1.
Provinces and territories of Canada
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Canadas geography is divided into administrative divisions known as provinces and territories that are responsible for delivery of sub-national governance. Over its history, Canadas international borders have changed several times, the ten provinces are Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Saskatchewan. Several of the provinces were former British colonies, Quebec was originally a French colony, the three territories are Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon, which govern the rest of the area of the former British North America. Together, the provinces and territories make up the worlds second-largest country by area, the powers flowing from the Constitution Act are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively. In modern Canadian constitutional theory, the provinces are considered to be co-sovereign divisions, the territories are not sovereign, but simply part of the federal realm, and have a commissioner who represents the federal government. Notes, There are three territories in Canada, unlike the provinces, the territories of Canada have no inherent sovereignty and have only those powers delegated to them by the federal government. They include all of mainland Canada north of latitude 60° north and west of Hudson Bay, the following table lists the territories in order of precedence. Prior to Confederation, Ontario and Quebec were united as the Province of Canada, over the following years, Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island were added as provinces. The Hudsons Bay Company controlled large swathes of western Canada referred to as Ruperts Land and the North-Western Territory until 1870, subsequently, the area was re-organized into the province of Manitoba and the Northwest Territories. The remaining Arctic islands were transferred by Britain to Canada in 1880,1898 saw the Yukon Territory, later renamed simply as Yukon, carved from the parts of the Northwest Territories surrounding the Klondike gold fields. On September 1,1905, a portion of the Northwest Territories south of the 60th parallel north became the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. In 1912, the boundaries of Quebec, Ontario and Manitoba were expanded northward, Manitobas to the 60° parallel, Ontarios to Hudson Bay, in 1907, Newfoundland acquired dominion status. In the middle of the Great Depression in Canada with Newfoundland facing a period of economic crisis. In 2001, it was officially renamed Newfoundland and Labrador, in 1903, the Alaska Panhandle Dispute fixed British Columbias northwestern boundary. This was one of two provinces in Canadian history to have its size reduced. In 1999, Nunavut was created from the portion of the Northwest Territories. Yukon lies in the portion of The North, while Nunavut is in the east. All three territories combined are the most sparsely populated region in Canada, covering 3,921,739 km2 in land area and they are often referred to as a single region, The North, for organisational and economic purposes
2.
Newfoundland and Labrador
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Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province of Canada. Situated in the countrys Atlantic region, it comprises the island of Newfoundland and mainland Labrador to the northwest, in 2013, the provinces population was estimated at 526,702. About 92% of the population lives on the island of Newfoundland. The province is Canadas most linguistically homogeneous, with 97. 6% of residents reporting English as their mother tongue in the 2006 census, historically, Newfoundland was also home to unique varieties of French and Irish, as well as the extinct Beothuk language. In Labrador, local dialects of Innu-aimun and Inuktitut are also spoken, Newfoundland and Labradors capital and largest city, St. Johns, is Canadas 20th-largest census metropolitan area and is home to almost 40 percent of the provinces population. St. Johns is the seat of government, home to the House of Assembly of Newfoundland and Labrador and to the highest court in the jurisdiction and it became the tenth province to enter the Canadian Confederation on March 31,1949, as Newfoundland. On December 6,2001, an amendment was made to the Constitution of Canada to change the official name to Newfoundland. The name Newfoundland is a translation of the Portuguese Terra Nova, the influence of early Portuguese exploration is also reflected in the name of Labrador, which derives from the surname of the Portuguese navigator João Fernandes Lavrador. Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province in Canada, and is located at the corner of North America. The Strait of Belle Isle separates the province into two divisions, Labrador, which is a large area of mainland Canada, and Newfoundland. The province also includes over 7,000 tiny islands, each side is about 400 km long, and its area is 108,860 km2. Newfoundland and its small islands have a total area of 111,390 km2. Newfoundland extends between latitudes 46°36′N and 51°38′N, Labrador is an irregular shape, the western part of its border with Quebec is the drainage divide of the Labrador Peninsula. Lands drained by rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, most of Labradors southern boundary with Quebec follows the 52nd parallel of latitude. Labradors extreme northern tip, at 60°22′N, shares a border with Nunavut. Together, Newfoundland and Labrador make up 4. 06% of Canadas area, Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield, a vast area of ancient metamorphic rock comprising much of northeastern North America. Colliding tectonic plates have shaped much of the geology of Newfoundland, gros Morne National Park has a reputation as an outstanding example of tectonics at work, and as such has been designated a World Heritage Site. The Long Range Mountains on Newfoundlands west coast are the northeasternmost extension of the Appalachian Mountains, the north-south extent of the province, prevalent westerly winds, cold ocean currents and local factors such as mountains and coastline combine to create the various climates of the province
3.
Newfoundland (island)
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Newfoundland is a large Canadian island off the east coast of the North American mainland, and the most populous part of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It has 29 percent of the land area. The island is separated from the Labrador Peninsula by the Strait of Belle Isle and it blocks the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River, creating the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the worlds largest estuary. Newfoundlands nearest neighbour is the French overseas community of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, with an area of 108,860 square kilometres, Newfoundland is the worlds 16th-largest island, Canadas fourth-largest island, and the largest Canadian island outside the North. The provincial capital, St. Johns, is located on the southeastern coast of the island, Cape Spear, just south of the capital, is the easternmost point of North America, excluding Greenland. It is common to consider all directly neighbouring islands such as New World, Twillingate, Fogo, by that classification, Newfoundland and its associated small islands have a total area of 111,390 square kilometres. Additionally 6. 1% claimed at least one parent of French ancestry, the islands total population as of the 2006 census was 479,105. Long settled by peoples of the Dorset culture, the island was visited by the Icelandic Viking Leif Eriksson in the 11th century. The next European visitors to Newfoundland were Portuguese, Basque, Spanish, French, the island was visited by the Genoese navigator John Cabot, working under contract to King Henry VII of England on his expedition from Bristol in 1497. In 1501, Portuguese explorers Gaspar Corte-Real and his brother Miguel Corte-Real charted part of the coast of Newfoundland in a attempt to find the Northwest Passage. Newfoundland is considered Britains oldest colony, at the time of English settlement, the Beothuk inhabited the island. While there is evidence of ancient indigenous peoples on the island. LAnse aux Meadows was a Norse settlement near the northernmost tip of Newfoundland, the site is considered the only undisputed evidence of Pre-Columbian contact between the Old and New Worlds, if the Norse-Inuit contact on Greenland is not counted. There is a second suspected Norse site in Point Rosee, the island is a likely location of Vinland, mentioned in the Viking Chronicles, although this has been disputed. The indigenous people on the island at the time of European settlement were the Beothuk, later immigrants developed a variety of dialects associated with settlement on the island, Newfoundland English, Newfoundland French. In the 19th century, it also had a dialect of Irish known as Newfoundland Irish, Scottish Gaelic was spoken on the island during the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the Codroy Valley area, chiefly by settlers from Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia. The Gaelic names reflected the association with fishing, in Scottish Gaelic, it was called Eilean a Trosg, or literally, similarly, the Irish Gaelic name Talamh an Éisc means Land of the Fish. The first inhabitants of Newfoundland were the Paleo-Eskimo, who have no link to other groups in Newfoundland history
4.
Labrador
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Labrador /ˈlæbrədɔːr/ LAB-rə-dor is the distinct northerly region of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It comprises the portion of the province, separated from the island of Newfoundland by the Strait of Belle Isle. It is the largest and northernmost geographical region in Atlantic Canada, Labrador occupies the eastern part of the Labrador Peninsula. It is bordered to the west and the south by the Canadian province of Quebec, Labrador also shares a small land border with the Canadian territory of Nunavut on Killiniq Island. Though Labrador covers 71 percent of the land area, it has only 8 percent of the provinces population. The aboriginal peoples of Labrador include the Northern Inuit of Nunatsiavut, the Southern Inuit-Métis of Nunatukavut, many of the non-aboriginal population in Labrador did not permanently settle in Labrador until the natural resource developments of the 1940s and 1950s. Before the 1950s, very few people lived in Labrador year-round. The few European immigrants who worked seasonally for foreign merchants and brought their families were known as Settlers, Labrador has a roughly triangular shape that encompasses the easternmost section of the Canadian Shield, a sweeping geographical region of thin soil and abundant mineral resources. Its western border with Quebec is the divide of the Labrador Peninsula. Lands that drain into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, Northern Labradors climate is classified as polar, while Southern Labradors climate is classified as subarctic. Labrador can be divided into four regions, the North Coast, Central Labrador, Western Labrador. Each of those regions is described below, from Cape Chidley to Hamilton Inlet, the long thin northern tip of Labrador holds the Torngat Mountains, named after an Inuit spirit believed to inhabit them. The mountains stretch along the coast from Port Manvers to Cape Chidley, the Torngat Mountain range is also home to Mount Caubvick, the highest point in the province. This area is predominantly Inuit, with the small Innu community of Natuashish being the exception, the north coast is the most isolated region of Labrador, with snowmobiles, boats, and planes being the only modern modes of transportation. The largest community in this region is Nain, Nunatsiavut is an Inuit self-government region in Labrador created on June 23,2000. The Settlement area comprises the majority of Labradors North Coast, while the area also includes land farther to the interior. Nain is the center of Nunatsiavut. The most populous region of Labrador, Central Labrador extends from the shores of Lake Melville into the interior and it contains the Churchill River, the largest river in Labrador and one of the largest in Canada
5.
John Cabot
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To mark the celebration of the 500th anniversary of Cabots expedition, both the Canadian and British governments elected Cape Bonavista, Newfoundland, as Cabots first landing site. However, alternative theories have also been proposed, Giovanni Caboto was born in Italy, the son of Giulio Caboto and his wife, he had a brother Piero. He is known today as Giovanni Caboto in Italy, in English as John Cabot, in French as Jean Cabot, the non-Italian forms are derived from how his name was recorded in related 15th-century documents. In Venice he signed his names as Zuan Chabotto, Zuan being a form of John typical to Venice and he continued to use this form in England, at least among Italians. He was referred to by his Italian banker in London as Giovanni Chabbote, Gaeta and Castiglione Chiavarese have both been proposed as birthplaces. The main evidence for Gaeta are records of a Caboto family residing there until the mid-15th century, pedro de Ayala, the Spanish envoy and Cabots contemporary in London, described him in a letter to the Spanish Crown in 1498 as another Genoese like Columbus. John Cabots son, Sebastian, said his father came from Genoa. In 1476 Cabot was made a citizen of the Republic of Venice and he may have been born slightly earlier than 1450, which is the approximate date most commonly given for his birth. In 1471 Caboto was accepted into the confraternity of St John the Evangelist. Since this was one of the citys prestigious confraternities, his acceptance suggests that he was already a member of the community. He presumably entered this trade shortly thereafter, a 1483 document refers to his selling a slave in Crete whom he had acquired while in the territories of the Sultan of Egypt, which then comprised most of what is now Israel, Syria and Lebanon. This is not sufficient to prove Cabots later assertion that he had visited Mecca, in this Mediterranean trade, he may have acquired better knowledge of the origins of the oriental merchandise he would have been dealing in than most Europeans at that time. Zuan Cabotto is mentioned in a variety of Venetian records of the 1480s and these indicate that by 1484 he was married to Mattea and already had at least two sons. Cabots sons are Ludovico, Sebastian, and Sancto, the Venetian sources contain references to Cabots being involved in house building in the city. He may have relied on this experience when seeking work later in Spain as a civil engineer, Cabot appears to have got into financial trouble in the late 1480s and left Venice as an insolvent debtor by 5 November 1488. He moved to Valencia, Spain, where his creditors attempted to have him arrested by sending a lettera di raccomandazione a giustizia to the authorities, while in Valencia, John Cabot Montecalunya proposed plans for improvements to the harbour. Early in 1494 he moved on to Seville, where he proposed, was contracted to build and, for five months and this project was abandoned following a decision of the City Council on 24 December 1494. After this Cabot appears to have support in Seville and Lisbon for an Atlantic expedition, before moving to London to seek funding
6.
