he is one of the Thirteen Buddhas to whom disciples devote themselves and he figures extensively in many esoteric texts such as the Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa and the Mañjuśrīnāmasamgīti. His consort in some traditions is Saraswati, Mañjuśrī is depicted as a male bodhisattva wielding a flaming sword in his right hand, representing the realization of transcendent wisdom which cuts down ignorance and duality. The scripture supported by the padma held in his hand is a Prajñāpāramitā sūtra. Mañjuśrī is often depicted as riding on a lion, or sitting on the skin of a lion. This represents the use of wisdom to tame the mind, which is compared to riding or subduing a ferocious lion, in Chinese and Japanese Buddhist art, Mañjuśrīs sword is sometimes replaced with a ruyi scepter, especially in representations of his Vimalakirti Sutra discussion with the layman Vimalakirti. According to Berthold Laufer, the first Chinese representation of a ruyi was in an 8th-century Mañjuśrī painting by Wu Daozi, in subsequent Chinese and Japanese paintings of Buddhas, a ruyi was occasionally represented as a padma with a long stem curved like a ruyi. He is one of the Four Great Bodhisattvas of Chinese Buddhism, in China, he is often paired with Samantabhadra. In Tibetan Buddhism, Mañjuśrī is sometimes depicted in a trinity with Avalokiteśvara and this syllabary was most widely used for the Gāndhārī language with the Kharoṣṭhī script, but also appears in some Sanskrit texts. In some of these texts, the Arapacana syllabary serves as a mnemonic for important Mahāyāna concepts, due to its association with him, Arapacana may even serve as an alternate name for Mañjuśrī
Hindu, 
Buddhism
