1.
Spalding (sports equipment)
–
Spalding is an American sporting goods company founded by Albert Spalding in Chicago, Illinois in 1876. It is now headquartered in Bowling Green, Kentucky, the company specializes in the production of balls for many sports, but is best known for its basketballs. Spalding also makes a range of products for baseball, soccer, softball, volleyball. The company was founded in 1876 when Albert Spalding and Wilmer Jesús Pisco Calvo were pitcher and the manager of a team in Chicago. The company standardized early baseballs and developed the modern baseball bat with the bulge at its apex, in 1892, Spalding acquired Wright & Ditson and A. J. Reach, both rival sporting goods companies. In 1893, A. G. Spalding & Brothers purchased the Lamb Knitting Machine Company located in Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts and it used this purchase to consolidate its skate manufactory from Newark and its gymnasium goods manufactory from Philadelphia to the Chicopee plant. Lamb, primarily engaged in manufacturing knitting machines, rifles, the Spalding League Ball was adopted by the National League and American Association of Professional Base Ball Clubs for the seasons of 1892–1896 and used by the National League since 1880. It was manufactured by A. G. Spalding & Bros, Chicago, New York & Philadelphia and sold for $1.50 in 1896. During World War II, the company joined five other firms to form the New England Small Arms Corporation for manufacture of M1918 Browning Automatic Rifles. Spalding produced the well-known Spaldeen high-bounce rubber ball, said to be a re-use of defective tennis ball cores, that was sold to city children from 1949. In baseball, Spalding manufactured the official ball of the major leagues through the 1976 season, using the Reach brand on American League balls, since 1977 the official ball has been made by Rawlings. Spalding became a division of the Russell Corporation in 2003, however, that deal did not encompass Spaldings golf operations, which included the Top-Flite, Ben Hogan and Strata brands, which were eventually bought by Callaway later the same year. Horween Leather Company supplies leather to Spalding for indoor Arena Football League footballs, Spalding is mostly known for its basketballs, although the company also manufactures balls and accessories for other sports such as American football, baseball, soccer and volleyball. Besides, softball equipment is offered through companys subsidiary Dudley, Spalding developed its first basketball in 1894 and is currently a leading producer. Since 1983, it has been the Official ball supplier to the National Basketball Association, the company also provides the official ball of the Arena Football League, an indoor American football league. The company was one of the first to use high-profile athletes to endorse its products when tennis player Pancho Gonzales was signed to an exclusive endorsement contract in 1951. In 2006, Spalding and the NBA announced that they would create a new NBA Official Game Ball, with interlocking segments and made with a synthetic material instead of leather. However, many NBA players complained that the new ball became extremely slick after use, wouldnt bounce as high and bounced awkwardly off the rim and backboard
2.
Olympic Games
–
The Olympic Games are considered the worlds foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating. The Olympic Games are held four years, with the Summer and Winter Games alternating by occurring every four years. Their creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee in 1894, leading to the first modern Games in Athens in 1896. The IOC is the body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure. The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in changes to the Olympic Games. The IOC has had to adapt to a variety of economic, political, as a result, the Olympics has shifted away from pure amateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to allowing participation of professional athletes. The growing importance of mass media created the issue of corporate sponsorship, World wars led to the cancellation of the 1916,1940, and 1944 Games. Large boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Games, the Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations, National Olympic Committees, and organising committees for each specific Olympic Games. As the decision-making body, the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Games, the IOC also determines the Olympic programme, consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games. There are several Olympic rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch, over 13,000 athletes compete at the Summer and Winter Olympic Games in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events. The first, second, and third-place finishers in each event receive Olympic medals, gold, silver, the Games have grown so much that nearly every nation is now represented. This growth has created numerous challenges and controversies, including boycotts, doping, bribery, every two years the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national and sometimes international fame. The Games also constitute an opportunity for the host city and country to themselves to the world. The Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, competition was among representatives of several city-states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece. These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat such as wrestling. It has been written that during the Games, all conflicts among the participating city-states were postponed until the Games were finished. This cessation of hostilities was known as the Olympic peace or truce and this idea is a modern myth because the Greeks never suspended their wars. The truce did allow those religious pilgrims who were travelling to Olympia to pass through warring territories unmolested because they were protected by Zeus
3.