Cod
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Cod is the common name for the genus Gadus of demersal fishes, belonging to the family Gadidae. Cod is also used as part of the name for a number of other fish species. Gadus morhua was named by Linnaeus in 1758, Cod is popular as a food with a mild flavour and a dense, flaky, white flesh. Cod livers are processed to make cod liver oil, an important source of vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, young Atlantic cod or haddock prepared in strips for cooking is called scrod. In the United Kingdom, Atlantic cod is one of the most common ingredients in fish and chips, along with haddock, at various times in the past, taxonomists included many species in the genus Gadus. Most of these are now classified in other genera, or have been recognized as simply forms of one of three species. All these species have a number of names, most of them ending with the word cod, whereas other species. However, many other, unrelated species also have names ending with cod. The usage often changes with different localities and at different times, three species in the Gadus genus are currently called cod, Cod forms part of the common name of many other fish no longer classified in the genus Gadus. The tadpole cod family has now placed in Gadidae. Gadiformes include, Some fish have common names derived from cod, such as codling, Some fish commonly known as cod are unrelated to Gadus. Part of this confusion is market-driven. Severely shrunken Atlantic cod stocks have led to the marketing of cod replacements using culinary names of the form x cod, the common names for the following species have become well established, note that all inhabit the Southern Hemisphere. Most are better known as groupers, and belong to the family Serranidae, Some fish that do not have cod in their names are sometimes sold as cod. Haddock and whiting belong to the family, the Gadidae. Haddock Melanogrammus aeglefinus Whiting Merlangius merlangus Cods of the genus Gadus have three rounded dorsal and two anal fins, the pelvic fins are small, with the first ray extended, and are set under the gill cover, in front of the pectoral fins. The upper jaw extends over the jaw, which has a well-developed chin barbel. The eyes are medium-sized, approximately the same as the length of the chin barbel, Cod have a distinct white lateral line running from the gill slit above the pectoral fin, to the base of the caudal or tail fin
7.
Gaspar Corte-Real
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Gaspar Corte-Real was a Portuguese explorer. He was the youngest of three sons of João Vaz Corte-Real, also a Portuguese explorer, and had accompanied his father on his expeditions to North America and his brothers were also explorers, members of the Corte-Real family. In 1500, King Manuel I of Portugal sent Gaspar to discover lands and he reached Greenland, believing it to be east Asia, but chose not to land. He set out on a voyage to Greenland in 1501, with his brother Miguel Corte-Real. Encountering frozen sea, they changed course to the south and reached land, believed to be Labrador, there they captured 57 native men, who would later be sold as slaves. Gaspar then sent his brother and two back to Portugal before continuing southwards. Nothing more was heard of Gaspar Corte-Real after 1501 and his brother Miguel attempted to find him in 1502, but he too never returned. There is a statue of Gaspar Corte-Real is located in front of the Confederation Building in St. Johns, Newfoundland and it was donated by the Canadian Portuguese Fisheries Organisation in 1965 in recognition of the hospitality of Newfoundlanders towards Portuguese Grand Banks fishermen
8.
Grand Banks of Newfoundland
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The Grand Banks of Newfoundland are a group of underwater plateaus south-east of Newfoundland on the North American continental shelf. These areas are shallow, ranging from 50 to 300 feet in depth. The cold Labrador Current mixes with the waters of the Gulf Stream here. The mixing of waters and the shape of the ocean bottom lifts nutrients to the surface. These conditions helped to create one of the richest fishing grounds in the world, fish species include Atlantic cod, swordfish, haddock and capelin, shellfish include scallop and lobster. The area also supports colonies of seabirds such as northern gannets, shearwaters and sea ducks and various sea mammals such as seals, dolphins. In addition to the effects on nutrients, the mixing of the cold and it is also noted for its proximity to the sinking of the RMS Titanic and thus the launching point of Titanic shipwreck expeditions. The Grand Banks were extensively glaciated during the last glacial maximum, by approximately 13,000 years ago, the majority of the ice had melted, leaving the Grand Banks exposed as several islands extending for hundreds of kilometers. It is believed that sea levels submerged these around 8,000 years ago. Within a few years of Cabots voyage the existence of fishing grounds on the Grand Banks became generally known in Europe, ships from France and Portugal were first to fish there, followed by those from Spain while ships from England were scarce in the early years. This soon changed especially after Bernard Drakes devastating raid in 1585 which virtually wiped out the Spanish and these fish stocks thus became important for the early economies of eastern Canada and New England. Canadas EEZ currently occupies the majority of the Grand Banks except for the lucrative nose, the 1783 Treaty of Paris gave the United States shared rights to fish in these waters, but that section of the Treaty is no longer in force. Once this aspect of UNCLOS is ratified, Canada will presumably control these remaining parts of Grand Banks which are outside of its EEZ jurisdiction. Semi-fictional depictions of working on the Grand Banks can be found in Rudyard Kiplings novel Captains Courageous. The Grand Banks are also portrayed in the 1990 film The Hunt for Red October
9.
Basques
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The Basques are an indigenous ethnic group characterised by the Basque language, a common Basque culture and shared ancestry to the ancient Vascones and Aquitanians. The Basques are known as, Euskaldunak in Basque Vasco in Spanish Basque in French, the English word Basque may be pronounced /bɑːsk/ or /bæsk/ and derives from the French Basque, which is derived from Gascon Basco, cognate with Spanish Vasco. These, in turn, come from Latin Vasco, plural Vascones, several coins from the 2nd and 1st centuries BC found in the Basque Country bear the inscription barscunes. The place where they were minted is not certain, but is thought to be somewhere near Pamplona, in Basque, the people call themselves the euskaldunak, singular euskaldun, formed from euskal- and -dun, euskaldun literally means a Basque speaker. Therefore, the neologism euskotar, plural euskotarrak, was coined in the 19th century to mean a culturally Basque person, alfonso Irigoyen posits that the word euskara is derived from an ancient Basque verb enautsi to say and the suffix -ara. Thus euskara would literally mean way of saying, way of speaking, one item of evidence in favour of this hypothesis is found in the Spanish book Compendio Historial, written in 1571 by the Basque writer Esteban de Garibay. He records the name of the Basque language as enusquera and it may, however, be a writing mistake. In the 19th century, the Basque nationalist activist Sabino Arana posited an original root euzko which, he thought, on the basis of this putative root, Arana proposed the name Euzkadi for an independent Basque nation, composed of seven Basque historical territories. Aranas neologism Euzkadi is still used in both Basque and Spanish, since it is now the official name of the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country. Since the Basque language is unrelated to Indo-European, it has long thought to represent the people or culture that occupied Europe before the spread of Indo-European languages there. A comprehensive analysis of Basque genetic patterns has shown that Basque genetic uniqueness predates the arrival of agriculture in the Iberian Peninsula and it is thought that Basques are a remnant of the early inhabitants of Western Europe, specifically those of the Franco-Cantabrian region. Basque tribes were mentioned in Roman times by Strabo and Pliny, including the Vascones, the Aquitani. There is enough evidence to support the hypothesis that at that time, castile deprived Navarre of its coastline by conquering key western territories, leaving the kingdom landlocked. The Basques were ravaged by the War of the Bands, bitter partisan wars between local ruling families, weakened by the Navarrese civil war, the bulk of the realm eventually fell before the onslaught of the Spanish armies. However, the Navarrese territory north of the Pyrenees remained beyond the reach of an increasingly powerful Spain, Lower Navarre became a province of France in 1620. Nevertheless, the Basques enjoyed a deal of self-government until the French Revolution and the Carlist Wars. On either side of the Pyrenees, the Basques lost their native institutions, labourd, Lower Navarre, and Soule were integrated into the French department system, with Basque efforts to establish a region-specific political-administrative entity failing to take off to date. The corresponding Basque names of these territories are Araba, Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa, the BAC only includes three of the seven provinces of the currently called historical territories
10.
Fisherman
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A fisherman or fisher is someone who captures fish and other animals from a body of water, or gathers shellfish. Worldwide, there are about 38 million commercial and subsistence fishermen, the term can also be applied to recreational fishermen and may be used to describe both men and women. Fishing has existed as a means of obtaining food since the Mesolithic period, fishing has existed as a means of obtaining food since the Mesolithic period. During the time of the Ancient Egyptians, fishermen provided the majority of food for Egyptians, fishing had become a major means of survival as well as a business venture. Fishing and the fisherman have also influenced Ancient Egyptian religion, mullets were worshiped as a sign of the flood season. Bastet was often manifested in the form of a catfish, in ancient Egyptian literature, the method that Amun used to create the world is associated with the tilapias method of mouth-brooding. According to the FAO, there were about 39 million fishers in countries producing more than 200,000 tonnes in 2012, the total fishery production of 66 million tonnes equated to an average productivity of 3.5 tonnes per person. Most of this took place in Asian countries, where four-fifths of world fishers. Most fishermen are men involved in offshore and deep-sea fisheries, women fish in some regions inshore from small boats or collect shellfish and seaweed. In many artisanal fishing communities, women are responsible for making and repairing nets, recreational fishing is fishing for pleasure or competition. It can be contrasted with fishing, which is fishing for economic profit, or subsistence fishing. The most common form of fishing is done with a rod, reel, line, hooks. Lures are frequently used in place of bait, some people make handmade lures, including plastic lures and artificial flies. The practice of catching or attempting to catch fish with a hook is called angling, when angling, it is sometimes expected or required that the fish be caught and released. Big-game fishing is fishing from boats to catch large species such as tuna, sharks. Noodling and trout tickling are also recreational activities, for some communities, fishing provides not only a source of food and work but also community and cultural identity. The fishing industry is hazardous for fishermen, between 1992 and 1999, US commercial fishing vessels averaged 78 deaths per year. The main contributors to fatalities are, inadequate preparation for emergencies poor vessel maintenance, many fishermen, while accepting that fishing is dangerous, staunchly defend their independence
11.
