1.
Spalding (sports equipment)
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Spalding is an American sporting goods company founded by Albert Spalding in Chicago, Illinois in 1876. It is now headquartered in Bowling Green, Kentucky, the company specializes in the production of balls for many sports, but is best known for its basketballs. Spalding also makes a range of products for baseball, soccer, softball, volleyball. The company was founded in 1876 when Albert Spalding and Wilmer Jesús Pisco Calvo were pitcher and the manager of a team in Chicago. The company standardized early baseballs and developed the modern baseball bat with the bulge at its apex, in 1892, Spalding acquired Wright & Ditson and A. J. Reach, both rival sporting goods companies. In 1893, A. G. Spalding & Brothers purchased the Lamb Knitting Machine Company located in Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts and it used this purchase to consolidate its skate manufactory from Newark and its gymnasium goods manufactory from Philadelphia to the Chicopee plant. Lamb, primarily engaged in manufacturing knitting machines, rifles, the Spalding League Ball was adopted by the National League and American Association of Professional Base Ball Clubs for the seasons of 1892–1896 and used by the National League since 1880. It was manufactured by A. G. Spalding & Bros, Chicago, New York & Philadelphia and sold for $1.50 in 1896. During World War II, the company joined five other firms to form the New England Small Arms Corporation for manufacture of M1918 Browning Automatic Rifles. Spalding produced the well-known Spaldeen high-bounce rubber ball, said to be a re-use of defective tennis ball cores, that was sold to city children from 1949. In baseball, Spalding manufactured the official ball of the major leagues through the 1976 season, using the Reach brand on American League balls, since 1977 the official ball has been made by Rawlings. Spalding became a division of the Russell Corporation in 2003, however, that deal did not encompass Spaldings golf operations, which included the Top-Flite, Ben Hogan and Strata brands, which were eventually bought by Callaway later the same year. Horween Leather Company supplies leather to Spalding for indoor Arena Football League footballs, Spalding is mostly known for its basketballs, although the company also manufactures balls and accessories for other sports such as American football, baseball, soccer and volleyball. Besides, softball equipment is offered through companys subsidiary Dudley, Spalding developed its first basketball in 1894 and is currently a leading producer. Since 1983, it has been the Official ball supplier to the National Basketball Association, the company also provides the official ball of the Arena Football League, an indoor American football league. The company was one of the first to use high-profile athletes to endorse its products when tennis player Pancho Gonzales was signed to an exclusive endorsement contract in 1951. In 2006, Spalding and the NBA announced that they would create a new NBA Official Game Ball, with interlocking segments and made with a synthetic material instead of leather. However, many NBA players complained that the new ball became extremely slick after use, wouldnt bounce as high and bounced awkwardly off the rim and backboard
2.
Olympic Games
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The Olympic Games are considered the worlds foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating. The Olympic Games are held four years, with the Summer and Winter Games alternating by occurring every four years. Their creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee in 1894, leading to the first modern Games in Athens in 1896. The IOC is the body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure. The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in changes to the Olympic Games. The IOC has had to adapt to a variety of economic, political, as a result, the Olympics has shifted away from pure amateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to allowing participation of professional athletes. The growing importance of mass media created the issue of corporate sponsorship, World wars led to the cancellation of the 1916,1940, and 1944 Games. Large boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Games, the Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations, National Olympic Committees, and organising committees for each specific Olympic Games. As the decision-making body, the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Games, the IOC also determines the Olympic programme, consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games. There are several Olympic rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch, over 13,000 athletes compete at the Summer and Winter Olympic Games in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events. The first, second, and third-place finishers in each event receive Olympic medals, gold, silver, the Games have grown so much that nearly every nation is now represented. This growth has created numerous challenges and controversies, including boycotts, doping, bribery, every two years the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national and sometimes international fame. The Games also constitute an opportunity for the host city and country to themselves to the world. The Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, competition was among representatives of several city-states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece. These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat such as wrestling. It has been written that during the Games, all conflicts among the participating city-states were postponed until the Games were finished. This cessation of hostilities was known as the Olympic peace or truce and this idea is a modern myth because the Greeks never suspended their wars. The truce did allow those religious pilgrims who were travelling to Olympia to pass through warring territories unmolested because they were protected by Zeus
3.
Volleyball variations
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As volleyball is one of the worlds most popular team sports, second only to football in the number of players, there are numerous variations of the basic rules. The rules have changed around the world since its creation in 1895, as skills have developed, to make the more suited for spectators. Some variations have included as a change in the international rules by Fédération Internationale de Volleyball. It became an official Olympic sport in 1996 and this version, rather than being played on indoor hard courts, is played on sand courts which may either be formed naturally or built specifically for the purpose. The first team to win two sets wins the match, if a third deciding set is required, it is played to 15. This is a variation of beach volleyball. As beach volleyball took volleyball outdoors, indoor sand volleyball takes beach volleyball indoors, in the United States, a growing number of colleges are now considering switching from hard court indoor volleyball to sand court indoor volleyball. The biggest reason for the change is the reduced rate of injury of players. Indoor sand volleyball teams vary from two to six members, college teams having six, normally, rather than using a purpose-built hall, an indoor basketball court is converted. A protective tarpaulin covers the floor of the court and soft sand is laid a foot deep over it. The boundaries are marked off with lines in the sand. However, a recent innovation uses colored lasers that illuminate the lines in the sand. In some venues, there exist sand courts that are used as usual during the spring, summer, and fall months, but during the winter months, in shooting volleyball the team consists of normally seven players. Three players play at the side, three players play center of the court, and one player stands in front of the net. Any ball that goes to into the net is to be out by the player who is standing in front of it, some players also smash the ball with high vertical leaps like Olympic volleyball but there is no setter in team. In this game, the hit the ball with both hands by punching it with both hands. When one player smashes the ball with great skill the spectators give prize money to that player, shooting volleyball court is 35 ft and 70 ft in length. Net height was 8 ft before some years but nowadays the net height is 7.2 ft to 7.5 ft, the ball size is same to handball
4.
Volleyball
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Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are separated by a net. Each team tries to points by grounding a ball on the other teams court under organized rules. It has been a part of the program of the Summer Olympic Games since 1964. The receiving team must not let the ball be grounded within their court, the team may touch the ball up to 3 times but individual players may not touch the ball twice consecutively. The team that wins the rally is awarded a point, the ball is usually played with the hands or arms, but players can legally strike or push the ball with any part of the body. A number of consistent techniques have evolved in volleyball, including spiking and blocking as well as passing, setting, the game took some of its characteristics from tennis and handball. Another indoor sport, basketball, was catching on in the area, having been invented just ten miles away in the city of Springfield, Massachusetts, only four years before. Mintonette was designed to be a sport, less rough than basketball, for older members of the YMCA. The first rules, written down by William G Morgan, called for a net 6 ft 6 in high, a 25 ft ×50 ft court, and any number of players. A match was composed of nine innings with three serves for each team in each inning, and no limit to the number of contacts for each team before sending the ball to the opponents court. In case of an error, a second try was allowed. Hitting the ball into the net was considered a foul —except in the case of the first-try serve, Volleyball rules were slightly modified by the International YMCA Training School and the game spread around the country to various YMCAs. The first official ball used in volleyball is disputed, some say that Spalding created the first official ball in 1896. In 1917, the game was changed from 21 to 15 points, in 1919, about 16,000 volleyballs were distributed by the American Expeditionary Forces to their troops and allies, which sparked the growth of volleyball in new countries. The first country outside the United States to adopt volleyball was Canada in 1900, an international federation, the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball, was founded in 1947, and the first World Championships were held in 1949 for men and 1952 for women. The sport is now popular in Brazil, in Europe, in Russia, and in countries including China. Beach volleyball, a variation of the played on sand. Volleyball is also a sport at the Paralympics managed by the World Organization Volleyball for Disabled, nudists were early adopters of the game with regular organized play in clubs as early as the late 1920s
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Invention
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An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition or process. The invention process is a process within an overall engineering and product development process and it may be an improvement upon a machine or product or a new process for creating an object or a result. An invention that achieves a unique function or result may be a radical breakthrough. Such works are novel and not obvious to others skilled in the same field, an inventor may be taking a big step in success or failure. A patent legally protects the property rights of the inventor. The rules and requirements for patenting an invention vary from country to country, another meaning of invention is cultural invention, which is an innovative set of useful social behaviours adopted by people and passed on to others. The Institute for Social Inventions collected many such ideas in magazines, Invention is also an important component of artistic and design creativity. Inventions often extend the boundaries of knowledge, experience or capability. Brainstorming also can spark new ideas for an invention, collaborative creative processes are frequently used by engineers, designers, architects and scientists. Co-inventors are frequently named on patents, in addition, many inventors keep records of their working process - notebooks, photos, etc. including Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, Evangelista Torricelli, Thomas Jefferson and Albert Einstein. In the process of developing an invention, the idea may change. The invention may become simpler, more practical, it may expand, working on one invention can lead to others too. History shows that turning the concept of an invention into a device is not always swift or direct. Inventions may also more useful after time passes and other changes occur. For example, the became more useful once powered flight was a reality. Invention is often a creative process, an open and curious mind allows an inventor to see beyond what is known. Seeing a new possibility, connection, or relationship can spark an invention, inventive thinking frequently involves combining concepts or elements from different realms that would not normally be put together. Sometimes inventors disregard the boundaries between distinctly separate territories or fields, several concepts may be considered when thinking about invention
6.
Clara Gregory Baer
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Clara Gregory Baer was an American physical education instructor and womens sports pioneer. Baer introduced the first teacher certification course for education in the Southern United States. She also developed the sport of Newcomb ball and played a role in the development of netball. Baer was born in Algiers, Louisiana to Hamilton John Baer, after college, she returned to the South, initially invited by the Southern Athletic Club to teach gymnastics to women. At the time, the Club was a club, although wives. Baer decided to contact the president of Newcomb College, now part of Tulane University and she was hired on a trial basis, as physical education was not yet an established part of the curriculum. Her position was made permanent, and she completed a 38-year career in physical education. Baer was hired by the Sophie Newcomb College to start an education department in 1891. She started the first teacher certification program in the South, as well as the first four-year degree program in physical education, the teacher certification program was established in 1893, and the degree program was initiated in 1907. Baer is best known as the author of the first book of rules for basketball in 1896. As Baer noted, It was in 1893 that basket-ball was introduced at Newcomb, at that time the game had not reached its present development. When Newcomb College first tried basket-ball in its work, there were no published rules for women. The results were naturally to be expected, its introduction at Newcomb was not entirely satisfactory, later, a compromise was reached by modifying the game for girls. She first called the game basquette, a later dropped in her first revision of rules called Sophie Newcomb College Basketball Rules published in 1908. Players were not allowed to dribble, guard, or snatch the ball, players were not allowed to make two-handed passes, as it was believed that this type of pass could compress the chest. The game she described had a court with seven divisions, however, this restriction developed out of a misunderstanding. Baer had written to James Naismith, asking for a copy of the rules of the game he invented and he sent her a copy, including a diagram of the court. The diagram had dotted lines on it, indicating where players were best able to cover and she interpreted the lines as restrictions on where the players could move, so the first rules for women contained these restrictions
7.