Volleyball variations
–
As volleyball is one of the worlds most popular team sports, second only to football in the number of players, there are numerous variations of the basic rules. The rules have changed around the world since its creation in 1895, as skills have developed, to make the more suited for spectators. Some variations have included as a change in the international rules by Fédération Internationale de Volleyball. It became an official Olympic sport in 1996 and this version, rather than being played on indoor hard courts, is played on sand courts which may either be formed naturally or built specifically for the purpose. The first team to win two sets wins the match, if a third deciding set is required, it is played to 15. This is a variation of beach volleyball. As beach volleyball took volleyball outdoors, indoor sand volleyball takes beach volleyball indoors, in the United States, a growing number of colleges are now considering switching from hard court indoor volleyball to sand court indoor volleyball. The biggest reason for the change is the reduced rate of injury of players. Indoor sand volleyball teams vary from two to six members, college teams having six, normally, rather than using a purpose-built hall, an indoor basketball court is converted. A protective tarpaulin covers the floor of the court and soft sand is laid a foot deep over it. The boundaries are marked off with lines in the sand. However, a recent innovation uses colored lasers that illuminate the lines in the sand. In some venues, there exist sand courts that are used as usual during the spring, summer, and fall months, but during the winter months, in shooting volleyball the team consists of normally seven players. Three players play at the side, three players play center of the court, and one player stands in front of the net. Any ball that goes to into the net is to be out by the player who is standing in front of it, some players also smash the ball with high vertical leaps like Olympic volleyball but there is no setter in team. In this game, the hit the ball with both hands by punching it with both hands. When one player smashes the ball with great skill the spectators give prize money to that player, shooting volleyball court is 35 ft and 70 ft in length. Net height was 8 ft before some years but nowadays the net height is 7.2 ft to 7.5 ft, the ball size is same to handball
4.
Volleyball
–
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are separated by a net. Each team tries to points by grounding a ball on the other teams court under organized rules. It has been a part of the program of the Summer Olympic Games since 1964. The receiving team must not let the ball be grounded within their court, the team may touch the ball up to 3 times but individual players may not touch the ball twice consecutively. The team that wins the rally is awarded a point, the ball is usually played with the hands or arms, but players can legally strike or push the ball with any part of the body. A number of consistent techniques have evolved in volleyball, including spiking and blocking as well as passing, setting, the game took some of its characteristics from tennis and handball. Another indoor sport, basketball, was catching on in the area, having been invented just ten miles away in the city of Springfield, Massachusetts, only four years before. Mintonette was designed to be a sport, less rough than basketball, for older members of the YMCA. The first rules, written down by William G Morgan, called for a net 6 ft 6 in high, a 25 ft ×50 ft court, and any number of players. A match was composed of nine innings with three serves for each team in each inning, and no limit to the number of contacts for each team before sending the ball to the opponents court. In case of an error, a second try was allowed. Hitting the ball into the net was considered a foul —except in the case of the first-try serve, Volleyball rules were slightly modified by the International YMCA Training School and the game spread around the country to various YMCAs. The first official ball used in volleyball is disputed, some say that Spalding created the first official ball in 1896. In 1917, the game was changed from 21 to 15 points, in 1919, about 16,000 volleyballs were distributed by the American Expeditionary Forces to their troops and allies, which sparked the growth of volleyball in new countries. The first country outside the United States to adopt volleyball was Canada in 1900, an international federation, the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball, was founded in 1947, and the first World Championships were held in 1949 for men and 1952 for women. The sport is now popular in Brazil, in Europe, in Russia, and in countries including China. Beach volleyball, a variation of the played on sand. Volleyball is also a sport at the Paralympics managed by the World Organization Volleyball for Disabled, nudists were early adopters of the game with regular organized play in clubs as early as the late 1920s
5.
Invention
–
An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition or process. The invention process is a process within an overall engineering and product development process and it may be an improvement upon a machine or product or a new process for creating an object or a result. An invention that achieves a unique function or result may be a radical breakthrough. Such works are novel and not obvious to others skilled in the same field, an inventor may be taking a big step in success or failure. A patent legally protects the property rights of the inventor. The rules and requirements for patenting an invention vary from country to country, another meaning of invention is cultural invention, which is an innovative set of useful social behaviours adopted by people and passed on to others. The Institute for Social Inventions collected many such ideas in magazines, Invention is also an important component of artistic and design creativity. Inventions often extend the boundaries of knowledge, experience or capability. Brainstorming also can spark new ideas for an invention, collaborative creative processes are frequently used by engineers, designers, architects and scientists. Co-inventors are frequently named on patents, in addition, many inventors keep records of their working process - notebooks, photos, etc. including Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, Evangelista Torricelli, Thomas Jefferson and Albert Einstein. In the process of developing an invention, the idea may change. The invention may become simpler, more practical, it may expand, working on one invention can lead to others too. History shows that turning the concept of an invention into a device is not always swift or direct. Inventions may also more useful after time passes and other changes occur. For example, the became more useful once powered flight was a reality. Invention is often a creative process, an open and curious mind allows an inventor to see beyond what is known. Seeing a new possibility, connection, or relationship can spark an invention, inventive thinking frequently involves combining concepts or elements from different realms that would not normally be put together. Sometimes inventors disregard the boundaries between distinctly separate territories or fields, several concepts may be considered when thinking about invention
6.
