1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
3.
Trade union
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The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others
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Journalist
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A journalist is a person who collects, writes, or distributes news or other current information. A journalists work is called journalism, a journalist can work with general issues or specialize in certain issues. However, most journalists tend to specialize, and by cooperating with other journalists, for example, a sports journalist covers news within the world of sports, but this journalist may be a part of a newspaper that covers many different topics. A reporter is a type of journalist who researches, writes, and reports on information in order to present in sources, conduct interviews, engage in research, and make reports. The information-gathering part of a job is sometimes called reporting. Reporters may split their time working in a newsroom and going out to witness events or interviewing people. Reporters may be assigned a beat or area of coverage. Depending on the context, the term journalist may include various types of editors, editorial writers, columnists, Journalism has developed a variety of ethics and standards. While objectivity and a lack of bias are of concern and importance, more liberal types of journalism, such as advocacy journalism and activism. This has become prevalent with the advent of social media and blogs, as well as other platforms that are used to manipulate or sway social and political opinions. These platforms often project extreme bias, as sources are not always held accountable or considered necessary in order to produce a written, nor did they often directly experience most social problems, or have direct access to expert insights. These limitations were made worse by a media that tended to over-simplify issues and to reinforce stereotypes, partisan viewpoints. As a consequence, Lippmann believed that the public needed journalists like himself who could serve as analysts, guiding “citizens to a deeper understanding of what was really important. ”Journalists sometimes expose themselves to danger. Organizations such as the Committee to Protect Journalists and Reporters Without Borders publish reports on press freedom, as of November 2011, the Committee to Protect Journalists reports that 887 journalists have been killed worldwide since 1992 by murder, crossfire or combat, or on dangerous assignment. The ten deadliest countries for journalists since 1992 have been Iraq, Philippines, Russia, Colombia, Mexico, Algeria, Pakistan, India, Somalia, Brazil and Sri Lanka. The Committee to Protect Journalists also reports that as of December 1st 2010,145 journalists were jailed worldwide for journalistic activities. The ten countries with the largest number of currently-imprisoned journalists are Turkey, China, Iran, Eritrea, Burma, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Cuba, Ethiopia, apart from the physical harm, journalists are harmed psychologically. This applies especially to war reporters, but their offices at home often do not know how to deal appropriately with the reporters they expose to danger
5.
New York Post
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New York Post is an American daily newspaper, primarily distributed in New York City and its surrounding area. It is the 13th-oldest and seventh-most-widely circulated newspaper in the United States, established in 1801 by federalist and Founding Father Alexander Hamilton, it became a respected broadsheet in the 19th century, under the name New York Evening Post. The modern version of the paper is published in tabloid format, in 1976, Rupert Murdoch bought Post for US$30.5 million. Since 1993, Post has been owned by News Corporation and its successor, News Corp and its editorial offices are located at 1211 Avenue of the Americas. New York Post, established on November 16,1801 as New-York Evening Post, the Hartford Courant, believed to be the oldest continuously published newspaper, was founded in 1764 as a semi-weekly paper, it did not begin publishing daily until 1836. The New Hampshire Gazette, which has trademarked its claim of being The Nations Oldest Newspaper, was founded in 1756, moreover, since the 1890s it has been published only for weekends. Post was founded by Alexander Hamilton with about US$10,000 from a group of investors in the autumn of 1801 as New-York Evening Post, the meeting at which Hamilton first recruited investors for the new paper took place in the then-country weekend villa that is now Gracie Mansion. Hamilton chose William Coleman as his first editor, the most famous 19th-century New-York Evening Post editor was the poet and abolitionist William Cullen Bryant. So well respected was New-York Evening Post under Bryants editorship, it received praise from the English philosopher John Stuart Mill, in the summer of 1829, Bryant invited William Leggett, the Locofoco Democrat, to write for the paper. There, in addition to literary and drama reviews, Leggett began to write political editorials, leggetts classical liberal philosophy entailed a fierce opposition to central banking, a support for voluntary labor unions, and a dedication to laissez-faire economics. He was a member of the Equal Rights Party, Leggett became a co-owner and editor at Post in 1831, eventually working as sole editor of the newspaper while Bryant traveled in Europe in 1834 through 1835. Another co-owner of the paper was John Bigelow, from 1849 to 1861, he was one of the editors and co-owners of New York Evening Post. In 1881 Henry Villard took control of New-York Evening Post, as well as The Nation, with this acquisition, the paper was managed by the triumvirate of Carl Schurz, Horace White, and Edwin L. Godkin. When Schurz left the paper in 1883, Godkin became editor-in-chief, White became editor-in-chief in 1899, and remained in that role until his retirement in 1903. Villard sold the paper in 1918, after allegations of pro-German sympathies during World War I hurt its circulation. The new owner was Thomas Lamont, a partner in the Wall Street firm of J. P. Morgan & Co. Conservative Cyrus H. K. Curtis—publisher of the Ladies Home Journal—purchased New-York Evening Post in 1924, in 1934, J. David Stern purchased the paper, changed its name to New York Post, and restored its broadsheet size and liberal perspective. In 1939, Dorothy Schiff purchased the paper and her husband, George Backer, was named editor and publisher
6.