Mi'kmaq
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The Mikmaq or Migmaq are a First Nations people indigenous to Canadas Maritime Provinces and the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec. They call their national territory Mikmaki, others today live in Newfoundland and the northeastern region of Maine. The nation has a population of about 40,000, of whom nearly 11,000 speak Mikmaq, once written in Mikmaq hieroglyphic writing, it is now written using most letters of the Latin alphabet. After implementation of the Indian Act, the Grand Council took on a more spiritual function, the Grand Council was made up of chiefs of the seven district councils of Mikmaki. On September 26,2011 the Government of Canada announced the recognition of Canadas newest Mikmaq First Nations Band, the new band, which is landless, has accepted 25,000 applications to become part of the band. The number of applications received by the deadline on November 30,2012 exceeded 100,000, as of January 2013. The deadline was extended to January 31,2014, and then to February 10,2014 and its members are recognized as Status Indians, joining other organized Mikmaq bands recognized in southeast Canada. Until the 1980s, Micmac remained the most common spelling in English, although still used, for example in Ethnologue, this spelling has fallen out of favour in recent years. Most scholarly publications now use the spelling Mikmaq, and it has been adopted by media as the spelling Micmac is now considered to be colonially tainted, the Mikmaq prefer to use one of the three current Mikmaq orthographies when writing the language. Lnu is the term the Mikmaq use for themselves, their autonym, various explanations exist for the origin of the term Mikmaq. The Mikmaw Resource Guide states that Mikmaq means the family, The definite article the suggests that Mikmaq is the undeclined form indicated by the letter m. When declined in the singular it reduces to the forms, nikmaq - my family, kikmaq - your family. Other hypotheses include the following, The name Micmac was first recorded in a memoir by de La Chesnaye in 1676. Professor Ganong in a footnote to the word megamingo, as used by Marc Lescarbot, the Micmacs, then, must have thought of themselves as the Red Earth People, or the People of the Red Earth. Others seeking a meaning for the word Micmac have suggested that it is from nigumaach, my brother, my friend, members of the Mikmaq historically referred to themselves as Lnu, but used the term níkmaq as a greeting. The French initially referred to the Mikmaq as Souriquois and later as Gaspesiens or Mickmakis, the British originally referred to them as Tarrantines. According to ethnologist T. J. Brasser, with a climate unfavorable for agriculture and their weakly developed leadership did not extend beyond hunting parties. The Mikmaq lived in a cycle of seasonal movement between living in dispersed interior winter camps and larger coastal communities during the summer
12.
Scurvy
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Scurvy is a disease resulting from a lack of vitamin C. Early symptoms include weakness, feeling tired, curly hair, and sore arms, without treatment, decreased red blood cells, gum disease, and bleeding from the skin may occur. As scurvy worsens there can be wound healing, personality changes. Scurvy is caused by not enough vitamin C in the diet and it typically takes at least a month of little to no vitamin C before symptoms occur. In modern times, it occurs most commonly in people with mental disorders, unusual eating habits, alcoholism, other risk factors include intestinal malabsorption and dialysis. Humans and certain other animals require vitamin C in their diets to make the blocks for collagen. Diagnosis is typically based on signs, X-rays, and improvement after treatment. Treatment is with vitamin C supplements taken by mouth, improvement often begins in a few days with complete recovery in a few weeks. Sources of vitamin C in the diet include fruit and a number of vegetables such as tomatoes and potatoes. Cooking often decreases vitamin C in foods and it occurs more often in the developing world in association with malnutrition. Rates among refugees are reported at 5% to 45%, Scurvy was described as early as the time of ancient Egypt. It was a factor in long distance sea travel, often killing large numbers of people. A Scottish surgeon in the Royal Navy, James Lind, was the first to prove it could be treated with citrus fruit in a 1753 publication and his experiments represented the first controlled trial. It took another 40 years before the British Navy began giving out lemon juice routinely, early symptoms are malaise and lethargy. Even earlier might be a pain in a section of the gums which interferes with digestion, after 1–3 months, patients develop shortness of breath and bone pain. Myalgias may occur because of reduced carnitine production, other symptoms include skin changes with roughness, easy bruising and petechiae, gum disease, loosening of teeth, poor wound healing, and emotional changes. Dry mouth and dry eyes similar to Sjögrens syndrome may occur, in the late stages, jaundice, generalized edema, oliguria, neuropathy, fever, convulsions, and eventual death are frequently seen. Scurvy or subclinical scurvy is caused by the lack of vitamin C, in modern Western societies, scurvy is rarely present in adults, although infants and elderly people are affected
13.
Jacques Cartier
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Jacques Cartier was a French explorer of Breton origin who claimed what is now Canada for France. Jacques Cartier was born in 1491 in Saint-Malo, the port on the north-west coast of Brittany, Cartier, who was a respectable mariner, improved his social status in 1520 by marrying Mary Catherine des Granches, member of a leading family. His good name in Saint-Malo is recognized by its frequent appearance in baptismal registers as godfather or witness, the king had previously invited the Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano to explore the eastern coast of North America on behalf of France in 1524. Le Veneur cited voyages to Newfoundland and Brazil as proof of Cartiers ability to lead ships to the discovery of new lands in the New World. On April 20,1534, Cartier set sail under a commission from the king, hoping to discover a western passage to the markets of Asia. In the words of the commission, he was to certain islands and lands where it is said that a great quantity of gold. It took him twenty days to sail across the ocean, starting on May 10 of that year, he explored parts of Newfoundland, areas that now comprise the Canadian Atlantic provinces and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. During one stop at Îles aux Oiseaux, his crew slaughtered around 1000 birds, Cartiers first two encounters with aboriginal peoples in Canada on the north side of Chaleur Bay, most likely the Mikmaq, were brief, some trading occurred. His third encounter took place on the shores of Gaspé Bay with a party of St. Lawrence Iroquoians, the 10-meter cross bearing the words Long Live the King of France took possession of the territory in the name of the king. The change in mood was an indication that the Iroquoians understood Cartiers actions. Here he kidnapped the two sons of their captain, Cartier wrote that they later told him this region where they were captured was called by them Honguedo. The natives captain at last agreed that they could be taken, Cartier returned to France in September 1534, sure that he had reached an Asian land. Jacques Cartier set sail for a voyage on May 19 of the following year with three ships,110 men, and his two Iroquoian captives. Reaching the St. Lawrence, he sailed up-river for the first time, and reached the Iroquoian capital of Stadacona, Cartier left his main ships in a harbour close to Stadacona, and used his smallest ship to continue on to Hochelaga, arriving on October 2,1535. Hochelaga was far more impressive than the small and squalid village of Stadacona, the site of their arrival has been confidently identified as the beginning of the Sainte-Marie Sault – where the bridge named after him now stands. The expedition could proceed no further, as the river was blocked by rapids, after spending two days among the people of Hochelaga, Cartier returned to Stadacona on October 11. It is not known exactly when he decided to spend the winter of 1535–1536 in Stadacona, Cartier and his men prepared for the winter by strengthening their fort, stacking firewood, and salting down game and fish. From mid-November 1535 to mid-April 1536, the French fleet lay frozen solid at the mouth of the St. Charles River, under the Rock of Quebec, ice was over a fathom thick on the river, with snow four feet deep ashore
14.
Innu
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Their population in 2003 included about 18,000 people, of which around 14,000 lived in Quebec, under 3000 in Labrador, and the rest outside their traditional territory. Their ancestors were known to have lived on these lands as hunter-gatherers for several thousand years and their subsistence activities were historically centred on hunting and trapping caribou, moose, deer and small game. Some coastal clans also practised agriculture, fished, and managed maple sugarbush and their language, Innu or Ilnu, is spoken throughout Nitassinan, with certain dialect differences. It is part of Cree language group, and unrelated with neighboring Inuit languages, the Innu were allied with neighbouring Atikamekw, Maliseet and Algonquin against their traditional enemies, the Mikmaq and Iroquois. During the Beaver Wars the Iroquois repeatedly invaded their territories, and enslaved women and warriors, since these raids were made by the Iroquois with unprecedented brutality, the Innu themselves adopted the torment, torture, and cruelty of their enemies. The Naskapi, on the hand, were usually in conflicts with the southward advancing Inuit in the east. The Innu recognize several distinctions based on different regional affiliations and various dialects of the Innu language, the word Naskapi was first recorded by French colonists in the 17th century and was subsequently applied to Innu groups beyond the reach of missionary influence. It particularly applied to living in the lands which bordered Ungava Bay. It is here that the term came to be used for the Naskapi First Nation, the Naskapi are traditionally nomadic peoples, in contrast with the more sedentary Montagnais, who establish settled territories. Mushuau Innuat, while related to the Naskapi, split off from the tribe in the 1900s and they were subject to a government relocation program at Davis Inlet. Some of the families of the Naskapi Nation of Kawawachikamach have close relatives in the Cree village of Whapmagoostui, on the eastern shore of Hudson Bay. Since 1990, the Montagnais people have chosen to be officially referred to as the Innu. On July 29,1609, at Ticonderoga or Crown Point, New York, Champlain, a battle began the next day. Two hundred Iroquois advanced on Champlains position as a native guide pointed out the three Iroquois chiefs to the French, Champlain fired his arquebus and killed two of them with one shot. One of his men killed the third and this was to set the tone for French-Iroquois relations for the next 100 years. As the forest and mining began at the turn of the 20th century. In 1999 Survival International published a study of the Innu communities of Labrador and it assessed the impact of the Canadian governments relocating the people far from their ancestral lands and preventing their practising their ancient way of life. Survival International considered these policies to be in violation of international law, by 2000, the Innu island community of Davis Inlet asked the Canadian government to assist with a local addiction crisis
15.
Parliament of England
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The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England. Over the centuries, the English Parliament progressively limited the power of the English monarchy which arguably culminated in the English Civil War, the Act of Union 1707 merged the English Parliament with the Parliament of Scotland to form the Parliament of Great Britain. When the Parliament of Ireland was abolished in 1801, its members were merged into what was now called the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Under a monarchical system of government, monarchs usually must consult, early kings of England had no standing army or police, and so depended on the support of powerful subjects. The monarchy had agents in every part of the country, however, under the feudal system that evolved in England following the Norman Conquest of 1066, the laws of the Crown could not have been upheld without the support of the nobility and the clergy. The former had economic and military bases of their own through major ownership of land. The Church was virtually a law unto itself in this period as it had its own system of law courts. In order to seek consultation and consent from the nobility and the clergy on major decisions. A typical Great Council would consist of archbishops, bishops, abbots, barons and earls, when this system of consultation and consent broke down, it often became impossible for government to function effectively. The most prominent instances of prior to the reign of Henry III are the disagreements between Thomas Becket and Henry II and between King John and the barons. Becket, who served as Archbishop of Canterbury between 1162 and 1170, was murdered following a long running dispute with Henry II over the jurisdiction of the Church. John, who was king from 1199 to 1216, aroused such hostility from many leading noblemen that they forced him to agree to Magna Carta in 1215, johns refusal to adhere to this charter led to civil war. The Great Council evolved into the Parliament of England, the term itself came into use during the early 13th century, deriving from the Latin and French words for discussion and speaking. The word first appears in documents in the 1230s. As a result of the work by historians G. O. Sayles and H. G. Richardson, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the kings began to call Knights of the Shire to meet when the monarch saw it as necessary. A notable example of this was in 1254 when sheriffs of counties were instructed to send Knights of the Shire to parliament to advise the king on finance, initially, parliaments were mostly summoned when the king needed to raise money through taxes. Following the Magna Carta this became a convention and this was due in no small part to the fact that King John died in 1216 and was succeeded by his young son Henry III. Leading peers and clergy governed on Henrys behalf until he came of age, among other things, they made sure that Magna Carta would be reaffirmed by the young king
16.