Physical education
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Physical education, also known as Phys Ed. PE, Gym or Gym class, and known in many Commonwealth countries as physical training or PT, is a course related of maintaining the human body through physical exercises. It is taken during primary and secondary education and encourages psychomotor learning in a play or movement exploration setting to promote health, pupils are able to play games like football, badminton, captain ball, and basketball during most sessions. Unorthodox sports such as, fencing, and skateboarding are occasionally played, in more prestigious secondary schools and in junior colleges, sports such as golf, tennis, shooting, and squash are played. A compulsory fitness exam, NAPFA, is conducted in every school once every year to assess the fitness of the pupils. Pupils are given a series of fitness tests, students are graded by gold, silver, bronze or as fail. NAPFA for pre-enlistees serves as an indicator for an additional 2 months in the compulsory national service if they attain bronze or fail. In Malaysia, pupils from schools to secondary schools are expected to do 2 periods or 1 hour of PE throughout the year except a week before examination. In most secondary schools, games like badminton, sepak takraw, football, netball, basketball, pupils are allowed to bring their own sports equipment to the school with the authorization of the teacher. In the Philippines, PE is mandatory for all years, unless, the school gives the option for a student to do the Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme instead for fifth and sixth year. In the Philippines, some schools have integrated martial arts training into their physical education curriculum, in Indonesia, students ranging from Kindergarten to High School have PE integrated with their curriculum. Starting from Junior High School, several games such as basketball, volleyball, cricket, tennis, badminton, kho kho, kabaddi. Several drills and physical training are taught, in Australia, physical education was first made an important part of the curriculum in Government primary and secondary schools in 1981. The policy was outlined in a Ministerial Statement to the Victorian Legislative Assembly by the Minister for Educational Services, in British Columbia, Canada the government has stated in the grade one curriculum that students must participate in physical activity daily five times a week. Also the teacher is responsible for planning Daily Physical Activity which is thirty minutes of mild to moderate physical activity a day not including curriculum physical education classes, the curriculum also requires students in grade one to be knowledgeable about healthy living. For example, students must be able to describe benefits of exercise, identify healthy choices that require them to be more physically active. Ontario, Canada has a procedure in place. On October 6,2005 in Ontario, Canada the Ontario Ministry of Education implemented a Daily Physical Activity policy in Elementary Schools, Grades 1-8
8.
Teacher
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A teacher is a person who helps others to acquire knowledge, competences or values. Informally the role of teacher may be taken on by anyone, in some countries, teaching young people of school age may be carried out in an informal setting, such as within the family, rather than in a formal setting such as a school or college. Some other professions may involve a significant amount of teaching, in most countries, formal teaching is usually carried out by paid professional teachers. This article focuses on those who are employed, as their role, to teach others in a formal education context. A teachers role may vary among cultures, Teachers may provide instruction in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion, civics, community roles, or life skills. Formal teaching tasks include preparing lessons according to agreed curricula, giving lessons, a teachers professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. In some education systems, teachers may have responsibility for student discipline, Teaching is a highly complex activity. This is in part because teaching is a practice, that takes place in a specific context. Factors that influence what is expected of teachers include history and tradition, social views about the purpose of education, so the competences required by a teacher are affected by the different ways in which the role is understood around the world. Broadly, there seem to be four models, the teacher as manager of instruction, the teacher as caring person, the teacher as expert learner, some evidence-based international discussions have tried to reach such a common understanding. Scholarly consensus is emerging that what is required of teachers can be grouped under three headings, knowledge craft skills and dispositions and it has been found that teachers who showed enthusiasm towards the course materials and students can create a positive learning experience. These teachers do not teach by rote but attempt to find new invigoration for the materials on a daily basis. One of the challenges facing teachers is that they may have covered a curriculum until they begin to feel bored with the subject. Students who had enthusiastic teachers tend to rate them higher than teachers who didnt show much enthusiasm for the course materials, Teachers that exhibit enthusiasm can lead to students who are more likely to be engaged, interested, energetic, and curious about learning the subject matter. Recent research has found a correlation between teacher enthusiasm and students intrinsic motivation to learn and vitality in the classroom, students who experienced a very enthusiastic teacher were more likely to read lecture material outside of the classroom. There are various mechanisms by which teacher enthusiasm may facilitate higher levels of intrinsic motivation, teacher enthusiasm may contribute to a classroom atmosphere of energy and enthusiasm which feeds student interest and excitement in learning the subject matter. Enthusiastic teachers may also lead to becoming more self-determined in their own learning process. The concept of mere exposure indicates that the teachers enthusiasm may contribute to the expectations about intrinsic motivation in the context of learning
9.
H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College
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H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College, or Newcomb College, was the coordinate womens college of Tulane University located in New Orleans, in the U. S. state of Louisiana. It was founded by Josephine Louise Newcomb in 1886 in memory of her daughter, Newcomb was the first womens coordinate college within a United States university. This model was used in partnerships such as Pembroke College at Brown University. In 2006, Newcomb College was closed as part of Tulanes Renewal Plan following the major losses, alleged heirs of Mrs. Josephine Louise Newcomb established the college as a memorial to her daughter Sophie, who died in 1870 at the age of 15. Following an initial donation of $100,000, she made gifts totaling $3 million and she wanted to support a liberal academic education for young white women. Newcomb was influenced by Ida Richardson and the college was associated with the Progressive Movement from its earliest years, until its move in 1918 to its Broadway campus, Newcomb College was made up mostly of day students. Its move to its current site on the campus of Tulane was also the occasion of development of dormitories. Students at Newcomb College became increasingly sophisticated and the schools reputation grew, the university had recruited Brandt V. B. Dixon as the first president of Newcomb College. To ensure girls and young women were prepared for college, Dixon established the Newcomb High School. The preparatory school ensured that girls were ready to study at the level, as some parents tried to send girls to Newcomb who were as young as 13 or 14. Dixon worked with faculty and students to continue to raise academic standards, by 1916, Newcomb had achieved a strong regional reputation and become one of seven Southern schools which held a standard college designation within the Southern Association of College Women. Out of its art school, the created the business of what became the renowned Newcomb Pottery. This reflected both a progressive interest in craft and parents desire for their daughters to learn a practical, industrial skill in the difficult postwar years. It was first headed by Mary Given Sheerer, previously associated with the Rookwood Pottery in Cincinnati, while the pottery did not employ that many women, some did find work there. Angela Gregory was artist-in-residence at Newcomb College and it produced more than 70,000 pieces before the pottery program closed in 1939. Newcomb college founder Josephine Louise Newcomb and her family commissioned windows designed by Louis Comfort Tiffany for a chapel at the site of Newcomb College. One of the commissions was for Resurrection, part of a triptych designed in memory of her daughter, Harriet Sophie Newcomb, other Tiffany windows were designed for an area behind the altar of the original chapel in memory of Josephines husband Warren Newcomb and her mother Mary Sophie LeMonnier. Noted art critic, author, and art historian John Canaday taught at Newcomb College, later Canaday headed the art department at Newcomb
10.
Tulane University
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Tulane University is a private, nonsectarian research university in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. It is generally considered the top university and the most selective institution of education in the state of Louisiana. From a nationwide perspective, U. S. News & World Report categorizes Tulane as most selective, the school is known to attract a geographically diverse student body, with 85% of undergraduate students coming from over 300 miles away. The school was founded as a medical college in 1834. The institution was privatized under the endowments of Paul Tulane and Josephine Louise Newcomb in 1884, Tulane is the 9th oldest private university in the Association of American Universities, which consists of major research universities in the United States and Canada. The Tulane University Law School and Tulane University Medical School are considered the 12th oldest and 15th oldest law and medical schools, respectively, members of Congress, heads of Federal agencies, two Surgeon Generals of the United States, U. S. At least two Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the University, the university was founded as the Medical College of Louisiana in 1834 partly as a response to the fears of smallpox, yellow fever, and cholera in the United States. The university became only the medical school in the South. In 1847, the legislature established the school as the University of Louisiana, a public university. Subsequently, in 1851, the university established its first academic department, the first president chosen for the new university was Francis Lister Hawks, an Episcopalian priest and prominent citizen of New Orleans at the time. The university was closed from 1861 to 1865 during the American Civil War, after reopening, it went through a period of financial challenges because of an extended agricultural depression in the South which affected the nations economy. Paul Tulane, owner of a dry goods and clothing business. This donation led to the establishment of a Tulane Educational Fund and this act created the Tulane University of Louisiana. The university was privatized, and is one of only a few American universities to be converted from a public institution to a private one. In 1884, William Preston Johnston became the first president of Tulane and he had succeeded Robert E. Lee as president of Washington and Lee University after Lees death. He had moved to Louisiana and become president of Louisiana State University, in 1885, the university established its graduate division, later becoming the Graduate School. One year later, gifts from Josephine Louise Newcomb totaling over $3.6 million, Newcomb was the first coordinate college for women in the United States and became a model for such institutions as Pembroke College and Barnard College. In 1894 the College of Technology formed, which would become the School of Engineering
11.