Clara Gregory Baer
–
Clara Gregory Baer was an American physical education instructor and womens sports pioneer. Baer introduced the first teacher certification course for education in the Southern United States. She also developed the sport of Newcomb ball and played a role in the development of netball. Baer was born in Algiers, Louisiana to Hamilton John Baer, after college, she returned to the South, initially invited by the Southern Athletic Club to teach gymnastics to women. At the time, the Club was a club, although wives. Baer decided to contact the president of Newcomb College, now part of Tulane University and she was hired on a trial basis, as physical education was not yet an established part of the curriculum. Her position was made permanent, and she completed a 38-year career in physical education. Baer was hired by the Sophie Newcomb College to start an education department in 1891. She started the first teacher certification program in the South, as well as the first four-year degree program in physical education, the teacher certification program was established in 1893, and the degree program was initiated in 1907. Baer is best known as the author of the first book of rules for basketball in 1896. As Baer noted, It was in 1893 that basket-ball was introduced at Newcomb, at that time the game had not reached its present development. When Newcomb College first tried basket-ball in its work, there were no published rules for women. The results were naturally to be expected, its introduction at Newcomb was not entirely satisfactory, later, a compromise was reached by modifying the game for girls. She first called the game basquette, a later dropped in her first revision of rules called Sophie Newcomb College Basketball Rules published in 1908. Players were not allowed to dribble, guard, or snatch the ball, players were not allowed to make two-handed passes, as it was believed that this type of pass could compress the chest. The game she described had a court with seven divisions, however, this restriction developed out of a misunderstanding. Baer had written to James Naismith, asking for a copy of the rules of the game he invented and he sent her a copy, including a diagram of the court. The diagram had dotted lines on it, indicating where players were best able to cover and she interpreted the lines as restrictions on where the players could move, so the first rules for women contained these restrictions
7.
Physical education
–
Physical education, also known as Phys Ed. PE, Gym or Gym class, and known in many Commonwealth countries as physical training or PT, is a course related of maintaining the human body through physical exercises. It is taken during primary and secondary education and encourages psychomotor learning in a play or movement exploration setting to promote health, pupils are able to play games like football, badminton, captain ball, and basketball during most sessions. Unorthodox sports such as, fencing, and skateboarding are occasionally played, in more prestigious secondary schools and in junior colleges, sports such as golf, tennis, shooting, and squash are played. A compulsory fitness exam, NAPFA, is conducted in every school once every year to assess the fitness of the pupils. Pupils are given a series of fitness tests, students are graded by gold, silver, bronze or as fail. NAPFA for pre-enlistees serves as an indicator for an additional 2 months in the compulsory national service if they attain bronze or fail. In Malaysia, pupils from schools to secondary schools are expected to do 2 periods or 1 hour of PE throughout the year except a week before examination. In most secondary schools, games like badminton, sepak takraw, football, netball, basketball, pupils are allowed to bring their own sports equipment to the school with the authorization of the teacher. In the Philippines, PE is mandatory for all years, unless, the school gives the option for a student to do the Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme instead for fifth and sixth year. In the Philippines, some schools have integrated martial arts training into their physical education curriculum, in Indonesia, students ranging from Kindergarten to High School have PE integrated with their curriculum. Starting from Junior High School, several games such as basketball, volleyball, cricket, tennis, badminton, kho kho, kabaddi. Several drills and physical training are taught, in Australia, physical education was first made an important part of the curriculum in Government primary and secondary schools in 1981. The policy was outlined in a Ministerial Statement to the Victorian Legislative Assembly by the Minister for Educational Services, in British Columbia, Canada the government has stated in the grade one curriculum that students must participate in physical activity daily five times a week. Also the teacher is responsible for planning Daily Physical Activity which is thirty minutes of mild to moderate physical activity a day not including curriculum physical education classes, the curriculum also requires students in grade one to be knowledgeable about healthy living. For example, students must be able to describe benefits of exercise, identify healthy choices that require them to be more physically active. Ontario, Canada has a procedure in place. On October 6,2005 in Ontario, Canada the Ontario Ministry of Education implemented a Daily Physical Activity policy in Elementary Schools, Grades 1-8
8.
Teacher
–
A teacher is a person who helps others to acquire knowledge, competences or values. Informally the role of teacher may be taken on by anyone, in some countries, teaching young people of school age may be carried out in an informal setting, such as within the family, rather than in a formal setting such as a school or college. Some other professions may involve a significant amount of teaching, in most countries, formal teaching is usually carried out by paid professional teachers. This article focuses on those who are employed, as their role, to teach others in a formal education context. A teachers role may vary among cultures, Teachers may provide instruction in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion, civics, community roles, or life skills. Formal teaching tasks include preparing lessons according to agreed curricula, giving lessons, a teachers professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. In some education systems, teachers may have responsibility for student discipline, Teaching is a highly complex activity. This is in part because teaching is a practice, that takes place in a specific context. Factors that influence what is expected of teachers include history and tradition, social views about the purpose of education, so the competences required by a teacher are affected by the different ways in which the role is understood around the world. Broadly, there seem to be four models, the teacher as manager of instruction, the teacher as caring person, the teacher as expert learner, some evidence-based international discussions have tried to reach such a common understanding. Scholarly consensus is emerging that what is required of teachers can be grouped under three headings, knowledge craft skills and dispositions and it has been found that teachers who showed enthusiasm towards the course materials and students can create a positive learning experience. These teachers do not teach by rote but attempt to find new invigoration for the materials on a daily basis. One of the challenges facing teachers is that they may have covered a curriculum until they begin to feel bored with the subject. Students who had enthusiastic teachers tend to rate them higher than teachers who didnt show much enthusiasm for the course materials, Teachers that exhibit enthusiasm can lead to students who are more likely to be engaged, interested, energetic, and curious about learning the subject matter. Recent research has found a correlation between teacher enthusiasm and students intrinsic motivation to learn and vitality in the classroom, students who experienced a very enthusiastic teacher were more likely to read lecture material outside of the classroom. There are various mechanisms by which teacher enthusiasm may facilitate higher levels of intrinsic motivation, teacher enthusiasm may contribute to a classroom atmosphere of energy and enthusiasm which feeds student interest and excitement in learning the subject matter. Enthusiastic teachers may also lead to becoming more self-determined in their own learning process. The concept of mere exposure indicates that the teachers enthusiasm may contribute to the expectations about intrinsic motivation in the context of learning
9.