Fishing
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Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild, techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping. Fishing may include catching aquatic animals other than fish, such as molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans, the term is not normally applied to catching farmed fish, or to aquatic mammals, such as whales where the term whaling is more appropriate. According to United Nations FAO statistics, the number of commercial fishermen. Fisheries and aquaculture provide direct and indirect employment to over 500 million people in developing countries, in 2005, the worldwide per capita consumption of fish captured from wild fisheries was 14.4 kilograms, with an additional 7.4 kilograms harvested from fish farms. In addition to providing food, modern fishing is also a recreational pastime, Fishing is an ancient practice that dates back to at least the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period about 40,000 years ago. Isotopic analysis of the remains of Tianyuan man, a 40. Archaeology features such as middens, discarded fish bones, and cave paintings show that sea foods were important for survival. During this period, most people lived a lifestyle and were, of necessity. However, where there are examples of permanent settlements such as those at Lepenski Vir. The British dogger was a type of sailing trawler from the 17th century. The Brixham trawler that evolved there was of a build and had a tall gaff rig. They were also sufficiently robust to be able to tow large trawls in deep water, the great trawling fleet that built up at Brixham, earned the village the title of Mother of Deep-Sea Fisheries. The small village of Grimsby grew to become the largest fishing port in the world by the mid 19th century, an Act of Parliament was first obtained in 1796, which authorised the construction of new quays and dredging of the Haven to make it deeper. It was only in the 1846, with the expansion in the fishing industry. The foundation stone for the Royal Dock was laid by Albert the Prince consort in 1849, the dock covered 25 acres and was formally opened by Queen Victoria in 1854 as the first modern fishing port. The elegant Brixham trawler spread across the world, influencing fishing fleets everywhere, by the end of the 19th century, there were over 3,000 fishing trawlers in commission in Britain, with almost 1,000 at Grimsby. These trawlers were sold to fishermen around Europe, including from the Netherlands, twelve trawlers went on to form the nucleus of the German fishing fleet
17.
New England
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New England is a geographical region comprising six states of the northeast United States, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and south, the Atlantic Ocean is to the east and southeast, and Long Island Sound is to the south. Its largest metropolitan area is Greater Boston, which also includes Worcester, Manchester, ten years later, more Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston, thus forming Massachusetts Bay Colony. Over the next 126 years, people in the region fought in four French and Indian Wars, until the British and their Iroquois allies defeated the French and their Algonquin allies in North America. In 1692, the town of Salem, Massachusetts and surrounding areas experienced one of the most infamous cases of hysteria in the history of the Western Hemisphere. The Boston Tea Party was a protest to which Britain responded with a series of punitive laws stripping Massachusetts of self-government, the confrontation led to the first battles of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, and the expulsion of the British authorities from the region in spring 1776. Each state is subdivided into small incorporated municipalities known as towns. The only unincorporated areas in the region exist in the populated northern regions of Vermont, New Hampshire. The region is one of the U. S. Census Bureaus nine regional divisions, the earliest known inhabitants of New England were American Indians who spoke a variety of the Eastern Algonquian languages. Prominent tribes included the Abenaki, Mikmaq, Penobscot, Pequot, Mohegans, Narragansett Indians, Pocumtuck, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Western Abenakis inhabited New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont, as well as parts of Quebec and western Maine. Their principal town was Norridgewock in present-day Maine, the Penobscot lived along the Penobscot River in Maine. The Narragansett and smaller tribes under Narragansett sovereignty lived in most of modern-day Rhode Island, west of Narragansett Bay, the Wampanoag occupied southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and the islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket. The Pocumtucks lived in Western Massachusetts, and the Mohegan and Pequot tribes in the Connecticut region, the Connecticut River Valley includes parts of Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and linked different indigenous communities culturally, linguistically, and politically. As early as 1600, French, Dutch, and English traders began exploring the New World, trading metal, glass, on April 10,1606, King James I of England issued a charter for each of the Virginia Companies, London and Plymouth. These were privately funded ventures, intended to land for England, conduct trade. In 1620, Plymouth in present-day Massachusetts was settled by Pilgrims from the Mayflower, in 1616, English explorer John Smith named the region New England. As the first colonists arrived in Plymouth, they wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, the Massachusetts Bay Colony came to dominate the area and was established by royal charter in 1629 with its major town and port of Boston established in 1630. Massachusetts Puritans began to settle in Connecticut as early as 1633, roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts for heresy, led a group south, and founded Providence Plantation in the area that became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in 1636
18.
Gulf of Maine
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The Gulf of Maine is a large gulf of the Atlantic Ocean on the east coast of North America. It is delineated by Cape Cod at the tip of Massachusetts in the southwest. Both Massachusetts Bay and the Bay of Fundy are included within the Gulf of Maine system, as such, the Gulf of Maine is also home to the highest tidal variations on the planet. The coastline of the Gulf of Maine is predominantly rocky and scenic, the effects of glaciation are responsible for stripping sedimentary soil away from the coastline, therefore the gulf lacks the sandy beaches found to the south along the Eastern Seaboard. The underwater features of the seabed sculptured during the sea levels of the ice ages make the gulf a semi-enclosed sea bounded to the south. Georges Bank in particular, on its end, protects the Gulf of Maine waters from the Gulf Stream. Gulf of Maine waters are more influenced by the Labrador Current, making the gulf waters significantly colder. The Northeast Channel is the channel between the Gulf and the rest of the Northwest Atlantic. A secondary, shallower connection to the rest of the Atlantic is the Great South Channel, due to rapid warming of the Gulf of Maine, the water has become too hot for cod. This has pushed stocks towards collapse despite deep reductions in the number of fish caught, according to a study conducted by the Gulf of Maine Research Institute. The watershed of the gulf encompasses an area of 69,115 sq mi, including all of Maine, 70% of New Hampshire, 56% of New Brunswick, 41% of Massachusetts, the watershed also includes a small southern portion of the Canadian province of Quebec. The gulfs relative proximity to Europe made it a destination for European colonization. French settlers founded a settlement on St. Croix Island in 1604, in the 1960s and 1970s there was a dispute between Canada and the United States over fishing and other resource rights in the Gulf of Maine, specifically the Georges Bank region. This dispute was taken to the International Court of Justice, which delineated a maritime boundary through the Gulf in 1984, Canada and the U. S. continue to disagree on the sovereignty of Machias Seal Island and the waters surrounding it in the northeastern part of the gulf
19.
Infrastructure
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Infrastructure refers to the fundamental facilities and systems serving a country, city, or area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function. The word was imported from French, where it means subgrade, the word is a combination of the Latin prefix infra, meaning below, and structure. The military use of the term achieved currency in the United States after the formation of NATO in the 1940s and this crisis discussion contributed to an increase in infrastructure asset management and maintenance planning in the US. Public-policy discussions have been hampered by lack of a definition for infrastructure. A1987 US National Research Council panel adopted the public works infrastructure. The OECD also classifies communications as a part of infrastructure, the American Society of Civil Engineers has not defined the term, though issuing a US Infrastructure Report Card every 2-4 years. Hard infrastructure refers to the physical networks necessary for the functioning of an industrial nation. The term critical infrastructure distinguishes those infrastructure elements that, if damaged or destroyed. Similarly, a booking system might be critical infrastructure for an airline. These elements of infrastructure are the focus of efforts in the aftermath of natural disasters. The term infrastructure may be confused with the following overlapping or related concepts, service connections to municipal service and public utility networks would also be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. The term public works includes government-owned and operated infrastructure as well as buildings, such as schools. Public works generally refers to physical assets needed to deliver public services, public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by government. Infrastructure may be owned and managed by governments or by private companies, generally, most roads, major ports and airports, water distribution systems and sewage networks are publicly owned, whereas most energy and telecommunications networks are privately owned. Publicly owned infrastructure may be paid for taxes, tolls, or metered user fees. Major investment projects are financed by the issuance of long-term bonds. Government owned and operated infrastructure may be developed and operated in the sector or in public-private partnerships. As of 2008 in the United States for example, public spending on infrastructure has varied between 2. 3% and 3. 6% of GDP since 1950, many financial institutions invest in infrastructure
20.
The Maritimes
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The Maritimes, also called the Maritime provinces or the Canadian Maritimes, is a region of Eastern Canada consisting of three provinces, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. The Maritimes had a population of 1,813,606 in 2016, the Maritimes, along with a fourth province – Canadas easternmost province, Newfoundland and Labrador – make up Atlantic Canada. Located along the Atlantic coast, various aquatic sub-basins are located in the Maritimes, such as the Gulf of Maine, the region is located northeast of New England, southeast of Quebecs Gaspé Peninsula, and southwest of the island of Newfoundland. All three provinces are entirely south of the southernmost extremity of Western Canada, and are the provinces of Canada without large. The Mikmaq, Maliseet and Passamaquoddy people are indigenous to the Maritimes, while Acadian, the word maritime is an adjective that simply means of the sea, thus any land associated with the sea can be considered a maritime state or province. Nonetheless, the term Maritimes has historically been applied to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. The Middle Period, starting 6,000 years ago, and this is also when what is called the Laurentian tradition started among Archaic Indians, existing First Nations peoples of the time. Evidence of Archaic Indian burial mounds and other ceremonial sites existing in the Saint John River valley has been uncovered, the primarily agrarian Maliseet Nation settled throughout the Saint John River and Allagash River valleys of present-day New Brunswick and Maine. The Passamaquoddy Nation inhabited the coastal regions of the present-day Bay of Fundy. The Maritimes were the area in Canada to be settled by Europeans. Both Giovanni Caboto and Giovanni da Verrazzano are reported to have sailed in or near Maritime waters during their voyages of discovery for England, several Portuguese explorers/cartographers have also documented various parts of the Maritimes, namely Diogo Homem. However, it was French explorer Jacques Cartier who made the first detailed reconnaissance of the region for a European power, and in so doing, claimed the region for the King of France. Champlain went on to fame as the founder of New Frances province of Canada which comprises much of the present-day lower St. Lawrence River valley in the province of Quebec. Most Acadian fishing activities were overshadowed by the comparatively enormous seasonal European fishing fleets based out of Newfoundland which took advantage of proximity to the Grand Banks. In 1613, Virginian raiders captured Port-Royal, and in 1621 Acadia was ceded to Scotlands Sir William Alexander who renamed it Nova Scotia. By 1632, Acadia was returned from Scotland to France under the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, colonial administration by France throughout the history of Acadia was contemptuous at best. Frances priorities were in settling and strengthening its claim on New France and the exploration and settlement of interior North America, over 74 years there were six colonial wars, which involved continuous warfare between New England and Acadia. Throughout these wars, New England was allied with the Iroquois Confederacy, in the first war, King Williams War, natives from the Maritime region participated in numerous attacks with the French on the Acadia/ New England border in southern Maine
21.