New Orleans
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New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue
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Popularity
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In sociology, the popularity of a person, idea, item or other concept can be defined in terms of liking, attraction, dominance and superiority. With respect to interpersonal popularity, there are two divisions, perceived and sociometric. According to psychologist Tessa Lansu at the Radboud University Nijmegen, Popularity to do with being the point of a group. The term Popularity is borrowed from the Latin term popularis, which originally meant common, the current definition of the word popular, the fact or condition of being well liked by the people, was first seen in 1601. While popularity is a trait often ascribed to an individual, it is a social phenomenon. Popularity is a perception, and individuals report the consensus of a groups feelings towards an individual or object when rating popularity. Notwithstanding the above, popularity as a concept can be applied, assigned, or directed towards objects such as songs, movies, websites, activities, soaps, together, these objects collectively make up popular culture, or the consensus of mainstream preferences in society. In essence, anything, human or non-human, can be deemed popular, for many years, popularity research focused on a definition of popularity that was based on being well liked. Eventually, it was discovered that those who are perceived as popular are not necessarily the most well liked as originally assumed, when students are given the opportunity to freely elect those they like most and those they perceive as popular, a discrepancy often emerges. This is evidence there are two main forms of personal popularity that social psychology recognizes, sociometric popularity and perceived popularity. Sociometric popularity can be defined by how liked an individual is and this liking is correlated with prosocial behaviours. Those who act in prosocial ways are likely to be deemed sociometrically popular, often they are known for their interpersonal abilities, their empathy for others, and their willingness to cooperate non-aggressively. This is a more private judgement, characterized by likeability, that will not generally be shared in a group setting, often, it is impossible to know whom individuals find popular on this scale unless confidentiality is ensured. Perceived popularity is used to describe individuals who are known among their peers as being popular. Unlike sociometric popularity, perceived popularity is associated with aggression. This form of popularity is often explored by the popular media, notable works dealing with perceived popularity include Mean Girls, Odd Girl Out, and Ferris Buellers Day Off. Individuals who have perceived popularity are often highly visible and frequently emulated. To date, only one theory of interpersonal popularity has been proposed
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United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
14.
Game
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A game is a structured form of play, usually undertaken for enjoyment and sometimes used as an educational tool. Games are distinct from work, which is carried out for remuneration, and from art. However, the distinction is not clear-cut, and many games are considered to be work or art. Key components of games are goals, rules, challenge, games generally involve mental or physical stimulation, and often both. Many games help develop practical skills, serve as a form of exercise, or otherwise perform an educational, simulational, attested as early as 2600 BC, games are a universal part of human experience and present in all cultures. The Royal Game of Ur, Senet, and Mancala are some of the oldest known games, ludwig Wittgenstein was probably the first academic philosopher to address the definition of the word game. In his Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein argued that the elements of games, such as play, rules, from this, Wittgenstein concluded that people apply the term game to a range of disparate human activities that bear to one another only what one might call family resemblances. A piece of entertainment is an if it is interactive. Movies and books are cited as examples of non-interactive entertainment, if no goals are associated with a plaything, it is a toy. If it has goals, a plaything is a challenge, if a challenge has no active agent against whom you compete, it is a puzzle, if there is one, it is a conflict. Finally, if the player can only outperform the opponent, but not attack them to interfere with their performance, however, if attacks are allowed, then the conflict qualifies as a game. Crawfords definition may thus be rendered as, an interactive, goal-oriented activity made for money, with agents to play against. A game is a system in which players engage in a conflict, defined by rules. A game is a form of art in which participants, termed players, according to this definition, some games that do not involve choices, such as Chutes and Ladders, Candy Land, and War are not technically games any more than a slot machine is. A game is an activity among two or more independent decision-makers seeking to achieve their objectives in some limiting context, a game is a form of play with goals and structure. When you strip away the differences and the technological complexities, all games share four defining traits, a goal, rules, a feedback system. Games can be characterized by what the player does and this is often referred to as gameplay. Major key elements identified in this context are tools and rules that define the context of game
15.
Student
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A student or pupil is a learner or someone who attends an educational institution. In Britain those attending university are termed students, in the United States, and more recently also in Britain, the term student is applied to both categories. In its widest use, student is used for anyone who is learning, including mid-career adults who are taking vocational education or returning to university. When speaking about learning outside an institution, student is used to refer to someone who is learning a topic or who is a student of a certain topic or person. In Nigeria, education is classified into four system known as 6-3-3-4 system of education and it implies six years in primary school, three years in junior secondary, three years in senior secondary and four years in the university. However, the number of years to be spent in university is determined by the course of study. Some courses have longer study length than others and those in primary school are often referred to as pupils. Those in university as well as those in school are being referred to as students. Six years of school education in Singapore is compulsory. International Schools are subject to overseas curriculums, such as the British, Primary education is compulsory in Bangladesh. Its a near crime to not to children to primary school when they are of age. But it is not a punishable crime, because of the socio-economic state of Bangladesh, child labour is sometimes legal. But the guardian must ensure the primary education, everyone who is learning in any institute or even online may be called student in Bangladesh. Sometimes students taking undergraduate education is called undergraduates and students taking post-graduate education may be called post-graduates, Education System Of Bangladesh, Education is free in Brunei. Darussalam not limited to government educational institutions but also private educational institutions, there are mainly two types of educational institutions, government or public, and private institutions. Several stages have to be undergone by the prospective students leading to higher qualifications, Primary School Secondary School High School Colleges University Level It takes six and five years to complete the primary and secondary levels respectively. Upon completing these two stages, students/pupils have freedom to progress to sixth-form centers, colleges or probably straight to employment. Students are permitted to progress towards university level programs in both government and private university colleges, Education in Cambodia is free for all the students who study in Primary School, Secondary School or High School
16.
Time
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Time is the indefinite continued progress of existence and events that occur in apparently irreversible succession from the past through the present to the future. Time is often referred to as the dimension, along with the three spatial dimensions. Time has long been an important subject of study in religion, philosophy, and science, nevertheless, diverse fields such as business, industry, sports, the sciences, and the performing arts all incorporate some notion of time into their respective measuring systems. Two contrasting viewpoints on time divide prominent philosophers, one view is that time is part of the fundamental structure of the universe—a dimension independent of events, in which events occur in sequence. Isaac Newton subscribed to this realist view, and hence it is referred to as Newtonian time. This second view, in the tradition of Gottfried Leibniz and Immanuel Kant, holds that time is neither an event nor a thing, Time in physics is unambiguously operationally defined as what a clock reads. Time is one of the seven fundamental physical quantities in both the International System of Units and International System of Quantities, Time is used to define other quantities—such as velocity—so defining time in terms of such quantities would result in circularity of definition. The operational definition leaves aside the question there is something called time, apart from the counting activity just mentioned, that flows. Investigations of a single continuum called spacetime bring questions about space into questions about time, questions that have their roots in the works of early students of natural philosophy. Furthermore, it may be there is a subjective component to time. Temporal measurement has occupied scientists and technologists, and was a motivation in navigation. Periodic events and periodic motion have long served as standards for units of time, examples include the apparent motion of the sun across the sky, the phases of the moon, the swing of a pendulum, and the beat of a heart. Currently, the unit of time, the second, is defined by measuring the electronic transition frequency of caesium atoms. Time is also of significant social importance, having economic value as well as value, due to an awareness of the limited time in each day. In day-to-day life, the clock is consulted for periods less than a day whereas the calendar is consulted for periods longer than a day, increasingly, personal electronic devices display both calendars and clocks simultaneously. The number that marks the occurrence of an event as to hour or date is obtained by counting from a fiducial epoch—a central reference point. Artifacts from the Paleolithic suggest that the moon was used to time as early as 6,000 years ago. Lunar calendars were among the first to appear, either 12 or 13 lunar months, without intercalation to add days or months to some years, seasons quickly drift in a calendar based solely on twelve lunar months
17.
Space
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Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have relative position and direction. Physical space is conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually consider it, with time, to be part of a boundless four-dimensional continuum known as spacetime. The concept of space is considered to be of importance to an understanding of the physical universe. However, disagreement continues between philosophers over whether it is itself an entity, a relationship between entities, or part of a conceptual framework. Many of these classical philosophical questions were discussed in the Renaissance and then reformulated in the 17th century, in Isaac Newtons view, space was absolute—in the sense that it existed permanently and independently of whether there was any matter in the space. Other natural philosophers, notably Gottfried Leibniz, thought instead that space was in fact a collection of relations between objects, given by their distance and direction from one another. In the 18th century, the philosopher and theologian George Berkeley attempted to refute the visibility of spatial depth in his Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision. Kant referred to the experience of space in his Critique of Pure Reason as being a pure a priori form of intuition. In the 19th and 20th centuries mathematicians began to examine geometries that are non-Euclidean, in space is conceived as curved. According to Albert Einsteins theory of relativity, space around gravitational fields deviates from Euclidean space. Experimental tests of general relativity have confirmed that non-Euclidean geometries provide a model for the shape of space. In the seventeenth century, the philosophy of space and time emerged as an issue in epistemology. At its heart, Gottfried Leibniz, the German philosopher-mathematician, and Isaac Newton, unoccupied regions are those that could have objects in them, and thus spatial relations with other places. For Leibniz, then, space was an abstraction from the relations between individual entities or their possible locations and therefore could not be continuous but must be discrete. Space could be thought of in a way to the relations between family members. Although people in the family are related to one another, the relations do not exist independently of the people, but since there would be no observational way of telling these universes apart then, according to the identity of indiscernibles, there would be no real difference between them. According to the principle of sufficient reason, any theory of space that implied that there could be two possible universes must therefore be wrong. Newton took space to be more than relations between objects and based his position on observation and experimentation
18.
Women's basketball
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Womens basketball is one of the few womens sports that developed in tandem with its mens counterpart. It became popular, spreading from the east coast of the United States to the west coast, from 1895 until 1970, the term womens basketball was also used to refer to netball, which evolved in parallel with modern womens basketball. The FIBA Womens Basketball World Cup features the top teams from continental championships. The main North American league is the WNBA, whereas the EuroLeague Women has been dominated by teams from the Russian Womens Basketball Premier League, the NCAA Womens Division I Basketball Championship is also popular in the United States. Womens basketball began in the winter of 1892 at Smith College, senda Berenson, an instructor at Smith, taught basketball to her students, hoping the activity would improve their physical health. Basketballs early adherents were affiliated with YMCAs and colleges throughout the United States, however, Berenson was taking risks simply in teaching the game to women. She worried a little about the suffering from nervous fatigue if games were too strenuous for them. And, in order to keep it acceptable for women to play at all and these included a court divided into three areas and nine players per team. Three players were assigned to area and could not cross the line into another area. The ball was moved from section to section by passing or dribbling, players were limited to three dribbles and could hold the ball for three seconds. No snatching or batting the ball away from a player was allowed, a center jump was required after each score. Peach baskets and the ball were the equipment. Uniforms consisted of similar to school uniforms, including long baggy shorts. Meanwhile current womens basketball uniforms consist of a jersey and gym shorts, variations of Berenson’s rules spread across the country via YMCAs and colleges. The first intercollegiate womens game was played between teams from Stanford University and the University of California, Berkeley, in 1896. The popularity of womens basketball grew steadily around the world for decades, by the 1970s the sport had attracted the notice the International Olympic Committee, which added womens basketball as an official sport of the Olympic Games in 1976, the men debuted in 1936. The sport was gaining attention at the collegiate level, under the auspices of the Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women. A major development in womens basketball occurred in 1982 when the National Collegiate Athletic Association began to sponsor the sport, after several failed attempts at womens professional leagues in the U. S. the NBA founded the WNBA in 1996
19.