H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College
–
H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College, or Newcomb College, was the coordinate womens college of Tulane University located in New Orleans, in the U. S. state of Louisiana. It was founded by Josephine Louise Newcomb in 1886 in memory of her daughter, Newcomb was the first womens coordinate college within a United States university. This model was used in partnerships such as Pembroke College at Brown University. In 2006, Newcomb College was closed as part of Tulanes Renewal Plan following the major losses, alleged heirs of Mrs. Josephine Louise Newcomb established the college as a memorial to her daughter Sophie, who died in 1870 at the age of 15. Following an initial donation of $100,000, she made gifts totaling $3 million and she wanted to support a liberal academic education for young white women. Newcomb was influenced by Ida Richardson and the college was associated with the Progressive Movement from its earliest years, until its move in 1918 to its Broadway campus, Newcomb College was made up mostly of day students. Its move to its current site on the campus of Tulane was also the occasion of development of dormitories. Students at Newcomb College became increasingly sophisticated and the schools reputation grew, the university had recruited Brandt V. B. Dixon as the first president of Newcomb College. To ensure girls and young women were prepared for college, Dixon established the Newcomb High School. The preparatory school ensured that girls were ready to study at the level, as some parents tried to send girls to Newcomb who were as young as 13 or 14. Dixon worked with faculty and students to continue to raise academic standards, by 1916, Newcomb had achieved a strong regional reputation and become one of seven Southern schools which held a standard college designation within the Southern Association of College Women. Out of its art school, the created the business of what became the renowned Newcomb Pottery. This reflected both a progressive interest in craft and parents desire for their daughters to learn a practical, industrial skill in the difficult postwar years. It was first headed by Mary Given Sheerer, previously associated with the Rookwood Pottery in Cincinnati, while the pottery did not employ that many women, some did find work there. Angela Gregory was artist-in-residence at Newcomb College and it produced more than 70,000 pieces before the pottery program closed in 1939. Newcomb college founder Josephine Louise Newcomb and her family commissioned windows designed by Louis Comfort Tiffany for a chapel at the site of Newcomb College. One of the commissions was for Resurrection, part of a triptych designed in memory of her daughter, Harriet Sophie Newcomb, other Tiffany windows were designed for an area behind the altar of the original chapel in memory of Josephines husband Warren Newcomb and her mother Mary Sophie LeMonnier. Noted art critic, author, and art historian John Canaday taught at Newcomb College, later Canaday headed the art department at Newcomb
10.
Tulane University
–
Tulane University is a private, nonsectarian research university in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. It is generally considered the top university and the most selective institution of education in the state of Louisiana. From a nationwide perspective, U. S. News & World Report categorizes Tulane as most selective, the school is known to attract a geographically diverse student body, with 85% of undergraduate students coming from over 300 miles away. The school was founded as a medical college in 1834. The institution was privatized under the endowments of Paul Tulane and Josephine Louise Newcomb in 1884, Tulane is the 9th oldest private university in the Association of American Universities, which consists of major research universities in the United States and Canada. The Tulane University Law School and Tulane University Medical School are considered the 12th oldest and 15th oldest law and medical schools, respectively, members of Congress, heads of Federal agencies, two Surgeon Generals of the United States, U. S. At least two Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the University, the university was founded as the Medical College of Louisiana in 1834 partly as a response to the fears of smallpox, yellow fever, and cholera in the United States. The university became only the medical school in the South. In 1847, the legislature established the school as the University of Louisiana, a public university. Subsequently, in 1851, the university established its first academic department, the first president chosen for the new university was Francis Lister Hawks, an Episcopalian priest and prominent citizen of New Orleans at the time. The university was closed from 1861 to 1865 during the American Civil War, after reopening, it went through a period of financial challenges because of an extended agricultural depression in the South which affected the nations economy. Paul Tulane, owner of a dry goods and clothing business. This donation led to the establishment of a Tulane Educational Fund and this act created the Tulane University of Louisiana. The university was privatized, and is one of only a few American universities to be converted from a public institution to a private one. In 1884, William Preston Johnston became the first president of Tulane and he had succeeded Robert E. Lee as president of Washington and Lee University after Lees death. He had moved to Louisiana and become president of Louisiana State University, in 1885, the university established its graduate division, later becoming the Graduate School. One year later, gifts from Josephine Louise Newcomb totaling over $3.6 million, Newcomb was the first coordinate college for women in the United States and became a model for such institutions as Pembroke College and Barnard College. In 1894 the College of Technology formed, which would become the School of Engineering
11.