St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador
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St. Johns is the capital and largest city in Newfoundland and Labrador. It is on the tip of the Avalon Peninsula on the island of Newfoundland. St. Johns covers 446.04 square kilometres and is North Americas most easterly city, excluding those of Greenland. Its name has been attributed to the Nativity of John the Baptist, existing on maps as early as 1519, it is considered by some to be the oldest English-founded city in North America. It was officially incorporated as a city in 1888, the city has a rich history, having played a role in the Seven Years War, the French and Indian War, the American Revolutionary War, and the War of 1812. Italian inventor, Guglielmo Marconi received the first transatlantic wireless signal in St. Johns and its history and culture have made it one of the worlds top ocean-side tourist destinations. St. Johns is one of North Americas oldest settlements, with setting up seasonal camps in the early 16th century. Sebastian Cabot declares in a handwritten Latin text in his original 1545 map, that St. However, the earliest record of the location appears as São João on a Portuguese map by Pedro Reinel in 1519. When John Rut visited St. Johns in 1527 he found Norman, Breton, on 3 August 1527, Rut wrote a letter to King Henry on the findings of his voyage to North America, this was the first known letter sent from North America. St. Jehan is shown on Nicholas Desliens world map of 1541 and it was during this time that Water Street was first developed, making it the oldest street in North America. On 5 August 1583, an English Sea Dog, Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed the area as Englands first overseas colony under Royal Charter of Queen Elizabeth I. There was no permanent population, however, and Gilbert was lost at sea during his return voyage, the Newfoundland National War Memorial is on the waterfront in St. Johns, at the purported site of Gilberts landing and proclamation. By 1620, the fishermen of Englands West Country controlled most of Newfoundlands east coast, in 1627, William Payne, called St. Johns the principal prime and chief lot in all the whole country. Sometime after 1630, the town of St. Johns was established as a permanent community, before this they were expressly forbidden by the British government, at the urging of the West Country fishing industry, from establishing permanent settlements along the English controlled coast. The population grew slowly in the 17th century, St. Johns was Newfoundlands largest settlement when English naval officers began to take censuses around 1675, the population grew in the summers with the arrival of migratory fishermen. In 1680, fishing ships set up fishing rooms at St. Johns, the towns first significant defenses were likely erected due to commercial interests, following the temporary seizure of St. Johns by the Dutch admiral Michiel de Ruyter in June 1665. The inhabitants fended off a second Dutch attack in 1673, when it was defended by Christopher Martin, Martin landed six cannons from his vessel, the Elias Andrews, and constructed an earthen breastwork and battery near Chain Rock commanding the Narrows leading into the harbour. With only 23 men, the valiant Martin beat off an attack by three Dutch warships, when 1500 English reinforcements arrived in late 1697, they found rubble where the town and fortifications had stood
22.
Newfoundland Railway
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The Newfoundland Railway was a railway which operated on the island of Newfoundland from 1898 to 1988. With a total length of 906 miles, it was the longest 3 ft 6 in narrow gauge railway system in North America. In 1880, a committee of the Newfoundland Legislature recommended that a gauge railway be built from the colonial capital in St. Johns to Halls Bay,547 km to the west. Construction was started on the Avalon Peninsula in August 1881 by the Blackman Syndicate, by 1884, the Newfoundland Railway Company had built 92 km west to Whitbourne before going into receivership. The bondholders of the bankrupt Newfoundland Railway Company continued to build a 43 km branch line from Whitbourne to Harbour Grace, the colonial government undertook to build a branch from the junction at Whitbourne to the port of Placentia between 1886 and 1888. The route itself was diverted inland up the Exploits valley and over the Gaff Topsails and this extension to the system was initially operated as the Newfoundland Northern and Western Railway and for it, Reid was granted land totaling 13 km²/km. The new line west to Port aux Basques was completed between 1894 and 1898, at the same time, Reid proposed a ferry service across the Cabot Strait from Port aux Basques to North Sydney, Nova Scotia, and contracted for a steamship to be built in England. The Bruce arrived in the fall of 1897, before the line was completed to Port aux Basques, on 29 June 1898 the first passenger train arrived at Port aux Basques and the Bruce set sail with passengers for North Sydney. The Reid company agreed to operate the lines for 50 years, in exchange for outright ownership and they also purchased the government drydock in St. Johns and the telegraph system. The Reid company purchased eight new steamships to operate as coastal ferries around the island, controversy followed the awarding of so many assets to Reid, and in 1901 the contracts were modified to place everything under a limited liability corporation, named the Reid Newfoundland Company. Reids railway development in the colony began to attract attention to the potential of the natural resources. In 1903, the Reids partnered with a St. Johns businessman, Harry J. Crowe, to purchase timber rights in Botwood, Norris Arm, Gambo, Gander Bay, Botwood was expanded through the construction of deepwater wharves and warehouses for shipping the finished pulp. To link the two, AND built the narrow gauge Botwood Railway beginning in 1908 and completing it in 1909 and it would later be renamed the Grand Falls Central Railway. Reid died in 1908 but his company set the pace for development in Newfoundlands interior mining and forestry industries, in 1909 and into the 1910s, the colonial government contracted for additional branch lines to be built. Some of the lands that had belonged to the Reid Newfoundland Company were used by the government as part of a deal to develop a pulp, the railway was initially called the Newfoundland Government Railway but was soon shortened to the Newfoundland Railway in 1926. It would remain the property of the government until Confederation on April 1,1949 when it was transferred to the federal governments Canadian National Railway. 137 passengers lost their lives and only 104 people survived the sinking, Newfoundland became the 10th province of Canada on March 31,1949, and the Newfoundland Railways assets were transferred to the control of the federal Crown corporation Canadian National Railway. CN became a presence in Newfoundlands early years as a province, controlling the railway, dry dock services, many ferries and coastal boats
23.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
24.
Canadian Confederation
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Canadian Confederation was the process by which the British colonies of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were united into one Dominion of Canada on July 1,1867. Upon confederation, the old province of Canada was divided into Ontario and Quebec, along with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, over the years since Confederation, Canada has seen numerous territorial changes and expansions, resulting in the current configuration of ten provinces and three territories. Canada is a federation and not an association of sovereign states. It is nevertheless considered to be among the worlds more decentralized federations. To contemporaries of Confederation the con- prefix indicated a strengthening of the centrist principle compared to the American federation, the term is now often used to describe Canada in an abstract way, such as in the Fathers of Confederation. Provinces and territories became part of Canada after 1867 are also said to have joined, or entered into. The term is used to divide Canadian history into pre-Confederation and post-Confederation periods. All the former colonies and territories that became involved in the Canadian Confederation on July 1,1867, were part of New France. Nova Scotia was granted in 1621 to Sir William Alexander under charter by James VI, the British acquired present-day mainland Nova Scotia by the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 and the Acadian population was expelled by the British in 1755. They called Acadia Nova Scotia, which included present-day New Brunswick, the rest of New France was acquired by the British by the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Seven Years War. From 1763 to 1791, most of New France became the Province of Quebec, however, in 1769 the present-day Prince Edward Island, which had been part of Acadia, was renamed St Johns Island and organized as a separate colony. It was renamed Prince Edward Island in 1798 in honour of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, the first English attempt at settlement had been in Newfoundland, which would not join the Confederation until 1949. The Society of Merchant Venturers of Bristol began to settle Newfoundland and Labrador at Cupers Cove as far back as 1610, in the wake of the American Revolution, an estimated 50,000 United Empire Loyalists fled to British North America. The British created the colony of New Brunswick in 1784 for the Loyalists who settled in the western part of Nova Scotia. The War of 1812 and Treaty of 1818 established the 49th parallel as the border with the United States from the Great Lakes to the Rocky Mountains in Western Canada. As a result of Durhams report, the British Parliament passed the Act of Union 1840, the new province was divided into two parts, Canada West and Canada East. Governor General Lord Elgin granted ministerial responsibility in 1848, first to Nova Scotia, in the following years, the British would extend responsible government to Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland. The area which constitutes modern-day British Columbia is the remnants of the Hudsons Bay Companys Columbia District and New Caledonia District following the Oregon Treaty
25.
Joey Smallwood
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Joseph Roberts Joey Smallwood, PC, CC was a politician from Newfoundland, Canada. He was the force that brought the Dominion of Newfoundland into the Canadian confederation in 1949, becoming the first Premier of Newfoundland. As premier, he vigorously promoted economic development, championed the welfare state, Smallwood abandoned his youthful socialism and collaborated with bankers, turning against the militant unions that sponsored numerous strikes. The results of his efforts to promote industrialization were mixed, with the most favourable results in hydroelectricity, iron mining, never shy, he dubbed himself the last Father of Confederation. Joey Smallwood was born at Mint Brook, near Gambo, Newfoundland, to Charles and his grandfather, David Smallwood, was a well-known maker of boots in St. Johns. Growing up in St. Johns, as a teenager Joey Smallwood worked as an apprentice at a newspaper, in New York he worked for the socialist newspaper The Call. Joey Smallwood returned to Newfoundland in 1925, where he soon met, in 1925 he founded a newspaper of his own in Corner Brook. In 1928, he acted as manager for the Prime Minister of the Dominion of Newfoundland. He also ran as a Liberal candidate in Bonavista in 1932, during the Great Depression, he worked for various newspapers and edited a two-volume collection titled The Book of Newfoundland. He also hosted a program, The Barrelman, beginning in 1937 that promoted pride in Newfoundlands history. He left the Broadcasting Corporation of Newfoundland in 1943 to operate a pig farm at the Newfoundland Airport at Gander, as soon as prosperity returned in 1942, agitation began to end the Commission. Newfoundland, with a population of 313,000, seemed too small to be independent, Smallwood at this point was a well-known radio personality, writer and organizer, he was a nationalist who long had criticized British rule. In 1945, London announced that a National Convention would be elected in Newfoundland to advise on what choices should to be voted on by referendum. Union with the United States was a possibility, but London rejected the option, Canada issued an invitation to join it on generous financial terms. Smallwood supported joining Canada, arguing that union with Canada would bring prosperity and his skills as a radio broadcaster served him well, he was able to use the proceedings of the Convention, which were broadcast over the radio, to publicise the benefits of union with Canada. He founded and led the Confederate Association that supported the Confederation option in the Convention during the 1948 Newfoundland referendums, displaying a mastery of propaganda technique, courage and ruthlessness, he succeeded in having the Canada option on the ballot. His main opponents were Peter Cashin and Chesley Crosbie, Cashin, a former finance minister, led the Responsible Government League, warning against cheap Canadian imports and the high Canadian income tax. Smallwood carried his cause in a referendum and a runoff in June and July 1948 as the decision to join Canada carried 77,869, as against 71,464
26.
Collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery
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Fishing societies interplay with the resources which they depend on, fisheries transform the ecosystem, which pushes the fishery and society to adapt. According to any analysis, the collapse was first due to massive overfishing. Academics have highlighted these following four contributing factors in the collapse of the cod fishery. For centuries local fishermen used technology that limited the volume of their catch, the area they fished, and let them target specific species and ages of fish. From the 1950s onwards, as was common in all industries at the time, new technology was introduced that allowed fishermen to trawl a larger area, fish to a deeper depth and for a longer time. With the northern cod, significant amounts of capelin – an important prey species for the cod – were caught as bycatch, another factor important to consider in understanding the fisherys collapse is uncertainty in assessing the cod as a resource. The management of fisheries is associated with a high degree of uncertainty due to problems inherent in the nature of the resource. Unfortunately, this led to predictions about the cod stock that were mired in uncertainty, in addition to ecological considerations, decisions regarding the future of the fisheries were also influenced by social and economic factors. Throughout Atlantic Canada, but especially in Newfoundland, the cod fishery was a source of social and cultural identity, Newfoundlands fishery fell under the management of the Department of Fisheries and Oceans in 1949, when Newfoundland joined Canada as a province. Unfortunately, the department mismanaged the resource and allowed overfishing, Canada also has no policy plan, nor naval capacity to guard its own territorial rights and resources. The number of fishing trawlers in the 1960s increased, and inshore fishers complained to the government, in 1976, the government declared the right to manage the fisheries in an exclusive economic zone that extended to 200 mi offshore. The government wanted to reverse declining fish stocks by removing foreign fishing within the new inshore fishery boundaries, with the absence of foreign fishing many Canadian and U. S fishing trawlers took their place and the number of cod kept diminishing past a point of recovery. Many local fishermen noticed the decrease of cod and tried to inform local government officials. In 1986, scientists did a review of calculations and data after which they determined, however, even with these new statistics brought to light no changes were made in regards to the allotted yearly catch of cod. This was not due to a rise in cod stocks, it was because foreign trawlers could no longer fish the waters, therefore, when Fisheries and Oceans set quotas, they overestimated the total stock, and increased the total allowable catch. In 1992, John Crosbie, the minister of Fisheries and Oceans at the time, set the quota for cod at 187969 tonnes and that same year, the government announced a moratorium on cod fishing. When the government finally acted, it was too late, the 1992 moratorium was at first meant to last two years, hoping that the northern cod population would recover, and along with it the fishery. The damage done to Newfoundlands coastal ecosystem proved irreversible, even after twenty years, the northern cod population has not rebounded and the cod fishery remains closed
27.
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
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The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, branded as CBC/Radio-Canada, is a Canadian crown corporation that serves as the national public radio and television broadcaster. Although some local stations in Canada predate CBCs founding, CBC is the oldest existing broadcasting network in Canada, Radio services include CBC Radio One, CBC Radio 2, Ici Radio-Canada Première, Ici Musique and the international radio service Radio Canada International. Television operations include CBC Television, Ici Radio-Canada Télé, CBC News Network, Ici RDI, Ici Explora, Documentary Channel, the CBC operates services for the Canadian Arctic under the names CBC North and Radio-Canada Nord. The radio service employed commercials from its inception to 1974, since then, its primary radio networks, like the BBC, have been commercial-free. However, in the fall of 2013, CBCs secondary radio networks Radio 2, in 1929, the Aird Commission on public broadcasting recommended the creation of a national radio broadcast network. A major concern was the influence of American radio broadcasting as U. S. -based networks began to expand into Canada. Meanwhile, Canadian National Railways was making a network to keep its passengers entertained and give it an advantage over its rival. This, the CNR Radio, is the forerunner of the CBC, Graham Spry and Alan Plaunt lobbied intensely for the project on behalf of the Canadian Radio League. In 1932 the government of R. B. Bennett established the CBCs predecessor, the CRBC took over a network of radio stations formerly set up by a federal Crown corporation, the Canadian National Railway. The network was used to broadcast programming to riders aboard its passenger trains, with coverage primarily in central, on November 2,1936, the CRBC was reorganised under its present name. While the CRBC was a company, the CBC was a Crown corporation on the model of the BBC. Leonard Brockington was the CBCs first chairman, for the next few decades, the CBC was responsible for all broadcasting innovation in Canada. This was in part because, until 1958, it was not only a broadcaster and it used this dual role to snap up most of the clear-channel licences in Canada. It began a separate French-language radio network in 1937 and it introduced FM radio to Canada in 1946, though a distinct FM service wasnt launched until 1960. Television broadcasts from the CBC began on September 6,1952, with the opening of a station in Montreal, Quebec, the CBCs first privately owned affiliate television station, CKSO in Sudbury, Ontario, launched in October 1953. From 1944 to 1962, the CBC split its English-language radio network into two known as the Trans-Canada Network and the Dominion Network. The latter, carrying lighter programs including American radio shows, was dissolved in 1962, on July 1,1958, CBCs television signal was extended from coast to coast. The first Canadian television show shot in colour was the CBCs own The Forest Rangers in 1963, colour television broadcasts began on July 1,1966, and full-colour service began in 1974
28.
Radio documentary
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Radio documentary is a spoken word radio format devoted to non-fiction narrative. It is broadcast on radio as well as distributed through media such as tape, CD, a radio documentary covers a topic in depth through one or more perspectives, often featuring interviews, commentary, and sound pictures. A feature can include music compositions and creative sound design or can resemble traditional journalistic radio reporting. Current notable examples of this format include work by The Kitchen Sisters, the early stages of non-fiction audio storytelling did not entirely resemble what would later be called radio documentary. In the 1930s, with stations like WYNC entering the airspace, reporters documented real people. Other notable documentary broadcasts include the unrefined one-shot audio recordings of events, by 1939, CBS responded to growing anxieties about immigration in the U. S. with a six-month series, titled Americans All…Immigrants All, that highlighted the stories of immigrant communities. The lack of documentary style reporting in this era can be attributed, in part, to technological limitations, an important moment in the establishment of radio documentary as a widely used and discussed format is the expansion of portable audio recording devices. This style of sharing true-life sound bytes would remain in radio documentary. In 1946, one of the most pivotal developments in the spread and it was the first sector of a major media network dedicated to this format of radio. The unit was devoted exclusively to the production of programs dealing with domestic and international issues and involving extraordinary research. Not only did the content deviate from programming that favors advertisers, the style of reporting for the CBS features was adopted and melded by ABC and NBC networks. Examples of these first documentary projects include CBS1946 war feature, The Empty Noose, a Conspiracy of Silence, addressing the lack of public attention to venereal disease. With the founding of National Public Radio in 1971, radio documentary began shifting again due to educational media. Important shifts in technology have allowed radio documentary to travel beyond the analog, in the advent of podcasting and internet radio, the FCC provides no guidelines for these media. Programs are allowed to skirt FCC regulation, marking yet another shift in content, at its best, radio combines the power and immediacy of great documentary films with the intimacy and poetry of a New Yorker-style magazine piece. Staring red-eyed at the mirror in front of me, having spent another day and half of the night with my computer, I ask myself fundamental questions, answer, No other medium can provide me with more freedom of creation and investigation. It meets my urgent interest in reality and the desire for a musical expression, and, Im not so much interested in the description of stable situations, but in processes. Our medium is not space, but time, our stories are not glued to the ground, so what is a radio feature
29.
Glenn Gould
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Glenn Herbert Gould was a Canadian pianist who became one of the best-known and most celebrated classical pianists of the 20th century. He was particularly renowned as an interpreter of the music of Johann Sebastian Bach. His playing was distinguished by remarkable technical proficiency and capacity to articulate the polyphonic texture of Bachs music, after his adolescence, Gould rejected most of the standard Romantic piano literature including Liszt, Schumann, and Chopin. Gould was well known for eccentricities, from his unorthodox musical interpretations and mannerisms at the keyboard to aspects of his lifestyle. He stopped giving concerts at the age of 31 to concentrate on studio recording, Gould was the first pianist to record any of Liszts piano transcriptions of Beethovens symphonies. Gould was also known as a writer, composer, conductor and he was a prolific contributor to musical journals, in which he discussed music theory and outlined his musical philosophy. His career as a composer was less distinguished and his output was minimal and many projects were left unfinished. There is evidence that, had he lived beyond 50, he intended to abandon the piano and devote the remainder of his career to conducting, as a broadcaster, Gould was prolific. His output ranged from television and radio broadcasts of performances to musique concrète radio documentaries about life in the Canadian wilderness. Glenn Herbert Gould was born at home in Toronto on 25 September 1932, to Russell Herbert Gold and Florence Emma Gold and his maternal grandfather was a cousin of Norwegian composer Edvard Grieg. Gould had no Jewish ancestry, though he made jokes on the subject, like When people ask me if Im Jewish. Gould grew up in a home at 32 Southwood Drive, Toronto and his childhood home has been named a historic site by the City of Toronto. Goulds interest in music and his talent as a pianist became evident very early, both his parents were musical, and his mother, especially, encouraged the infant Goulds early musical development. Before his birth, his mother planned for him to become a successful musician, as a baby, he reportedly hummed instead of crying and wiggled his fingers as if playing chords, leading his doctor to predict that he would be either a physician or a pianist. By the age of three, Goulds perfect pitch was noticed and he learned to read music before he could read words. When presented with a piano, the young Gould was reported to strike notes and listen to their long decay. Goulds interest in the piano proceeded side by side with an interest in composition and he would play his own little pieces for family, friends, and sometimes large gatherings, including, in 1938, a performance at the Emmanuel Presbyterian Church of one of his own compositions. At the age of six, he was taken for the first time to hear a live performance by a celebrated soloist
30.