Team
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A team is a group of people or animals linked in a common purpose. Human teams are especially appropriate for conducting tasks that are high in complexity and have many interdependent subtasks, a group does not necessarily constitute a team. Teams normally have members with skills and generate synergy through a coordinated effort which allows each member to maximize their strengths. Teams can be broken down into from a team or one big group of people. Thus teams of players can form to practise their craft/sport. Transport logistics executives can select teams of horses, dogs, or oxen for the purpose of conveying passengers or goods, the concept was introduced into business in the late 20th century, which was followed by a popularization of the concept of constructing teams. Differing opinions exist on the efficacy of new management fad. Some see team as a word, overused and under-useful. Others see it as a panacea that realizes the human-relations movements desire to integrate what that movement perceives as best for workers, however, Hackman argued that team effectiveness should not be viewed only in terms of performance. While performance is an important outcome, an effective team will contribute to the personal well-being. Compare the more structured/skilled concept of a crew, the advantages of formal and informal partnerships, or the well-defined -, Team size and team composition affect team processes and team outcomes. The optimal size of teams is debated and will vary depending on the task at hand, at least one study of problem-solving in groups showed an optimal size of groups at four members. Other works estimate the size between 5-12 members or a number of members that can consume two pizzas. The following extract is taken from Chong, The interest in teams gained momentum in the 1980s with the publication of Belbin’s work on successful teams, the research into teams and teamwork followed two lines of inquiry. Writers such as Belbin, Woodcock, Margerison and McCann, Davis et al, parker, and Spencer and Pruss focused on team roles and how these affected team performance. These studies suggested that team performance was a function of the number, the number of roles for optimal performance varied from 15 to four. This variation has been attributed to how roles were defined, personality traits, on the other hand, were internally driven and relatively stable over time and across situations. These traits affected behavioural patterns in ways and, in varying degrees
20.
Gym
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A gym, short for gymnasium, is an open air or covered location for gymnastics, athletics, and gymnastic services. The word is derived from the ancient Greek gymnasium and they are commonly found in athletic and fitness centers, and as activity and learning spaces in educational institutions. Gym is also slang for fitness center, which is often an indoor facility, gymnasia apparatus such as bar-bells, parallel bars, jumping board, running path, tennis-balls, cricket field, fencing area, and so forth are used as exercises. In safe weather, outdoor locations are the most conducive to health, gyms were popular in ancient Greece. These gymnasia also had teachers of wisdom and philosophy, community gymnastic events were done as part of the celebrations during various village festivals. In ancient Greece there was a phrase of contempt, He can neither swim nor write, after a while, however, Olympic athletes began training in buildings just for them. Community sports never became as popular among ancient Romans as it had among the ancient Greeks, gyms were used more as a preparation for military service or spectator sports. During the Roman Empire, the art was forgotten. In the Dark Ages there were sword fighting tournaments and of chivalry, there were schools of dagger fighting and wrestling and boxing. Then in the 18th century, Salzmann, German clergyman, opened a gym in Thuringia teaching bodily exercises, clias and Volker established gyms in London, and in 1825, Doctor Beck, a German immigrant, established the first gymnasium in the United States. It was found that gym pupils lose interest in doing the same exercises, variety in exercises included skating, dancing, and swimming. Some gym activities can be done by 6 to 8 year olds while age 16 has been considered mature enough for boxing, in Ancient Greece the gymnasion was a locality for both physical and intellectual education of young men. For the Greeks, physical education was considered as important as cognitive learning, most Greek gymnasia had libraries that could be utilized after relaxing in the baths. The first gymnasiums in history can be dated to over 3000 years ago in ancient Persia, they were known as zurkhaneh, the larger Roman Baths often had attached fitness facilities, the baths themselves sometimes being decorated with mosaics of local champions of sport. The first indoor gymnasium in Germany was probably the one built in Hesse in 1852 by Adolph Spiess, through worldwide colonization Great Britain expanded their interest in sports and games to many countries. In the 1800s programs were added to schools and college curricula that emphasized health, sports drawn from European and British cultures thrived as college students and upper-class clubs financed competition. As a result, towns began building playgrounds that furthered interest in sports, in the United States, the Turner movement thrived in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The first Turners group was formed in London in 1848, the Turners built gymnasia in several cities like Cincinnati and St. Louis which had large German American populations
21.
Relative direction
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Direction is the information vested in the relative position of a destination point with respect to a starting point, absent the distance information. Directions may be relative to some indicated reference, or absolute according to some previously agreed upon frame of reference. Direction is often indicated manually by an index finger or written as an arrow. On a vertically oriented sign representing a plane, such as a road sign. Mathematically, direction may be specified by a direction vector, or equivalently by the angles made by the most direct path with respect to a specified set of axes. Examples of 2D and 3D directions represented numerically by direction vectors are shown, the same unit vector construct is used to specify spatial directions in 2D, 3D or higher dimensions. As illustrated, each unique 2D direction is equivalent numerically to a point on the circle, while each unique 3D direction may be represented numerically as a point on the unit sphere. For example, in software where 2D direction is represented by angle theta, 2D direction vectors vary continuously while offering 1,1 representation, thus eliminating a singularity exception to be handled. Representational simplicity is even greater for direction vectors in 3D, as compared to polar angle-pair, in Euclidean and affine geometry, the direction of a subspace is the vector space associated to this subspace. In the case of a subspace of one the direction vectors are the nonzero vectors of this vector space. Cardinal direction Compass Direction vector Navigation Radio direction finder Relative direction Affine space
22.
Force
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In physics, a force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. In other words, a force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity, force can also be described intuitively as a push or a pull. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity and it is measured in the SI unit of newtons and represented by the symbol F. The original form of Newtons second law states that the net force acting upon an object is equal to the rate at which its momentum changes with time. In an extended body, each part usually applies forces on the adjacent parts, such internal mechanical stresses cause no accelation of that body as the forces balance one another. Pressure, the distribution of small forces applied over an area of a body, is a simple type of stress that if unbalanced can cause the body to accelerate. Stress usually causes deformation of materials, or flow in fluids. In part this was due to an understanding of the sometimes non-obvious force of friction. A fundamental error was the belief that a force is required to maintain motion, most of the previous misunderstandings about motion and force were eventually corrected by Galileo Galilei and Sir Isaac Newton. With his mathematical insight, Sir Isaac Newton formulated laws of motion that were not improved-on for nearly three hundred years, the Standard Model predicts that exchanged particles called gauge bosons are the fundamental means by which forces are emitted and absorbed. Only four main interactions are known, in order of decreasing strength, they are, strong, electromagnetic, weak, high-energy particle physics observations made during the 1970s and 1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more fundamental electroweak interaction. Since antiquity the concept of force has been recognized as integral to the functioning of each of the simple machines. The mechanical advantage given by a machine allowed for less force to be used in exchange for that force acting over a greater distance for the same amount of work. Analysis of the characteristics of forces ultimately culminated in the work of Archimedes who was famous for formulating a treatment of buoyant forces inherent in fluids. Aristotle provided a discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of Aristotelian cosmology. In Aristotles view, the sphere contained four elements that come to rest at different natural places therein. Aristotle believed that objects on Earth, those composed mostly of the elements earth and water, to be in their natural place on the ground. He distinguished between the tendency of objects to find their natural place, which led to natural motion, and unnatural or forced motion
23.
Foul (sports)
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In sports, a foul is an inappropriate or unfair act by a player as deemed by a referee, usually violating the rules of a sport or game. A foul may be intentional or accidental, and often results in a penalty, often own team mates can clash and foul each other by accident, such as both going for and with eyes on a ball in AFL. Strategical fouls violate the norms of cooperation and agreement to the essential rules and regulations of the game. Individual sports may have different types of fouls, for example, in basketball, a personal foul involves illegal personal contact with an opponent. A technical foul refers to unsportsmanlike non-contact behavior, a serious infraction than a personal foul. A flagrant foul involves unsportsmanlike contact behavior, considered the most serious foul, in association football, a foul is an unfair act by a player as deemed by the referee. In association football or rugby, a foul is a deliberate act of foul play. Kinjite are various fouls that a sumo wrestler might commit that will cause him to lose the bout, facial is a term used in some contact sports to refer to a foul that involves one player hitting another in the face. Penalties awarded against fouls usually affect the outcome of the game immediately, however, in some cases committing a foul may have further repercussions in the form of a fine, especially in professional competitions. For example, in the National Basketball Association players are given a fine each technical foul committed for the first five technical fouls committed in the regular season. Players may also receive fines up to $50,000 for committing fighting fouls, coaches are not exempt from fouls. In some cases, coaches can also receive fouls, for example, in basketball the coach can be given technical fouls or be immediately ejected from the game. Two examples of a foul committed by a coach are entering the court without permission from the referee or physically contacting an official. In the event of receiving two technical fouls, the coach will be ejected from the game. An example of when a coach may be ejected from the game is if they commit a punching foul. Fouls dont always affect game control, therefore referees need to find a balance for the opportunities for risks to be let go for the game flow to continue. Risks fouls play in sports depend on the sort of action by the guilty player upon an opposing victim, referees try to eliminate unnecessary stoppages, considering the players prior behaviour and whether they have a bad reputation or continual intent to foul. Minor fouls that are overlooked by referees as they are not jeopardising a players safety. They are also overlooked when opposing players do not feel threatened of have any anticipation of the foul happening again and not purposely trying to stop play, FIFA, the governing body of Football, have set rules, which is documented in the associations official handbook
24.