New Orleans
–
New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue
12.
Popularity
–
In sociology, the popularity of a person, idea, item or other concept can be defined in terms of liking, attraction, dominance and superiority. With respect to interpersonal popularity, there are two divisions, perceived and sociometric. According to psychologist Tessa Lansu at the Radboud University Nijmegen, Popularity to do with being the point of a group. The term Popularity is borrowed from the Latin term popularis, which originally meant common, the current definition of the word popular, the fact or condition of being well liked by the people, was first seen in 1601. While popularity is a trait often ascribed to an individual, it is a social phenomenon. Popularity is a perception, and individuals report the consensus of a groups feelings towards an individual or object when rating popularity. Notwithstanding the above, popularity as a concept can be applied, assigned, or directed towards objects such as songs, movies, websites, activities, soaps, together, these objects collectively make up popular culture, or the consensus of mainstream preferences in society. In essence, anything, human or non-human, can be deemed popular, for many years, popularity research focused on a definition of popularity that was based on being well liked. Eventually, it was discovered that those who are perceived as popular are not necessarily the most well liked as originally assumed, when students are given the opportunity to freely elect those they like most and those they perceive as popular, a discrepancy often emerges. This is evidence there are two main forms of personal popularity that social psychology recognizes, sociometric popularity and perceived popularity. Sociometric popularity can be defined by how liked an individual is and this liking is correlated with prosocial behaviours. Those who act in prosocial ways are likely to be deemed sociometrically popular, often they are known for their interpersonal abilities, their empathy for others, and their willingness to cooperate non-aggressively. This is a more private judgement, characterized by likeability, that will not generally be shared in a group setting, often, it is impossible to know whom individuals find popular on this scale unless confidentiality is ensured. Perceived popularity is used to describe individuals who are known among their peers as being popular. Unlike sociometric popularity, perceived popularity is associated with aggression. This form of popularity is often explored by the popular media, notable works dealing with perceived popularity include Mean Girls, Odd Girl Out, and Ferris Buellers Day Off. Individuals who have perceived popularity are often highly visible and frequently emulated. To date, only one theory of interpersonal popularity has been proposed
13.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
14.
Game
–
A game is a structured form of play, usually undertaken for enjoyment and sometimes used as an educational tool. Games are distinct from work, which is carried out for remuneration, and from art. However, the distinction is not clear-cut, and many games are considered to be work or art. Key components of games are goals, rules, challenge, games generally involve mental or physical stimulation, and often both. Many games help develop practical skills, serve as a form of exercise, or otherwise perform an educational, simulational, attested as early as 2600 BC, games are a universal part of human experience and present in all cultures. The Royal Game of Ur, Senet, and Mancala are some of the oldest known games, ludwig Wittgenstein was probably the first academic philosopher to address the definition of the word game. In his Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein argued that the elements of games, such as play, rules, from this, Wittgenstein concluded that people apply the term game to a range of disparate human activities that bear to one another only what one might call family resemblances. A piece of entertainment is an if it is interactive. Movies and books are cited as examples of non-interactive entertainment, if no goals are associated with a plaything, it is a toy. If it has goals, a plaything is a challenge, if a challenge has no active agent against whom you compete, it is a puzzle, if there is one, it is a conflict. Finally, if the player can only outperform the opponent, but not attack them to interfere with their performance, however, if attacks are allowed, then the conflict qualifies as a game. Crawfords definition may thus be rendered as, an interactive, goal-oriented activity made for money, with agents to play against. A game is a system in which players engage in a conflict, defined by rules. A game is a form of art in which participants, termed players, according to this definition, some games that do not involve choices, such as Chutes and Ladders, Candy Land, and War are not technically games any more than a slot machine is. A game is an activity among two or more independent decision-makers seeking to achieve their objectives in some limiting context, a game is a form of play with goals and structure. When you strip away the differences and the technological complexities, all games share four defining traits, a goal, rules, a feedback system. Games can be characterized by what the player does and this is often referred to as gameplay. Major key elements identified in this context are tools and rules that define the context of game
15.