History of fishing
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Fishing is the activity of catching fish. It is an ancient practice dating back at least 40,000 years, Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping, the term fishing may be applied to catching other aquatic animals such as shellfish, cephalopods, crustaceans, and echinoderms. The term is not usually applied to catching aquatic mammals, such as whales, in addition to providing food, modern fishing is also a recreational sport. According to FAO statistics, the number of fishermen and fish farmers is estimated to be 38 million. Fisheries and aquaculture provide direct and indirect employment to over 500 million people, in 2005, the worldwide per capita consumption of fish captured from wild fisheries was 14.4 kilograms, with an additional 7.4 kilograms harvested from fish farms. Fishing is an ancient practice that dates back at least to the Upper Paleolithic period which began about 40,000 years ago. Isotopic analysis of the remains of Tianyuan man, a 40. Archaeological features such as middens, discarded fish bones and cave paintings show that sea foods were important for survival. During this period, most people lived a lifestyle and were, of necessity. However, where there are examples of permanent settlements such as those at Lepenski Vir. Spearfishing with barbed poles was widespread in palaeolithic times, cosquer cave in Southern France contains cave art over 16,000 years old, including drawings of seals which appear to have been harpooned. The Neolithic culture and technology spread worldwide between 4,000 and 8,000 years ago, with the new technologies of farming and pottery came basic forms of the main fishing methods that are still used today. From 7500 to 3000 years ago, Native Americans of the California coast were known to engage in fishing with gorge hook, in addition, some tribes are known to have used plant toxins to induce torpor in stream fish to enable their capture. Copper harpoons were known to the seafaring Harappans well into antiquity, Early hunters in India include the Mincopie people, aboriginal inhabitants of Indias Andaman and Nicobar islands, who have used harpoons with long cords for fishing since early times. The ancient river Nile was full of fish, fresh and dried fish were a food for much of the population. The Egyptians invented various implements and methods for fishing and these are illustrated in tomb scenes, drawings. Simple reed boats served for fishing, woven nets, weir baskets made from willow branches, harpoons and hook and line were all being used
31.
Ancient Hawaiian aquaculture
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The Hawaiian people practiced aquaculture through development of fish ponds, the most advanced fish husbandry among the original peoples of the Pacific. These fishponds were typically shallow areas of a reef flat surrounded by a low rock wall built out from the shore. Several species of fish thrive in such ponds, and Hawaiians developed methods to make them easy to catch. The Hawaiian fishpond was primarily an area in which the fishpond keeper cultivated algae. The porous lava walls let in seawater, but prevent the fish from escaping, several fishponds have been restored in recent years. Although fishponds were developed on most islands, the largest number were found in Keʻehi Lagoon, Pearl Harbor, and Kāneʻohe Bay on Oʻahu, few remain today, although Molokaʻi offers the best opportunities to view a Hawaiian loko. Three different styles of fish ponds are being reconstructed at the Kaloko-Honokōhau National Historical Park on the Big Island of Hawaiʻi. The non-profit ʻAoʻao O Na Loko Iʻa O Maui is restoring Kalepolepo Fishpond also known as Koʻieʻi. e. in Kīhei using a mixture of volunteers, fish farming Heʻeia, Hawaii Stew pond Farber, Joseph M Ancient Hawaiian fishponds, can restoration succeed on Molokaʻi. The Works of the People of Old, Honolulu, HI, Bishop Museum Press, james, Van, Ancient Sites of Maui, Molokaii and Lanai, Honolulu, HI, Mutual Publishing, pp. 73–76, ISBN 1-56647-529-5. Losch, Tracie Kuʻuipo, Kamahele, Momi, eds, Hawaiʻi, Center of the Pacific, University of Hawaiʻi Leeward Community College, XanEdu Custom Publishing, pp. 234–235, ISBN 1-58152-579-6
32.
Fishing in Cornwall
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Fishing in Cornwall, England, UK, has traditionally been one of the main elements of the economy of the county. Pilchard fishing and processing was an industry in Cornwall from around 1750 to around 1880. During the 20th century the varieties of fish taken became much more diverse and crustaceans such as crab, much of the catch is exported to France due to the higher prices obtainable there. Though fishing has significantly damaged by overfishing. However, as of 2007, stocks are improving, the industry has featured in numerous works of art, particularly by Stanhope Forbes and other Newlyn School artists. The beginnings of a significant fishery in Cornwall may be traced to the reign of King John and it was much regulated under the rule of Queen Elizabeth I. In 1582 nearly two thousand mariners are recorded for Cornwall and somewhat more for Devon, in 1602 Richard Carew describes the fisheries of Cornwall and Devon as much more important than those of eastern England. Two methods were in use at the time, seining and drifting, in the early years of the 17th century the fishermen of Cornwall and Devon were also heavily involved in the Newfoundland fisheries. In the decade 1747–1756 the total number of pilchards dispatched from the four principal Cornish ports of Falmouth, Fowey, Penzance, much greater catches were achieved in 1790 and 1796. The majority of the catch was exported to Italy. Before the mid 18th century the season ran from July till November or December. In 1847 the exports of pilchards from Cornwall amounted to 40,883 hogsheads or 122 million fish while the greatest number ever taken in one seine was 5,600 hogsheads at St Ives in 1868, huers helped locate shoals of fish. Hevva. to alert the boats to the location of the pilchard shoals, Cornish tradition states that Hevva cake was baked by the huers on their return to their homes, the cake being ready by the time the crews returned to land. The Cornish lugger was a type of fishing boat and at Polperro Polperro Gaffers were used. The most important fishing ports on the north coast were St Ives which had a considerable fleet, a. K. Hamilton Jenkin describes how the St Ives fisherman strictly observed Sunday as a day of rest. St Ives was a busy fishing port and seining the usual method of fishing there. Seining was carried on by a set of three boats of different sizes, the largest two carrying seine nets of different sizes, the total number of crew was 17 or 18. However this came to an end in 1924, the bulk of the catch was exported to Italy, for example in 18306,400 hogsheads were sent to Mediterranean ports
33.
Fishery Protection Squadron
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The Fishery Protection Squadron is a front-line squadron of the Royal Navy with responsibility for patrolling the UKs Extended Fisheries Zone. The squadron, with headquarters at Portsmouth Naval Base, are equipped with four River-class patrol vessels, the squadron is the oldest front-line squadron in the Royal Navy, and boasts Admiral Lord Nelson amongst those who have served in it. Originally, the squadron was based on the coast of North America, Iceland, over the past hundred years it has been slimmed down to follow a more policing-oriented approach, dealing mainly with infringements by civilian fishermen. Despite this, it still has a military role, as evidenced in its role in the Cod Wars of the 1960s-70s. Royal Navy officers assigned to the Fishery Protection Squadron have a role as British Sea Fisheries officers. There is a contract between the Ministry of Defence, the Marine and Fisheries Agency and DEFRA that allows the squadron to conduct inspections of all fishing vessels in all UK waters. Fishery Protection Squadron vessels can also stop British fishing vessels in international waters, in the 2008/09 contract year, the squadron spent 700 days at sea on patrol, conducting 1,102 inspections. From the inspections,231 ships broke UK or EU law, as a result,144 verbal warnings,33 written warnings and 10 financial administrative penalties were handed out. The most serious breaches resulted in eight vessels being detained at UK ports, in 2008, 60% of all fish caught in the EU were caught within British jurisdiction. With as many as 500 fishing ships in British waters at any one time, including dozens from other EU countries, there is also monthly rotating aerial surveillance of the entire fishing area under call-sign Watchdog, with aircraft provided by Direct Flight Aviation. Each day, data from the inspections is sent to fisheries managers, the managers form part of several agencies which co-ordinate on a super-national level to monitor the fish stocks, negotiates fishing agreements and plan conservation measures. Occasionally, a fishing trawler will foul anothers nets, or the border areas in the middle of the English Channel will be the focus of a dispute between trawlers. These disputes can escalate to attempted rammings, disruption of each others fishing, shining searchlights into bridges, in these circumstances ships of the squadron are required to separate the trawlers and act as an informal arbitrator in the dispute to prevent further conflict or injury. Their rules of engagement reflect this role, when a vessel is inspected, a boarding team from the FPS ship is sent. The team is formed of a Royal Navy and British Sea Fisheries-qualified officer, an assistant boarding officer, the officer sent could include the commanding officer, executive officer or first lieutenant, assisted by the gunnery officer, XOs assistant or operations officer. They work together to examine documentation, ensure the gear are of legal size. The Fishery Protection Squadron is the oldest squadron of the Royal Navy and can be traced back to 1481, although some sources, including the Royal Navy, because of these and other incidents, by the 16th century it was clear that an organised force was required. A petition was put forward to the Lord High Admiral for a small bark or two, as a result, the first Fishery Protection ship was commissioned for an annual fee to the Admiralty of £100, paid for by the fishermen of Yarmouth
34.
Garum
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Garum was a fermented fish sauce used as a condiment in the cuisines of ancient Greece, Rome, and Byzantium. Liquamen was a preparation, and at times the two were synonymous. Although it enjoyed its greatest popularity in the Roman world, the sauce was used by the Greeks. Pliny the Elder and Isidore of Seville derive the Latin word garum from the Greek γαρός, a food named by Aristophanes, Sophocles, garos may have been a type of fish, or a fish sauce similar to garum. Pliny stated that garum was made from intestines, with salt, creating a liquor, the garum. A concentrated garum evaporated down to a paste with salt crystals was called muria, it would have been rich in protein, amino acids, minerals. Like the modern fermented soy product soy sauce, fermented garum is rich in the amino acid monosodium glutamate. It was used along with murri in medieval Byzantine and Arab cuisine to give a flavor to dishes. Murri may well derive from garum, garum was produced in various grades consumed by all social classes. After the liquid was ladled off of the top of the mixture, the finished product—the nobile garum of Martials epigram—was apparently mild and subtle in flavor. The best garum fetched extraordinarily high prices, and salt could be substituted for a simpler dish, garum appears in many recipes featured in the Roman cookbook Apicius. For example, Apicius gives a recipe for lamb stew, calling for the meat to be cooked with onion and coriander, pepper, lovage, cumin, liquamen, oil, and wine, then thickened with flour. In the 1st century AD, liquamen was a distinct from garum. By the 5th century or earlier, however, liquamen had come to refer to garum, in most surviving tituli picti inscribed on amphorae, where the fish ingredient is shown, the fish is mackerel. In the ruins of Pompeii, jars were found containing kosher garum. Each port had its own recipe, but by the time of Augustus, Romans considered the best to be garum from Cartagena. This product was called garum sociorum, garum of the allies, the ruins of a garum factory remain at the Baetian site of Baelo Claudia and Carteia. Garum was an export product from Hispania to Rome
35.
Harold Innis and the cod fishery
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Harold Adams Innis was a professor of political economy at the University of Toronto and the author of seminal works on Canadian economic history and on media and communication theory. Inniss communications writings explore the role of media in shaping the culture, the result was The Cod Fisheries, The History of an International Economy published 10 years after the fur trade study. Innis tells the history of competing empires in the exploitation of a teeming. This abundance attracted various European nations, but Spain dominated the fishery until the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, the British then took over with the French and later, American colonists, as their main rivals. Throughout his 590-page study, Innis focuses on the complex inter-relationships among economics, culture and this combined with consumer preferences for dried fish over cod packed in brine meant higher prices, especially in Catholic countries where the church required the regular consumption of fish. Thus, dried cod sold in Spain allowed England to receive substantial amounts of the metals that the Spanish were bringing from their colonies in the New World. Cod from Newfoundland was the lever by which she wrested her share of the riches of the New World from Spain, Innis shows how the cod fishery was interwoven economically with the slave trade and international markets for such other products as sugar, tobacco and rum. He argues that rivalry between the British and the colonists in New England led to the American Revolution, biographer, John Watson argues that the book foreshadowed Inniss later work exploring the relationships between communications technologies and the rise and fall of empires
36.