New York Herald Tribune
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The New York Herald Tribune was a newspaper published between 1924 and 1966. It was created in 1924 when the New York Tribune acquired the New York Herald and it was widely regarded as a writers newspaper and competed with the The New York Times in the daily morning market. The paper won at least nine Pulitzer Prizes during its lifetime, editorially, the newspaper was the voice for eastern Republicans, later referred to as Rockefeller Republicans, and espoused a pro-business, internationalist viewpoint. However, it enjoyed prosperity during World War II and by the end of the conflict had pulled close to the Times in ad revenue. A series of business decisions, combined with aggressive competition from the Times and poor leadership from the Reid family. In 1958, the Reids sold the Herald Tribune to John Hay Whitney, under his leadership, the Tribune experimented with new layouts and new approaches to reporting the news, and made important contributions to the body of New Journalism that developed in the 1960s. Combined with investments in the World Journal Tribune, Whitney spent $39.5 million in his attempts to keep the newspaper alive. After the Herald Tribune closed, the Times and The Washington Post, joined by Whitney, entered an agreement to operate the International Herald Tribune, the International Herald Tribune was renamed the International New York Times in 2013. New York magazine, created as the Herald Tribunes Sunday magazine in 1963, was revived by editor Clay Felker in 1968, the New York Herald was founded on May 6,1835 by James Gordon Bennett, a Scottish immigrant who came to the United States at age 24. The fight over access eventually overshadowed the trial itself, Bennett founded the New York Globe in 1832 to promote the re-election of Andrew Jackson to the White House, but the paper quickly folded after the election. Bennett, who wrote much of the newspaper himself, perfected the fresh, Bennett put his profits back into his newspaper, establishing a Washington bureau and recruiting correspondents in Europe to provide the first systematic foreign coverage in an American newspaper. By 1839, the Heralds circulation exceeded that of the The London Times, the New York Tribune was founded by Horace Greeley in 1841. Greeley, a native of New Hampshire, had begun publishing a paper called The New-Yorker in 1834. Joining the Whig Party, Greeley published The Jeffersonian, which helped elect William H, with Whigs in power, Greeley saw the opportunity to launch a daily penny newspaper for their constituency. The New York Tribune launched on April 10,1841, however, his moralism appealed to rural America, with six months of beginning the Tribune, Greeley combined The New-Yorker and The Log Cabin into a new publication, the Weekly Tribune. The weekly version circulated nationwide, serving as a digest of news melded with agriculture tips, offering prizes like strawberry plants and gold pens to salesmen, the Weekly Tribune reached a circulation of 50,000 within 10 years, outpacing the Heralds weekly edition. The Tribunes ranks included Henry Raymond, who later founded The New York Times, and Charles Dana, Dana served as second-in-command to Greeley, but Greeley abruptly fired him in 1862, after years of personality conflicts between the two men. After the Civil War, Bennett turned over operations of the Herald to his son James Gordon Bennett, Jr
7.