Student
–
A student or pupil is a learner or someone who attends an educational institution. In Britain those attending university are termed students, in the United States, and more recently also in Britain, the term student is applied to both categories. In its widest use, student is used for anyone who is learning, including mid-career adults who are taking vocational education or returning to university. When speaking about learning outside an institution, student is used to refer to someone who is learning a topic or who is a student of a certain topic or person. In Nigeria, education is classified into four system known as 6-3-3-4 system of education and it implies six years in primary school, three years in junior secondary, three years in senior secondary and four years in the university. However, the number of years to be spent in university is determined by the course of study. Some courses have longer study length than others and those in primary school are often referred to as pupils. Those in university as well as those in school are being referred to as students. Six years of school education in Singapore is compulsory. International Schools are subject to overseas curriculums, such as the British, Primary education is compulsory in Bangladesh. Its a near crime to not to children to primary school when they are of age. But it is not a punishable crime, because of the socio-economic state of Bangladesh, child labour is sometimes legal. But the guardian must ensure the primary education, everyone who is learning in any institute or even online may be called student in Bangladesh. Sometimes students taking undergraduate education is called undergraduates and students taking post-graduate education may be called post-graduates, Education System Of Bangladesh, Education is free in Brunei. Darussalam not limited to government educational institutions but also private educational institutions, there are mainly two types of educational institutions, government or public, and private institutions. Several stages have to be undergone by the prospective students leading to higher qualifications, Primary School Secondary School High School Colleges University Level It takes six and five years to complete the primary and secondary levels respectively. Upon completing these two stages, students/pupils have freedom to progress to sixth-form centers, colleges or probably straight to employment. Students are permitted to progress towards university level programs in both government and private university colleges, Education in Cambodia is free for all the students who study in Primary School, Secondary School or High School
16.
Time
–
Time is the indefinite continued progress of existence and events that occur in apparently irreversible succession from the past through the present to the future. Time is often referred to as the dimension, along with the three spatial dimensions. Time has long been an important subject of study in religion, philosophy, and science, nevertheless, diverse fields such as business, industry, sports, the sciences, and the performing arts all incorporate some notion of time into their respective measuring systems. Two contrasting viewpoints on time divide prominent philosophers, one view is that time is part of the fundamental structure of the universe—a dimension independent of events, in which events occur in sequence. Isaac Newton subscribed to this realist view, and hence it is referred to as Newtonian time. This second view, in the tradition of Gottfried Leibniz and Immanuel Kant, holds that time is neither an event nor a thing, Time in physics is unambiguously operationally defined as what a clock reads. Time is one of the seven fundamental physical quantities in both the International System of Units and International System of Quantities, Time is used to define other quantities—such as velocity—so defining time in terms of such quantities would result in circularity of definition. The operational definition leaves aside the question there is something called time, apart from the counting activity just mentioned, that flows. Investigations of a single continuum called spacetime bring questions about space into questions about time, questions that have their roots in the works of early students of natural philosophy. Furthermore, it may be there is a subjective component to time. Temporal measurement has occupied scientists and technologists, and was a motivation in navigation. Periodic events and periodic motion have long served as standards for units of time, examples include the apparent motion of the sun across the sky, the phases of the moon, the swing of a pendulum, and the beat of a heart. Currently, the unit of time, the second, is defined by measuring the electronic transition frequency of caesium atoms. Time is also of significant social importance, having economic value as well as value, due to an awareness of the limited time in each day. In day-to-day life, the clock is consulted for periods less than a day whereas the calendar is consulted for periods longer than a day, increasingly, personal electronic devices display both calendars and clocks simultaneously. The number that marks the occurrence of an event as to hour or date is obtained by counting from a fiducial epoch—a central reference point. Artifacts from the Paleolithic suggest that the moon was used to time as early as 6,000 years ago. Lunar calendars were among the first to appear, either 12 or 13 lunar months, without intercalation to add days or months to some years, seasons quickly drift in a calendar based solely on twelve lunar months
17.
Space
–
Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have relative position and direction. Physical space is conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually consider it, with time, to be part of a boundless four-dimensional continuum known as spacetime. The concept of space is considered to be of importance to an understanding of the physical universe. However, disagreement continues between philosophers over whether it is itself an entity, a relationship between entities, or part of a conceptual framework. Many of these classical philosophical questions were discussed in the Renaissance and then reformulated in the 17th century, in Isaac Newtons view, space was absolute—in the sense that it existed permanently and independently of whether there was any matter in the space. Other natural philosophers, notably Gottfried Leibniz, thought instead that space was in fact a collection of relations between objects, given by their distance and direction from one another. In the 18th century, the philosopher and theologian George Berkeley attempted to refute the visibility of spatial depth in his Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision. Kant referred to the experience of space in his Critique of Pure Reason as being a pure a priori form of intuition. In the 19th and 20th centuries mathematicians began to examine geometries that are non-Euclidean, in space is conceived as curved. According to Albert Einsteins theory of relativity, space around gravitational fields deviates from Euclidean space. Experimental tests of general relativity have confirmed that non-Euclidean geometries provide a model for the shape of space. In the seventeenth century, the philosophy of space and time emerged as an issue in epistemology. At its heart, Gottfried Leibniz, the German philosopher-mathematician, and Isaac Newton, unoccupied regions are those that could have objects in them, and thus spatial relations with other places. For Leibniz, then, space was an abstraction from the relations between individual entities or their possible locations and therefore could not be continuous but must be discrete. Space could be thought of in a way to the relations between family members. Although people in the family are related to one another, the relations do not exist independently of the people, but since there would be no observational way of telling these universes apart then, according to the identity of indiscernibles, there would be no real difference between them. According to the principle of sufficient reason, any theory of space that implied that there could be two possible universes must therefore be wrong. Newton took space to be more than relations between objects and based his position on observation and experimentation
18.