Migratory Fishery of Labrador
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The province of Newfoundland and Labrador had three main types of fishery in the 19th century, sealing, migratory and inshore fishery. Sealing was a type of fishery that involved getting a berth or ticket on a ship traveled to ice floes near Newfoundland. Teams would then be sent out onto the ice to kill seals and this used to be done with a tool called a gaff hook but is now performed with a large club. There was escalating controversy about the industry in the 1970s, leading to the industry being banned and it was legalized recently for population control. Although it is not the staple it once was, the industry is quite profitable. Migratory fishery involved people from Newfoundland sailing to Labrador to fish there, migratory fishers either stopped at land they owned and fished from there or stayed on the ship and moved to different fishing grounds. The floaters were more mobile than the stationers, but their fish had to be heavily salted because they could not dry their fish until they got home and this fisherys season lasted from early summer to early fall, but even then conditions were harsh. The inshore fishery, although the staple of the industry, wasnt as interesting as the types of fishery. It simply involved getting into a boat, catching the fish, curing them and selling them to a fish merchant for store credit
37.
Pearling in Western Australia
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Pearling in Western Australia existed well before European settlement. Coastal dwelling Aborigines had collected and traded pearl shell as well as trepang, after settlement the Aborigines were used as slave labour in the emerging commercial industry. Pearling centred first around Nickol Bay and Exmouth Gulf and then around Broome to become the largest in the world by 1910, the farming of cultured pearls remains an important part of the Kimberley economy. In Australia, the harvesting of pearl shell began millennia ago with the Aborigines and they did not dive but were so successful in harvesting the shell that the ‘patterns of distribution’ or trade in the shell that they harvested have been traced throughout many parts of the continent. They also had enough surplus to engage in an overseas trade and this phase began with the visits of the Makassan trepangers to the northern coasts in the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century. The trade resulted in the exchange of trepang, turtles and pearl shell for tobacco, rice, there was also violence, including the abduction of men and women. As a result, both groups were armed and the Aborigines learnt to treat any newcomers with suspicion. From a European perspective, William Dampier and then the French explorers saw at Shark Bay and Dampier, Stokes, Grey, while anchored at Nickol Bay, waiting for him to return from his explorations, Gregory’s crew obtained a quantity of shell and a good pearl. While Gregory reported on this in his widely read journals and accounts, some visiting whalers, for example, also knew of the shell, having either harvested shell themselves, or having acquired it in trade with the Aborigines. Recorded as being on the coast in great numbers after the 1840s, they also frequented areas where shell is found, including Nickol Bay, pragmatic, and keen to guard any potential lucrative return, they kept few historical records. North-west shell was found on the wreck of the American whaling barque Cervantes that was lost while sealing about 120 nautical miles north of Fremantle in 1844, for example. The European pearling industry began in the 1850s at Shark Bay where pearls were found in the Pinctada albina oyster in relatively large numbers, at Nickol Bay, decorative pearl shells made by local Aborigines from Pinctada maxima, were noted by European explorers. The industry began in the mid-1860s with pastoral workers who collected shell in shallow waters, in 1866, a former shareholder of the defunct Denison Plains Company, WF Tays proved very successful as a full-time pearler. Others followed and in instances, the boat provided transport for personnel and shell to and from remote beds, or across deeper water to drying banks. There was no diving at this time, as the shallow waters initially provided enormous returns to the Europeans and their Aboriginal labourers, who waded and recovered shell as the tide receded. During the late 1860s many more boats left Fremantle and the industry at Torres Strait. Walter Padbury, the noted Perth-based merchant, pastoralist and ship owner and this eventually caused over-harvesting of the shallows and a shortage of shell. This led the industry into its second stage and a took place from wading in the shallows into the use of skin divers
38.
Scottish east coast fishery
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The Scottish east coast fishery has been in existence for more than a thousand years, spanning the Viking age right up to the present day. The fishery has always been for both whitefish and herring, the Norsemen came to Scotland from the 9th to 11th centuries and settled in the Northern Isles, Western Isles and on the mainland. They had fish as a part of their diet, and excavations of Viking sites in Orkney. These bones were mainly of cod, saithe and ling but herring, haddock and they used the line fishing method with hooks and bait. The Dutch had a monopoly of the herring fishing from the 15th to the 17th centuries. The boats, called busses, were very large and they lay overnight with the drift nets set to catch the herring and were hauled by hand in the morning. The herring were salted and placed in barrels and these barrels were then transferred to small boats called jagers, which were tenders to the busses. These boats took the fish to the markets, the 18th century saw some Scottish fishermen emulate this Dutch method of fishing. In 1718, the government introduced the bounty system to promote large scale fishing and this meant that the government paid a bounty to the boat owner based on the tonnage of the vessel and would also pay a bounty to anyone for simply building a fishing boat. This continued until 1820 and did much to encourage the growth of the fishery, the fishery was valuable and the fleets often came under attack from French and Spanish privateers. Because of this, armed ships were employed to accompany and defend the fishing boats, despite this, the Dutch style of fishing didn’t produce the results the government wanted. The bulk of the Scottish fishery was still using the line, however, in 1785 the government instituted barrel bounties, which meant that the bounties were payable based on the amount of cured herring produced. This encouraged the herring curers to enter contracts with the fishermen whereby they would be guaranteed a price for their catch. The 19th century saw the greatest growth in sea fishing on the Scottish east coast, in the early years of that century the boats were very small, made of wood and were either one or two masted. They were not expensive to build and small repairs were carried out by the fishermen themselves and these early boats needed to be light so they could be dragged up the beaches. The fishermen did not venture far from the shore, as boats were undecked. In 1848, a violent storm hit the country and 124 boats were sunk, the government appointed Captain John Washington to enquire into the disaster and to make recommendations. He pointed out that the boats were too small and being without decks prone to water inundation, however, not all of the fishermen were happy about larger decked boats
39.
Traditional fishing boat
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Traditionally, many different kinds of boats have been used as fishing boats to catch fish in the sea, or on a lake or river. Even today, many fishing boats are still in use. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, at the end of 2004, while nearly all decked vessels were mechanised, only one-third of the undecked fishing boats were powered, usually with outboard engines. The remaining 1.8 million boats were traditional craft of various types, operated by sail and this article is about the boats used for fishing that are or were built from designs that existed before engines became available. Early fishing vessels included rafts, dugout canoes, reed boats, the oldest boats found by archaeological excavation are dugout canoes dating back to the Neolithic Period around 7, 000-9,000 years ago. These canoes were often cut from coniferous tree logs, using stone tools. A 7000-year-old sea going boat made from reeds and tar has been found in Kuwait and these early vessels had limited capability, they could float and move on water, but were not suitable for use any great distance from the shoreline. They were used mainly for fishing and hunting, the development of fishing boats took place in parallel with the development of boats built for trade and war. Early navigators began to use skins or woven fabrics for sails. These figures for small fishing vessels are probably under reported, the FAO compiles these figures largely from national registers. These records often omit smaller boats where registration is not required or where fishing licences are granted by provincial or municipal authorities, indonesia reportedly has about 700,000 current fishing boats,25 percent of which are dugout canoes, and half of which are without motors. The Philippines have reported a number of small fishing boats. Traditional fishing boats are usually characteristic of the stretch of coast along which they operate, artisan fishing is small-scale commercial or subsistence fishing, particularly practices involving coastal or island ethnic groups using traditional fishing techniques and traditional boats. This may also include heritage groups involved in fishing practices. Artisan fishers usually use small traditional fishing boats that are open and have sails, large numbers of artisan fishing boats are still in use, particularly in developing countries with long productive marine coastlines. A raft is a structure with a top that floats. It is the most basic design, characterised by the absence of a hull. The classic raft is constructed by lashing several logs, placed side by side, in many Asian countries, the rafts are similarly constructed using bamboo
40.
Bering Sea Arbitration
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The Bering Sea Arbitration of 1893 arose out of a fishery dispute between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the United States in the 1880s. The United States Revenue Cutter Service, today known as the United States Coast Guard and this led to the U. S. claiming exclusive jurisdiction over the sealing industry in the Bering Sea, and that led to negotiations outside of the courts. The award was given in favor of the British, however, the British were awarded compensation for the damage that had been inflicted on their vessels, and the American sealing zone remained as it was prior to the conflict. In 1867 the United States government purchased from Russia all her rights in Alaska. This portion included the Pribilof Islands, the principal breeding-grounds of the seals in those seas, by Acts of Congress, passed between 1868 and 1873, the killing of seals was prohibited on the Pribilof Islands and in the waters adjacent thereto except upon certain specified conditions. This created a large swathe of friction between the executive and legislative branches of the US government with the presidential veto employed by Ulysses S. Grant on two notable occasions, no definition of the meaning of the words waters adjacent was given in the act. In March 1886 this letter was communicated to the San Francisco customs by Daniel Manning, U. S. Secretary of the Treasury, for publication. Beginning in about 1886, it became the practice of certain Canadian vessels to intercept passing seals in the ocean and shoot them in the water. The great drawback of pelagic sealing lies in the fact that nursing seal mothers wander far in search of food, while the males do not take food during the breeding season, but remain on the islands. Consequently, practically all the seals taken by pelagic sealers are nursing females, as a result of this practice, the real possibility of the destruction of the seal fisheries became apparent, together with industries valuable to both the United States and Great Britain. In the summer of 1886, three British Columbian sealers, the Carolena, Onward, and Thornton, were captured by an American revenue cutter, the Corwin,60 miles from land. They were condemned by the judge because they had been sealing within the limits of Alaska territory. Diplomatic representations followed and an order for release was issued but, in 1887, the British imperial government repudiated the claim, but was willing to negotiate on the question of international regulation. America had seal nurseries on the Pribilof Islands and Russia on the Komandorski group, neither Britain, nor the Dominion of Canada, had land access to the Bering Sea or seal breeding grounds. Thus, to prohibit pelagic sealing would have been to exclude Britain from the industry, Britain contended that in all known cases the extermination of seals had been the result of operations upon land, and had never been caused exclusively by sealing in the pelagic zone. The negotiations came to nothing, and the United States fell back upon their claim of right, in June 1890, it was reported that certain American revenue cutters had been ordered to proceed to the Bering Sea. There followed a controversy, in the course of which the United States developed the contentions which were afterwards laid before the tribunal of arbitration. The American answer was that the Pacific Ocean did not include the Bering Sea and they also claimed an interest in the fur seals, involving the right to protect them outside the three-mile limit