Ball
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A ball is a round object with various uses. It is used in games, where the play of the game follows the state of the ball as it is hit. Balls can also be used for activities, such as catch, marbles. Balls made from hard-wearing materials are used in engineering applications to very low friction bearings. Black-powder weapons use stone and metal balls as projectiles, although many types of balls are today made from rubber, this form was unknown outside the Americas until after the voyages of Columbus. The Spanish were the first Europeans to see bouncing rubber balls which were employed most notably in the Mesoamerican ballgame, balls used in various sports in other parts of the world prior to Columbus were made from other materials such as animal bladders or skins, stuffed with various materials. As balls are one of the most familiar spherical objects to humans, no Old English representative of any of these is known. If ball- was native in Germanic, it may have been a cognate with the Latin foll-is in sense of a blown up or inflated. In the later Middle English spelling balle the word coincided graphically with the French balle ball, French balle is assumed to be of Germanic origin, itself, however. In Ancient Greek the word πάλλα for ball is attested besides the word σφαίρα, a ball, as the essential feature in many forms of gameplay requiring physical exertion, must date from the very earliest times. A rolling object appeals not only to a baby but to a kitten. Some form of game with a ball is found portrayed on Egyptian monuments, in Homer, Nausicaa was playing at ball with her maidens when Odysseus first saw her in the land of the Phaeacians. And Halios and Laodamas performed before Alcinous and Odysseus with ball play, of regular rules for the playing of ball games, little trace remains, if there were any such. Pollux mentions a game called episkyros, which has often been looked on as the origin of football and it seems to have been played by two sides, arranged in lines, how far there was any form of goal seems uncertain. Among the Romans, ball games were looked upon as an adjunct to the bath, and were graduated to the age and health of the bathers and this was struck from player to player, who wore a kind of gauntlet on the arm. These games are known to us through the Romans, though the names are Greek, the various modern games played with a ball or balls and subject to rules are treated under their various names, such as polo, cricket, football, etc. Several sports use a ball in the shape of a prolate spheroid, Ball Buckminster Fullerene Football Kickball Marbles Penny floater Prisoner Ball Shuttlecock Super Ball
25.
One half
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One half is the irreducible fraction resulting from dividing one by two, or the fraction resulting from dividing any number by its double. Multiplication by one half is equivalent to division by two, or halving, conversely, division by one half is equivalent to multiplication by two, or doubling, one half appears often in mathematical equations, recipes, measurements, etc. Half can also be said to be one part of something divided into two equal parts, for instance, the area S of a triangle is computed S = 1⁄2 × base × perpendicular height. The Riemann hypothesis states that every nontrivial complex root of the Riemann zeta function has a part equal to 1⁄2. One half has two different decimal expansions, the familiar 0.5 and the recurring 0.49999999 and it has a similar pair of expansions in any even base. It is a trap to believe these expressions represent distinct numbers. Equals 1 for detailed discussion of a related case, in odd bases, one half has no terminating representation, only a single representation with a repeating fractional component, such as 0.11111111. in ternary. 1⁄2 is also one of the few fractions to usually have a key of its own on typewriters and it also has its own code point in some early extensions of ASCII at 171. In Unicode, it has its own unit at U+00BD in the C1 Controls and Latin-1 Supplement block. List of numbers Division by two
26.
Height
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Height is the measure of vertical distance, either how tall something is, or how high up it is. For example The height of the building is 50 m or The height of the airplane is 10,000 m, when used to describe how high something like an airplane or mountain peak is from sea level, height is more often called altitude. Height is measured along the axis between a specified point and another. English high is derived from Old English hēah, ultimately from Proto-Germanic *xauxa-z, the derived noun height, also the obsolete forms heighth and highth, is from Old English híehþo, later héahþu, as it were from Proto-Germanic *xaux-iþa. In elementary models of space, height may indicate the third dimension, height is normal to the plane formed by the length and width. Height is also used as a name for more abstract definitions. Although height is relative to a plane of reference, most measurements of height in the world are based upon a zero surface. Both altitude and elevation, two synonyms for height, are defined as the position of a point above the mean sea level. One can extend the surface under the continents, naively. In practice, the sea level under a continent has to be computed from gravity measurements, instead of using the sea level, geodesists often prefer to define height from the surface of a reference ellipsoid, see Geodetic system, vertical datum. Defining the height of geographic landmarks becomes a question of reference, in aviation terminology, the terms height, altitude, and elevation are not synonyms. Usually, the altitude of an aircraft is measured from sea level, Elevation is also measured from sea level, but is most often regarded as a property of the ground. Thus, elevation plus height can equal altitude, but the term altitude has several meanings in aviation, Human height is one of the areas of study within anthropometry. While height variations within a population are largely genetic, height variations between populations are mostly environmental, the United Nations uses height to monitor changes in the nutrition of developing nations. In human populations, average height can distill down complex data about the birth, upbringing, social class, diet. Acrophobia Centimetre–gram–second system of units Chinese units of measurement Elevation Human height Imperial units International System of Units United States customary units
27.
Rope
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A rope is a group of yarns, plies, or strands that are twisted or braided together into a larger and stronger form. Ropes have tensile strength and so can be used for dragging and lifting, as a result, they cannot be used for pushing or similar compressive applications. Rope is thicker and stronger than similarly constructed cord, line, string, fiber rope is made from fiber, whereas wire rope is made from wire. Rope may be constructed of any long, stringy, fibrous material, synthetic fibre ropes are significantly stronger than their natural fibre counterparts, but also possess certain disadvantages, including slipperiness. Common natural fibres for rope are manila hemp, hemp, feathers, linen, cotton, coir, jute, straw, synthetic fibres in use for rope-making include polypropylene, nylon, polyesters, polyethylene, Aramids and acrylics. Some ropes are constructed of mixtures of several fibres or use co-polymer fibres, wire rope is made of steel or other metal alloys. Ropes have been constructed of fibrous materials such as silk, wool, and hair. Rayon is a fibre used to make decorative rope. The twist of the strands in a twisted or braided rope serves not only to keep a rope together, without any twist in the rope, the shortest strand would always be supporting a much higher proportion of the total load. Rope is of paramount importance in fields as diverse as construction, seafaring, exploration, sports, theatre, and communications, to fasten rope, many types of knots have been invented for countless uses. Pulleys redirect the force to another direction, and can create mechanical advantage so that multiple strands of rope share a load. Winches and capstans are machines designed to pull ropes, such ropes normally use a kernmantle construction, as described below. Static ropes, used for example in caving, rappelling, and rescue applications, are designed for minimal stretch, the UIAA, in concert with the CEN, sets climbing-rope standards and oversees testing. Any rope bearing a GUIANA or CE certification tag is suitable for climbing, climbing ropes, however, do cut easily when under load. Keeping them away from sharp rock edges is imperative, rock climbing ropes come with either a designation for single, double or twin use. A single rope is the most common and it is intended to be used by itself, single ropes range in thickness from roughly 9mm to 11mm. Smaller ropes are lighter, but wear out faster, double ropes are thinner ropes, usually 9mm and under, and are intended for use as a pair. These ropes offer a margin or security against cutting, since it is unlikely that both ropes will be cut, but they complicate belaying and leading
28.
Foot (unit)
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The foot is a unit of length in the imperial and US customary systems of measurement. Since 1959, both units have been defined by international agreement as equivalent to 0.3048 meters exactly, in both systems, the foot comprises 12 inches and three feet compose a yard. Historically the foot was a part of local systems of units, including the Greek, Roman, Chinese, French. It varied in length from country to country, from city to city and its length was usually between 250 mm and 335 mm and was generally, but not always, subdivided into 12 inches or 16 digits. The United States is the industrialized nation that uses the international foot and the survey foot in preference to the meter in its commercial, engineering. The foot is legally recognized in the United Kingdom, road signs must use imperial units, the measurement of altitude in international aviation is one of the few areas where the foot is widely used outside the English-speaking world. The length of the international foot corresponds to a foot with shoe size of 13,14,15.5 or 46. Historically the human body has been used to provide the basis for units of length. The foot of a male is typically about 15. 3% of his height, giving a person of 160 cm a foot of 245 mm. These figures are less than the used in most cities over time. Archeologists believe that the Egyptians, Ancient Indians and Mesopotamians preferred the cubit while the Romans, under the Harappan linear measures, Indus cities during the Bronze Age used a foot of 13.2 inches and a cubit of 20.8 inches. The Egyptian equivalent of the measure of four palms or 16 digits—was known as the djeser and has been reconstructed as about 30 cm. The Greek foot had a length of 1⁄600 of a stadion, one stadion being about 181.2 m, the standard Roman foot was normally about 295.7 mm, but in the provinces, the pes Drusianus was used, with a length of about 334 mm. Originally both the Greeks and the Romans subdivided the foot into 16 digits, but in later years, after the fall of the Roman Empire, some Roman traditions were continued but others fell into disuse. In AD790 Charlemagne attempted to reform the units of measure in his domains and his units of length were based on the toise and in particular the toise de lÉcritoire, the distance between the fingertips of the outstretched arms of a man. The toise has 6 pieds each of 326.6 mm, at the same time, monastic buildings used the Carolingian foot of 340 mm. The procedure for verification of the foot as described in the 16th century by Jacob Koebel in his book Geometrei, the measures of Iron Age Britain are uncertain and proposed reconstructions such as the Megalithic Yard are controversial. Later Welsh legend credited Dyfnwal Moelmud with the establishment of their units, the Belgic or North German foot of 335 mm was introduced to England either by the Belgic Celts during their invasions prior to the Romans or by the Anglo-Saxons in the 5th & 6th century
29.