Women's basketball
–
Womens basketball is one of the few womens sports that developed in tandem with its mens counterpart. It became popular, spreading from the east coast of the United States to the west coast, from 1895 until 1970, the term womens basketball was also used to refer to netball, which evolved in parallel with modern womens basketball. The FIBA Womens Basketball World Cup features the top teams from continental championships. The main North American league is the WNBA, whereas the EuroLeague Women has been dominated by teams from the Russian Womens Basketball Premier League, the NCAA Womens Division I Basketball Championship is also popular in the United States. Womens basketball began in the winter of 1892 at Smith College, senda Berenson, an instructor at Smith, taught basketball to her students, hoping the activity would improve their physical health. Basketballs early adherents were affiliated with YMCAs and colleges throughout the United States, however, Berenson was taking risks simply in teaching the game to women. She worried a little about the suffering from nervous fatigue if games were too strenuous for them. And, in order to keep it acceptable for women to play at all and these included a court divided into three areas and nine players per team. Three players were assigned to area and could not cross the line into another area. The ball was moved from section to section by passing or dribbling, players were limited to three dribbles and could hold the ball for three seconds. No snatching or batting the ball away from a player was allowed, a center jump was required after each score. Peach baskets and the ball were the equipment. Uniforms consisted of similar to school uniforms, including long baggy shorts. Meanwhile current womens basketball uniforms consist of a jersey and gym shorts, variations of Berenson’s rules spread across the country via YMCAs and colleges. The first intercollegiate womens game was played between teams from Stanford University and the University of California, Berkeley, in 1896. The popularity of womens basketball grew steadily around the world for decades, by the 1970s the sport had attracted the notice the International Olympic Committee, which added womens basketball as an official sport of the Olympic Games in 1976, the men debuted in 1936. The sport was gaining attention at the collegiate level, under the auspices of the Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women. A major development in womens basketball occurred in 1982 when the National Collegiate Athletic Association began to sponsor the sport, after several failed attempts at womens professional leagues in the U. S. the NBA founded the WNBA in 1996
19.
Team
–
A team is a group of people or animals linked in a common purpose. Human teams are especially appropriate for conducting tasks that are high in complexity and have many interdependent subtasks, a group does not necessarily constitute a team. Teams normally have members with skills and generate synergy through a coordinated effort which allows each member to maximize their strengths. Teams can be broken down into from a team or one big group of people. Thus teams of players can form to practise their craft/sport. Transport logistics executives can select teams of horses, dogs, or oxen for the purpose of conveying passengers or goods, the concept was introduced into business in the late 20th century, which was followed by a popularization of the concept of constructing teams. Differing opinions exist on the efficacy of new management fad. Some see team as a word, overused and under-useful. Others see it as a panacea that realizes the human-relations movements desire to integrate what that movement perceives as best for workers, however, Hackman argued that team effectiveness should not be viewed only in terms of performance. While performance is an important outcome, an effective team will contribute to the personal well-being. Compare the more structured/skilled concept of a crew, the advantages of formal and informal partnerships, or the well-defined -, Team size and team composition affect team processes and team outcomes. The optimal size of teams is debated and will vary depending on the task at hand, at least one study of problem-solving in groups showed an optimal size of groups at four members. Other works estimate the size between 5-12 members or a number of members that can consume two pizzas. The following extract is taken from Chong, The interest in teams gained momentum in the 1980s with the publication of Belbin’s work on successful teams, the research into teams and teamwork followed two lines of inquiry. Writers such as Belbin, Woodcock, Margerison and McCann, Davis et al, parker, and Spencer and Pruss focused on team roles and how these affected team performance. These studies suggested that team performance was a function of the number, the number of roles for optimal performance varied from 15 to four. This variation has been attributed to how roles were defined, personality traits, on the other hand, were internally driven and relatively stable over time and across situations. These traits affected behavioural patterns in ways and, in varying degrees
20.
Gym
–
A gym, short for gymnasium, is an open air or covered location for gymnastics, athletics, and gymnastic services. The word is derived from the ancient Greek gymnasium and they are commonly found in athletic and fitness centers, and as activity and learning spaces in educational institutions. Gym is also slang for fitness center, which is often an indoor facility, gymnasia apparatus such as bar-bells, parallel bars, jumping board, running path, tennis-balls, cricket field, fencing area, and so forth are used as exercises. In safe weather, outdoor locations are the most conducive to health, gyms were popular in ancient Greece. These gymnasia also had teachers of wisdom and philosophy, community gymnastic events were done as part of the celebrations during various village festivals. In ancient Greece there was a phrase of contempt, He can neither swim nor write, after a while, however, Olympic athletes began training in buildings just for them. Community sports never became as popular among ancient Romans as it had among the ancient Greeks, gyms were used more as a preparation for military service or spectator sports. During the Roman Empire, the art was forgotten. In the Dark Ages there were sword fighting tournaments and of chivalry, there were schools of dagger fighting and wrestling and boxing. Then in the 18th century, Salzmann, German clergyman, opened a gym in Thuringia teaching bodily exercises, clias and Volker established gyms in London, and in 1825, Doctor Beck, a German immigrant, established the first gymnasium in the United States. It was found that gym pupils lose interest in doing the same exercises, variety in exercises included skating, dancing, and swimming. Some gym activities can be done by 6 to 8 year olds while age 16 has been considered mature enough for boxing, in Ancient Greece the gymnasion was a locality for both physical and intellectual education of young men. For the Greeks, physical education was considered as important as cognitive learning, most Greek gymnasia had libraries that could be utilized after relaxing in the baths. The first gymnasiums in history can be dated to over 3000 years ago in ancient Persia, they were known as zurkhaneh, the larger Roman Baths often had attached fitness facilities, the baths themselves sometimes being decorated with mosaics of local champions of sport. The first indoor gymnasium in Germany was probably the one built in Hesse in 1852 by Adolph Spiess, through worldwide colonization Great Britain expanded their interest in sports and games to many countries. In the 1800s programs were added to schools and college curricula that emphasized health, sports drawn from European and British cultures thrived as college students and upper-class clubs financed competition. As a result, towns began building playgrounds that furthered interest in sports, in the United States, the Turner movement thrived in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The first Turners group was formed in London in 1848, the Turners built gymnasia in several cities like Cincinnati and St. Louis which had large German American populations
21.
Relative direction
–
Direction is the information vested in the relative position of a destination point with respect to a starting point, absent the distance information. Directions may be relative to some indicated reference, or absolute according to some previously agreed upon frame of reference. Direction is often indicated manually by an index finger or written as an arrow. On a vertically oriented sign representing a plane, such as a road sign. Mathematically, direction may be specified by a direction vector, or equivalently by the angles made by the most direct path with respect to a specified set of axes. Examples of 2D and 3D directions represented numerically by direction vectors are shown, the same unit vector construct is used to specify spatial directions in 2D, 3D or higher dimensions. As illustrated, each unique 2D direction is equivalent numerically to a point on the circle, while each unique 3D direction may be represented numerically as a point on the unit sphere. For example, in software where 2D direction is represented by angle theta, 2D direction vectors vary continuously while offering 1,1 representation, thus eliminating a singularity exception to be handled. Representational simplicity is even greater for direction vectors in 3D, as compared to polar angle-pair, in Euclidean and affine geometry, the direction of a subspace is the vector space associated to this subspace. In the case of a subspace of one the direction vectors are the nonzero vectors of this vector space. Cardinal direction Compass Direction vector Navigation Radio direction finder Relative direction Affine space
22.
Force
–
In physics, a force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. In other words, a force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity, force can also be described intuitively as a push or a pull. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity and it is measured in the SI unit of newtons and represented by the symbol F. The original form of Newtons second law states that the net force acting upon an object is equal to the rate at which its momentum changes with time. In an extended body, each part usually applies forces on the adjacent parts, such internal mechanical stresses cause no accelation of that body as the forces balance one another. Pressure, the distribution of small forces applied over an area of a body, is a simple type of stress that if unbalanced can cause the body to accelerate. Stress usually causes deformation of materials, or flow in fluids. In part this was due to an understanding of the sometimes non-obvious force of friction. A fundamental error was the belief that a force is required to maintain motion, most of the previous misunderstandings about motion and force were eventually corrected by Galileo Galilei and Sir Isaac Newton. With his mathematical insight, Sir Isaac Newton formulated laws of motion that were not improved-on for nearly three hundred years, the Standard Model predicts that exchanged particles called gauge bosons are the fundamental means by which forces are emitted and absorbed. Only four main interactions are known, in order of decreasing strength, they are, strong, electromagnetic, weak, high-energy particle physics observations made during the 1970s and 1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more fundamental electroweak interaction. Since antiquity the concept of force has been recognized as integral to the functioning of each of the simple machines. The mechanical advantage given by a machine allowed for less force to be used in exchange for that force acting over a greater distance for the same amount of work. Analysis of the characteristics of forces ultimately culminated in the work of Archimedes who was famous for formulating a treatment of buoyant forces inherent in fluids. Aristotle provided a discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of Aristotelian cosmology. In Aristotles view, the sphere contained four elements that come to rest at different natural places therein. Aristotle believed that objects on Earth, those composed mostly of the elements earth and water, to be in their natural place on the ground. He distinguished between the tendency of objects to find their natural place, which led to natural motion, and unnatural or forced motion