Sound
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In physics, sound is a vibration that propagates as a typically audible mechanical wave of pressure and displacement, through a transmission medium such as air or water. In physiology and psychology, sound is the reception of such waves, humans can hear sound waves with frequencies between about 20 Hz and 20 kHz. Sound above 20 kHz is ultrasound and below 20 Hz is infrasound, other animals have different hearing ranges. Acoustics is the science that deals with the study of mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including vibration, sound, ultrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician, an audio engineer, on the other hand, is concerned with the recording, manipulation, mixing, and reproduction of sound. Auditory sensation evoked by the oscillation described in, sound can propagate through a medium such as air, water and solids as longitudinal waves and also as a transverse wave in solids. The sound waves are generated by a source, such as the vibrating diaphragm of a stereo speaker. The sound source creates vibrations in the surrounding medium, as the source continues to vibrate the medium, the vibrations propagate away from the source at the speed of sound, thus forming the sound wave. At a fixed distance from the source, the pressure, velocity, at an instant in time, the pressure, velocity, and displacement vary in space. Note that the particles of the medium do not travel with the sound wave and this is intuitively obvious for a solid, and the same is true for liquids and gases. During propagation, waves can be reflected, refracted, or attenuated by the medium, the behavior of sound propagation is generally affected by three things, A complex relationship between the density and pressure of the medium. This relationship, affected by temperature, determines the speed of sound within the medium, if the medium is moving, this movement may increase or decrease the absolute speed of the sound wave depending on the direction of the movement. For example, sound moving through wind will have its speed of propagation increased by the speed of the if the sound and wind are moving in the same direction. If the sound and wind are moving in opposite directions, the speed of the wave will be decreased by the speed of the wind. Medium viscosity determines the rate at which sound is attenuated, for many media, such as air or water, attenuation due to viscosity is negligible. When sound is moving through a medium that does not have constant physical properties, the mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound can travel through all forms of matter, gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports the sound is called the medium, sound cannot travel through a vacuum. Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves and it requires a medium to propagate
30.
Running
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Running is a method of terrestrial locomotion allowing humans and other animals to move rapidly on foot. Running is a type of gait characterized by a phase in which all feet are above the ground. The term running can refer to any of a variety of speeds ranging from jogging to sprinting and it is assumed that the ancestors of mankind developed the ability to run for long distances about 2.6 million years ago, probably in order to hunt animals. Competitive running grew out of religious festivals in various areas, records of competitive racing date back to the Tailteann Games in Ireland in 1829 BCE, while the first recorded Olympic Games took place in 776 BCE. Running has been described as the worlds most accessible sport and it is thought that human running evolved at least four and a half million years ago out of the ability of the ape-like Australopithecus, an early ancestor of humans, to walk upright on two legs. The theory as first proposed used comparative physiological evidence and the habits of animals when running, indicating the likelihood of this activity as a successful hunting method. Further evidence from observation of modern-day hunting practice also indicated this likelihood, according to Sears scientific investigation of the Nariokotome Skeleton provided further evidence for the Carrier theory. Competitive running grew out of religious festivals in various such as Greece, Egypt, Asia. The Tailteann Games, an Irish sporting festival in honor of the goddess Tailtiu, dates back to 1829 BCE, the origins of the Olympics and Marathon running are shrouded by myth and legend, though the first recorded games took place in 776 BCE. Seeing that they were moving and running, from their running nature they were called Gods or runners. Running gait can be divided into two phases in regard to the extremity, stance and swing. These can be divided into absorption, propulsion, initial swing. Due to the nature of running gait, no certain point is assumed to be the beginning. However, for simplicity it will be assumed that absorption and footstrike mark the beginning of the cycle in a body already in motion. Footstrike occurs when a portion of the foot makes initial contact with the ground. Common footstrike types include forefoot, midfoot and heel strike types and these are characterized by initial contact of the ball of the foot, ball and heel of the foot simultaneously and heel of the foot respectively. During this time the hip joint is undergoing extension from being in maximal flexion from the swing phase. For proper force absorption, the joint should be flexed upon footstrike
31.
Captain (sports)
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In team sports, captain is a title given to a member of the team. The title is frequently honorary, but in cases the captain may have significant responsibility for strategy. In either case, it is a position that indicates honor, in association football and cricket, a captain is also known as a skipper. Depending on the sport, team captains may be given the responsibility of interacting with game officials regarding application and interpretation of the rules, in many team sports, the captains represent their respective teams when the match official does the coin toss at the beginning of the game. Various sports have differing roles and responsibilities for team captains, in martial arts, the class lead instructor, acting under the direction and authority of the Master or a senior belt, may be called the captain
32.
Referee
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The term referee originated in association football. Originally the team captains would consult each other in order to resolve any dispute on the pitch. Eventually this role was delegated to an umpire, each team would bring their own partisan umpire allowing the team captains to concentrate on the game. Later, the referee, a neutral official was added. The referee did not take his place on the pitch until 1891, in this case, the role of the linesmen is limited to indicating out of play and cannot decide off side. An umpire is an official in the sport of Australian rules football, games are overseen by one to three field umpires, two to four boundary umpires, and two goal umpires. A game of bandy is officiated by a referee, the authority and enforcer of the rules, the referee may be assisted by one or two assistant referees. On any question, the umpire has the final call. In international basketball and in basketball, the referee is the lead official in a game. In the National Basketball Association, the official is referred to by the term crew chief. In boxing a referee is the person who enforces the rules during the fight, in cricket, the match referee is an off-field official who makes judgements concerning the reputable conduct of the game and hands out penalties for breaches of the ICC Cricket Code of Conduct. On-field decisions relevant to the play and outcome of the game itself are handled by two umpires, although an off-field third umpire may help with certain decisions. In cue sports, such as billiards and snooker, matches are presided over by a referee, the referee will determine all matters of fact relating to the rules, maintain fair playing conditions, call fouls, and take other action as required by these rules. A commissaire is an official in competitive cycling, a fencing match is presided over by a referee. An umpire in field hockey is a person with the authority to make decisions on a field in accordance with the laws of the game. Each match is controlled by two umpires, where it is typical for umpires to aid one another and correct each other when necessary. Referees for international events are trained by the International Skating Union, there are two levels of referee, International Referee and ISU Referee, with ISU Referees ranking higher. In Synchronized Ice Skating, there are two Referees, one, sits with the Judges as with ordinary competition and operates a touch screen computer, inputing deductions and marking the skaters
33.
Girl
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A girl is a female human from birth through childhood and adolescence to attainment of adulthood when she becomes a woman. The term girl may also be used to mean a young woman, the English word girl first appeared during the Middle Ages between 1250 and 1300 CE and came from the Anglo-Saxon word gerle. The Anglo-Saxon word gerela meaning dress or clothing item also seems to have used as a metonym in some sense. Girl has meant any young unmarried woman since about 1530 and its first noted meaning for sweetheart is 1648. The earliest known appearance of girl-friend is in 1892 and girl next door, meant as a female or young woman with a kind of wholesome appeal. The word girl is sometimes used to refer to an adult female and this usage may be considered derogatory or disrespectful in professional or other formal contexts, just as the term boy can be considered disparaging when applied to an adult man. Hence, this usage is often deprecative and it can also be used deprecatively when used to discriminate against children. In casual context, the word has positive uses, as evidenced by its use in titles of popular music. It has been used playfully for people acting in a fashion or as a way of unifying women of all ages on the basis of their once having been girls. These positive uses mean gender rather than age, the status of girls throughout world history is closely related to the status of women in any culture. Where women enjoy an equal status with men, girls benefit from greater attention to their needs. In Ancient Egypt, the princess Neferure grew up under the reign of her mother, the woman Pharaoh Hatshepsut, women in Ancient Egypt had a relatively high status in society, and as the daughter of the pharaoh, Neferura was provided with the best education possible. Her tutors were the most trusted advisors of her mother and she grew up to take on an important role by taking on the duties of a queen while her mother was pharaoh. Despite the fact women and men had a great deal of equality in Ancient Egypt. For this reason, girls and boys education differed, boys could attend formal schools to learn how to read, write, and do math, while girls would be educated at home to learn the occupations of their mothers. Some women did become literate and were scholars, however, such as Hypatia, girls formal education has traditionally been considered far less important than that of boys. In Europe, exceptions were rare before the press and the Reformation made literacy more widespread. One notable exception to the neglect of girls literacy is Queen Elizabeth I
34.
Boy
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A boy is a young male human, usually a child or adolescent. When he becomes an adult, he is described as a man, the most apparent difference between a typical boy and a typical girl is the genitalia. However, some children with ambiguous genitals, and genetically female transgender children. The term boy is primarily used to indicate biological sex distinctions, the term can be joined with a variety of other words to form these gender-related labels as compound words. The word boy comes from Middle English boi, boye, related to other Germanic words for boy, namely East Frisian boi and West Frisian boai. The root is found in Flemish boe, Norwegian dialectal boa. Furthermore, the word may be related to Bōia, an Anglo-Saxon personal name, in English, the words youth, teenager and adolescent may refer to either male or female. Many occasions occur when a male is commonly referred to as a boy. A persons boyfriend or loverboy may be of any age, this applies to a working call-boy, toyboy. Reflecting the general preference for youth, one says pretty boy or Adonis even when a male beauty is clearly of riper age. In terms for such as batty boy or bum boy, age is not essential. A mans group of male friends etc. engaged in Male bonding are called the boys. g. The boys at the office, - police station etc, the members of a student fraternity can be called frat boys, technically preferable to the pleonasm frat-bro, and remain so for life as adults, after graduation. Thus the compound -man can then be replaced by -boy, as in footboy, or boy is simply added, either as a prefix or as a suffix. An adult equivalent is not to be expected when -boy designates an apprentice or lowest rank implying specific on the job training if promotion is to be obtained, as in kitchen boy. Similarly schoolboy only applies to minors, the modern near-synonym pupil originally designated a minor in Roman law as being under a specific adults authority, the use of boy in nicknames, also for adult men, may also connote to the informal or naughty image of boyhood. In such terms as city boy or home boy, the age notion is at most anachronistic, images of boys in art, literature and popular culture often demonstrate assumptions about gender roles. In some Middle Eastern cultures, characteristics affirming boyhood include physiological features associated with prepubescence, such as pubelessness and the inability to ejaculate
35.
Week
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A week is a time unit equal to seven days. It is the time period used for cycles of rest days in most parts of the world. The days of the week were named after the planets in the Roman era. In English, the names are Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, and Saturday. ISO8601 includes the ISO week date system, a system for weeks within a given year – each week begins on a Monday and is associated with the year that contains that weeks Thursday. ISO8601 assigns numbers to the days of the week, running from 1 to 7 for Monday through to Sunday, the English word week comes from the Old English wice, ultimately from a Common Germanic *wikōn-, from a root *wik- turn, move, change. The Germanic word probably had a wider meaning prior to the adoption of the Roman calendar, perhaps succession series, the seven-day week is named in many languages by a word derived from seven. The archaism sennight preserves the old Germanic practice of reckoning time by nights, hebdomad and hebdomadal week both derive from the Greek hebdomás. The obsolete septimane is cognate with the Romance terms derived from Latin septimana, Slavic has a formation *tъdьnь, from *tъ this + *dьnь day, in some cases alongside nedělja, a loan-translation of Latin feria and sedmitsa, as ἑβδομάς derived from seven. Chinese has 星期, as it were planetary time unit, there are exactly 20,871 weeks in 400 Gregorian years, so 5 April 1617 was a Wednesday just like 5 April 2017. Relative to the path of the Moon, a week is 23. 659% of an average lunation, historically, the system of Dominical letters has been used to facilitate calculation of the day of week. The day of the week can be calculated given a dates Julian day number. The days of the week were named for the classical planets. This naming system persisted alongside an ecclesiastical tradition of numbering the days, the ordering of the weekday names are not that of the classical order of the planets. Instead, the planetary hours systems resulted in succeeding days being named for planets that are three places apart in their traditional listing and this characteristic was apparently discussed in Plutarch in a treatise written in c. AD100, which is reported to have addressed the question of Why are the named after the planets reckoned in a different order from the actual order. An ecclesiastical, non-astrological, system of numbering the days of the week was adopted in Late Antiquity and this model also seems to have influenced the designation of Wednesday as mid-week in Old High German and Old Church Slavonic. Old Church Slavonic may have modeled the name of Monday, понєдѣльникъ
36.
Recreation
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Recreation is an activity of leisure, leisure being discretionary time. The need to do something for recreation is an element of human biology and psychology. Recreational activities are often done for enjoyment, amusement, or pleasure and are considered to be fun. The term recreation appears to have used in English first in the late 14th century, first in the sense of refreshment or curing of a sick person. Other factors that account for a role of recreation are affluence, population trends. This direction of thought has even extended to the view that leisure is the purpose of work, and a reward in itself. Leisure is considered a right under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Recreation is difficult to separate from the concept of play. Children may playfully imitate activities that reflect the realities of adult life, a traditional view holds that work is supported by recreation, recreation being useful to recharge the battery so that work performance is improved. Many activities may be work for one person and recreation for another, or, at a level, over time recreational activity may become work. Thus, for a musician, playing an instrument may be at one time a profession, similarly, it may be difficult to separate education from recreation as in the case of recreational mathematics. Recreation is an part of human life and finds many different forms which are shaped naturally by individual interests. Recreational activities can be communal or solitary, active or passive, outdoors or indoors, healthy or harmful, a significant section of recreational activities are designated as hobbies which are activities done for pleasure on a regular basis. Some recreational activities - such as gambling, recreational use, or delinquent activities - may violate societal norms. Public space such as parks and beaches are venues for many recreational activities. Tourism has recognized that many visitors are attracted by recreational offerings. In support of recreational activities government has taken an important role in their creation, maintenance, and organization, many recreational activities are organized, typically by public institutions, voluntary group-work agencies, private groups supported by membership fees, and commercial enterprises. Examples of each of these are the National Park Service, the YMCA, the Kiwanis, Recreation has many health benefits, and, accordingly, Therapeutic Recreation has been developed to take advantage of this effect
37.
Playground
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A playground, playpark, or play area is a place specifically designed to enable children to play there. While a playground is designed for children, some target other age groups. Berlins Preußenpark for example is designed for people aged 70 or higher, a playground might exclude children below a certain age. Common in modern playgrounds are play structures that many different pieces of equipment. Playgrounds often also have facilities for playing games of adult sports, such as a baseball diamond, a skating arena. In some parts of the United States, the term tot lot may be used, a type of playground called a playscape is designed to provide a safe environment for play in a natural setting. Through history, children played in their villages and neighbourhoods, especially in the streets, in the 19th century, developmental psychologists such as Friedrich Fröbel proposed playgrounds as a developmental aid, or to imbue children with a sense of fair play and good manners. In Germany, a few playgrounds were erected in connection to schools, the Outdoor Recreation League provided funds to erect playgrounds on parkland, especially following the 1901 publication of a report on numbers of children being run down by cars in New York City. Interventionist programs such as by the child savers sought to move children into controlled areas to limit delinquency, one of the first playgrounds in the United States was built in San Franciscos Golden Gate Park in 1887. In 1906 the Playground Association of America was founded and a year later Luther Gulick became president and it later became the National Recreation Association and then the National Recreation and Park Association. Neither do small back yards nor ornamental grass plots meet the needs of any, older children who would play vigorous games must have places especially set aside for them, and, since play is a fundamental need, playgrounds should be provided for every child as much as schools. This means that they must be distributed over the cities in such a way as to be walking distance of every boy and girl. Playgrounds were a part of urban culture in the USSR. In the 1970s and 1980s, there were playgrounds in almost every park in many Soviet cities, Playground apparatus was reasonably standard all over the country, most of them consisted of metallic bars with relatively few wooden parts, and were manufactured in state-owned factories. Some of the most common constructions were the carousel, sphere, seesaw, rocket, bridge, Playground design is influenced by the intended purpose and audience. Separate play areas might be offered to accommodate very young children, single, large, open parks tend to not to be used by older schoolgirls or less aggressive children, because there is little opportunity for them to escape more aggressive children. By contrast, a park that offers multiple play areas is used equally by boys, professionals recognize that the social skills that children develop on the playground often become lifelong skill sets that are carried forward into their adulthood. Independent research concludes that playgrounds are among the most important environments for children outside the home, most forms of play are essential for healthy development, but free, spontaneous play—the kind that occurs on playgrounds—is the most beneficial type of play
38.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
39.
Detroit
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Detroit is the most populous city in the U. S. state of Michigan, the fourth-largest city in the Midwest and the largest city on the United States–Canada border. It is the seat of Wayne County, the most populous county in the state, the municipality of Detroit had a 2015 estimated population of 677,116, making it the 21st-most populous city in the United States. Roughly one-half of Michigans population lives in Metro Detroit alone, the Detroit–Windsor area, a commercial link straddling the Canada–U. S. Border, has a population of about 5.7 million. Detroit is a port on the Detroit River, a strait that connects the Great Lakes system to the Saint Lawrence Seaway. The Detroit Metropolitan Airport is among the most important hubs in the United States, the City of Detroit anchors the second-largest economic region in the Midwest, behind Chicago, and the thirteenth-largest in the United States. Detroit and its neighboring Canadian city Windsor are connected through a tunnel and various bridges, Detroit was founded on July 24,1701 by the French explorer and adventurer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac and a party of settlers. During the 19th century, it became an important industrial hub at the center of the Great Lakes region, with expansion of the American automobile industry in the early 20th century, the Detroit area emerged as a significant metropolitan region within the United States. The city became the fourth-largest in the country for a period, in the 1950s and 1960s, suburban expansion continued with construction of a regional freeway system. A great portion of Detroits public transport was abandoned in favour of becoming a city in the post-war period. Due to industrial restructuring and loss of jobs in the auto industry, between 2000 and 2010 the citys population fell by 25 percent, changing its ranking from the nations 10th-largest city to 18th. In 2010, the city had a population of 713,777 and this resulted from suburbanization, corruption, industrial restructuring and the decline of Detroits auto industry. In 2013, the state of Michigan declared an emergency for the city. Detroit has experienced urban decay as its population and jobs have shifted to its suburbs or elsewhere, conservation efforts managed to save many architectural pieces since the 2000s and allowed several large-scale revitalisations. More recently, the population of Downtown Detroit, Midtown Detroit, paleo-Indian people inhabited areas near Detroit as early as 11,000 years ago. In the 17th century, the region was inhabited by Huron, Odawa, Potawatomi, for the next hundred years, virtually no British, colonist, or French action was contemplated without consultation with, or consideration of the Iroquois likely response. When the French and Indian War evicted the Kingdom of France from Canada, the 1798 raids and resultant 1799 decisive Sullivan Expedition reopened the Ohio Country to westward emigration, which began almost immediately, and by 1800 white settlers were pouring westwards. By 1773, the population of Detroit was 1,400, by 1778, its population was up to 2,144 and it was the third-largest city in the Province of Quebec
40.
Ypsilanti, Michigan
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Ypsilanti, commonly shortened to Ypsi, is a city in Washtenaw County in the U. S. state of Michigan, perhaps best known as the home of Eastern Michigan University. As of the 2010 census, the population was 19,435. The city is bounded to the north by Superior Township and on the west, south, Ypsilanti is located 6 miles east of Ann Arbor and about 18 miles west of the Detroit city limits. S. It was incorporated into the Territory of Michigan as the village Woodruffs Grove, a separate community a short distance away on the west side of the river was established in 1825 under the name Ypsilanti, after Demetrios Ypsilantis, a hero in the Greek War of Independence. Woodruffs Grove changed its name to Ypsilanti in 1829, the year its namesake effectively won the Greek war, a bust of Demetrios Ypsilantis by Greek sculptor Christopher Nastos stands between a Greek and a US flag at the base of the landmark Ypsilanti Water Tower. Ypsilanti has played an important role in the automobile industry, from 1920 to 1922, Apex Motors produced the ACE car. It was in Ypsilanti that Preston Tucker designed and built the prototypes for his Tucker 48, tuckers story was related in the film Tucker, The Man and His Dream, directed by Francis Ford Coppola. In 1945, Henry J. Kaiser and Joseph W. Frazer bought the nearby Willow Run B-24 Liberator bomber plant from Ford Motor Company, and started to make Kaiser and Frazer model cars in 1947. The last Kaiser car made in Ypsilanti rolled off the line in 1953. General Motors purchased the Kaiser Frazer plant, and converted it into its Hydramatic Division, the GM Powertrain Division ceased production at this facility in 2010. Ypsilanti is also the location of the last Hudson automobile dealership, today, the former dealership is the site of the Ypsilanti Automotive Heritage Collection. The museum is the home to an original Fabulous Hudson Hornet race car, in the early 1970s, along with neighboring city of Ann Arbor, the citizens reduced the penalty for the use and sale of marijuana to $5. When Ypsilanti prosecuted a man possessing 100 pounds of cannabis under state law, the trial judge declared the ordinances requirement that Ypsilanti prosecute only under city law unenforceable. An appeal court upheld the judges ruling. Later, Ypsilanti City Council, using its power of codification, in 1979, Faz Husain was elected to the Ypsilanti city council, the first Muslim and the first native of India to win elected office in Michigan. In the 1990s Ypsilanti became the first city in Michigan to pass a living wage ordinance, two ballot measures to repeal the ordinance were led and bankrolled by conservatives, including Tom Monaghan. Both measures failed, the second by a larger percentage than the first, the award provides for an economic development consultant to assist Ypsilanti in developing a growth and job creation strategy for the downtown area. 1959 – Eastern Michigan becomes a university 1960 – Tom Monaghan founds Dominos Pizza as DomiNicks Pizza at 507 W. Cross St and he was convicted in 1969, but of only one of the murders
41.
Michigan
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Michigan /ˈmɪʃᵻɡən/ is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit, Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula, to which the name Michigan was originally applied, is noted to be shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, the two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge. The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, as a result, it is one of the leading U. S. states for recreational boating. Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds, a person in the state is never more than six miles from a natural water source or more than 85 miles from a Great Lakes shoreline. What is now the state of Michigan was first settled by Native American tribes before being colonized by French explorers in the 17th century, the area was organized as part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory. Eventually, in 1805, the Michigan Territory was formed, which lasted until it was admitted into the Union on January 26,1837, the state of Michigan soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination. Though Michigan has come to develop an economy, it is widely known as the center of the U. S. automotive industry. When the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe, Odaawaa/Odawa, the three nations co-existed peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires. The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been between 25,000 and 35,000, were the largest, French voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlés expedition in 1622, the first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan as a base for Catholic missions, missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette. Jesuit missionaries were received by the areas Indian populations, with relatively few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph, in 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present day city of Niles. The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent, cadillacs wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in the Michigan wilderness. The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post, the Église de Saint-Anne was founded the same year
42.
University of Chicago
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The University of Chicago is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. It holds top-ten positions in national and international rankings and measures. The university currently enrolls approximately 5,700 students in the College, Chicagos physics department helped develop the worlds first man-made, self-sustaining nuclear reaction beneath the viewing stands of universitys Stagg Field. The university is home to the University of Chicago Press. With an estimated date of 2020, the Barack Obama Presidential Center will be housed at the university. Both Harper and future president Robert Maynard Hutchins advocated for Chicagos curriculum to be based upon theoretical and perennial issues rather than on applied sciences, the University of Chicago has many prominent alumni. 92 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the university as professors, students, faculty, or staff, similarly,34 faculty members and 16 alumni have been awarded the MacArthur “Genius Grant”. Rockefeller on land donated by Marshall Field, while the Rockefeller donation provided money for academic operations and long-term endowment, it was stipulated that such money could not be used for buildings. The original physical campus was financed by donations from wealthy Chicagoans like Silas B, Cobb who provided the funds for the campus first building, Cobb Lecture Hall, and matched Marshall Fields pledge of $100,000. Organized as an independent institution legally, it replaced the first Baptist university of the same name, william Rainey Harper became the modern universitys first president on July 1,1891, and the university opened for classes on October 1,1892. The business school was founded thereafter in 1898, and the law school was founded in 1902, Harper died in 1906, and was replaced by a succession of three presidents whose tenures lasted until 1929. During this period, the Oriental Institute was founded to support, in 1896, the university affiliated with Shimer College in Mount Carroll, Illinois. The agreement provided that either party could terminate the affiliation on proper notice, several University of Chicago professors disliked the program, as it involved uncompensated additional labor on their part, and they believed it cheapened the academic reputation of the university. The program passed into history by 1910, in 1929, the universitys fifth president, Robert Maynard Hutchins, took office, the university underwent many changes during his 24-year tenure. In 1933, Hutchins proposed a plan to merge the University of Chicago. During his term, the University of Chicago Hospitals finished construction, also, the Committee on Social Thought, an institution distinctive of the university, was created. Money that had been raised during the 1920s and financial backing from the Rockefeller Foundation helped the school to survive through the Great Depression, during World War II, the university made important contributions to the Manhattan Project. The university was the site of the first isolation of plutonium and of the creation of the first artificial, in the early 1950s, student applications declined as a result of increasing crime and poverty in the Hyde Park neighborhood
43.
Hotchkiss School
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The Hotchkiss School is a private, nonsectarian, coeducational, college preparatory boarding school in Lakeville, Connecticut, founded in 1891. The school offers an education with grades 9–12 and a postgraduate option. Hotchkiss has a highly competitive 18% admit rate, and one of the largest private school endowments in the country, in 1891, Maria Harrison Bissell Hotchkiss, with guidance from Yale President Timothy Dwight V, founded the school to prepare young men for Yale University. In 1892, Hotchkiss opened its doors to 50 male boarding students for $600, hotchkisss endowment also precipitated scholarship aid to deserving students. In 1974, the school became coeducational, george Van Santvoord, a headmaster hailed as the Duke with an honorary dorm, claimed there was only one school rule, Be a gentleman. In 1954, TIME recognized in Education, The Duke Steps Down, Maria Hotchkiss was uninterested in establishing “a school for the pampered sons of rich gentlemen. ”The school has enrolled international students since 1896. In 1928, the joined the English-Speaking Union and established the International Schoolboy Exchange. Established by the Class of 1948, the Fund for Global Understanding enables student participation in service projects across the world. In 1953, Hotchkiss alumnus Eugene Van Voorhis incorporated the Ulysses S, the school has a 43% diverse student body, offers a School Year Abroad program, and is a member of the Global Education Benchmark Group, Round Square, and Confucius Institute International Division. In 2010, Hotchkiss partnered with Peking University High School to establish its study abroad, operating on a semester schedule, the Hotchkiss School offers a classical education,224 courses,7 foreign languages, and study abroad programs. The year prior, the Deerfield Scroll featured that many consider the Hotchkiss School to be the leader in environmental awareness among the top schools in the country. The school has a 100% college matriculation rate, and among the Classes of 2011-14,33 enrolled at Yale,19 at Harvard, and 16 at Princeton. In 2007, the Wall Street Journal listed Hotchkiss as among the schools with a success rate in matriculation at Harvard, Princeton. Its colors are Yale Blue and white, with the mascot being the bearcat, in 1933, Samuel Gottscho photographed the Hotchkiss baseball team, which appears in the Library of Congress Gottscho-Schleisner Collection. Similar boarding school include the Andover–Exeter rivalry and Choate-Deerfield rivalry. The school overlooks the Berkshires on a rural,827 acres campus featuring 13 single-sex dorms,2 lakes, and 1 forest. The Main Building serves as the academic and social center, featuring 30 SmartBoard classrooms, the Edsel Ford Memorial Library with 87, 000-volumes occupying 25,000 square feet, the school renovation project earned Robert A. M. Stern Architects the 2010 Palladio Award, with Paul Rudolph and Butler Rogers Basket contributing elements of modern architecture, when completed, farm trails will add an estimated three to five miles to the six or more that already traverse the Hotchkiss Woods
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Lakeville, Connecticut
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Lakeville is a town in Litchfield County, Connecticut, bordering Dutchess County, New York. It has its own zip code and Post Office, the Hotchkiss and Indian Mountain Schools are located in Lakeville. Until 1846, Lakeville was called Furnace Village, due to the location there of one of the early blast furnaces of the historic Salisbury iron industry, Hotchkiss, inventor of the Hotchkiss gun was born in nearby Watertown. A boarding school in his name, the Hotchkiss School, was founded by his widow Maria Bissell Hotchkiss in Lakeville in 1891, Lakeville is also the home of Indian Mountain School which is a boarding school for students Pre-K through 9th. It was also the home to what would eventually relocate and become the Mansfield Training School. In the early 1950s, the well-known Belgian-French writer Georges Simenon resided for several years in Shadow Rock Farm, the town forms the background for Simenons novel La Mort de Belle, depicting its small town quiet life being shattered by the murder of a young girl. It was later adapted to film, released as Passion of Slow Fire, Lakeville is the site of Connecticuts oldest cold case. Camp Sloane camper Connie Smith left the camp on Indian Mountain Road on the morning of July 16,1952 and she was ten years old and was from Sundance, Wyoming, she was the granddaughter of former Wyoming Governor Nels H. Smith. Several people observed her walking and hitchhiking toward the center of Lakeville and she was last seen walking along Route 44 near the intersection of Belgo Road. Her disappearance sparked one of the largest searches ever conducted by the Connecticut State Police, despite a nationwide search, she was never found, and foul play is suspected. Her case remains open and still has a detective assigned to it, harpsichordist Wanda Landowska was a resident of Lakeville from 1949 until her death in 1959. From the 1970s onward, Nobel Economics Laureate Wassily Leontief made his home here. New Englands oldest Methodist congregation is in Lakeville, Hotchkiss School Indian Mountain School Historic American Buildings Survey No. CT-141, Holley House, Lakeville, Litchfield County, CT,11 photos, supplemental material
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Disability
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Disability is an impairment that may be cognitive, developmental, intellectual, mental, physical, sensory, or some combination of these. It substantially affects a persons activities and may be present from birth or occur during a persons lifetime. Disabilities is a term, covering impairments, activity limitations. Disability is thus not just a health problem and it is a complex phenomenon, reflecting the interaction between features of a person’s body and features of the society in which he or she lives. Disability is a concept, with different meanings for different communities. It may be used to refer to physical or mental attributes that some institutions, particularly medicine and it may refer to limitations imposed on people by the constraints of an ableist society. Or the term may serve to refer to the identity of people with disabilities, debates about proper terminology and their implied politics continue in disability communities and the academic field of disability studies. In some countries, the law requires that disabilities are documented by a provider in order to assess qualifications for disability benefits. During the Middle Ages, madness and other conditions were thought to be caused by demons and they were also thought to be part of the natural order, especially during and in the fallout of the Plague, which wrought impairments throughout the general population. Contemporary concepts of disability are rooted in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century developments, foremost among these was the development of clinical medical discourse, which made the human body visible as a thing to be manipulated, studied, and transformed. These worked in tandem with scientific discourses that sought to classify and categorize and, in so doing, became methods of normalization. The concept of the norm developed in time period, and is signaled in the work of the French statistician Alphonse Quetelet. Quetelet postulated that one could take the sum of all attributes in a given population and find their average. Disability, as well as other concepts including, abnormal, non-normal, the circulation of these concepts is evident in the popularity of the freak show, where showmen profited from exhibiting people who deviated from those norms. With the rise of eugenics in the part of the nineteenth century. With disability viewed as part of a persons biological make-up and thus their genetic inheritance, various metrics for assessing a persons genetic fitness, which were then used to deport, sterilize, or institutionalize those deemed unfit. In the early 1970s, disability activists began to challenge how society treated people with disabilities, due to this work, physical barriers to access were identified. These conditions functionally disabled them, and what is now known as the model of disability emerged