American Federation of Labor
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The American Federation of Labor was a national federation of labor unions in the United States. It was founded in Columbus, Ohio, in December 1886 by an alliance of craft unions disaffected from the Knights of Labor, a national labor association. Samuel Gompers of the Cigar Makers International Union was elected president of the Federation at its convention and was reelected every year except one until his death in 1924. The American Federation of Labor organized as an association of trade unions in 1886, the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions also merged into what would become the American Federation of Labor. In January 1886, the Cigar Manufacturers Association of New York City attempted to flex its muscle by announcing a 20 percent wage cut in factories around the city. The Cigar Makers International Union refused to accept the cut and 6,000 of its members in 19 factories were locked out by the owners, a strike lasting four weeks ensued. The leadership of the CMIU was enraged and demanded that the New York District Assembly be investigated and punished by the officials of the Knights of Labor. The committee of investigation was controlled by individuals friendly to the New York District Assembly, however, the American Federation of Labor was thus originally formed as an alliance of craft unions outside the Knights of Labor as a means of defending themselves against this and similar incursions. The call stated that an element of the Knights of Labor was doing work and causing incalculable mischief by arousing antagonisms. Forty-three invitations were mailed, which drew the attendance of 20 delegates, the actions of the New York District Assembly of the K of L were upheld. Forty-two delegates representing 13 national unions and various local labor organizations responded to the call. Revenue for the new organization was to be raised on the basis of a tax of its member organizations. Governance of the organization was to be by annual conventions, with one delegate allocated for every 4,000 members of each affiliated union. Gompers would ultimately be re-elected to the position by annual conventions of the organization for every year one until his death nearly four decades later. Headway was made in the form of endorsement by various local labor bodies, the group from the outset concentrated upon the income and working conditions of its membership as its almost sole focus. The AFLs founding convention declaring higher wages and a shorter workday to be preliminary steps toward great, participation in partisan politics was avoided as inherently divisive, and the groups constitution was structured to prevent the admission of political parties as affiliates. The AFL faced its first major reversal when employers launched an open shop movement in 1903 designed to drive out of construction, mining, longshore. Ever the pragmatist, Gompers argued that labor should reward its friends, after 1908, the organizations tie to the Democratic party grew increasingly strong
8.
San Francisco newspaper strike of 1994
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The San Francisco Newspaper Strike of 1994 was a labor dispute called by the Newspaper Guild in November 1994. Employees of San Franciscos two major newspapers, the San Francisco Chronicle and The San Francisco Examiner walked off the job for eleven days. San Franciscos two major newspapers were longtime rivals that had been working under a joint operating agreement since 1965. Employees had been working without a contract for the past year, wages were one major issue leading to the strike, while the unions demanded a 3.5 percent annual raise, management offered only a 2.46 percent annual raise over four years. Another point of contention was managements plan to cut the jobs of more than 150 teamster drivers over several years. Starting on November 1,1994, some 2,600 reporters, editors, drivers, press operators and paper handlers of the San Francisco Chronicle and The San Francisco Examiner walked off the job. Bricks were thrown through paper carriers windshields as they drove from the distribution center. One teamster driver was killed by electricity when scaling a power pole and this news service remained heavily dependent on wire-service stories for lack of contributing journalists and editors. The striking journalists set up their own newspaper, the San Francisco Free Press, and competed with The Gate as the soul of the Examiner. The team operated from a makeshift newsroom using their own hardware, the Free Press scored a scoop during its first week, reporting that Senator Dianne Feinstein had been wrongly accused of hiring an undocumented worker in the early 1980s. The strike put the Web on the screens of news organizations. Among them was David Talbot, who founded Salon. com after the Guilds online newspaper convinced him of the potential of the new medium, San Francisco Chronicle The San Francisco Examiner The Newspaper Guild The San Francisco Free Press
9.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
10.
New York World-Telegram
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The New York World-Telegram, later known as the New York World-Telegram and Sun, was a New York City newspaper from 1867 to 1966. Founded by James Gordon Bennett as The Evening Telegram in 1867, the newspaper began as the edition of The New York Herald. Following Bennett’s death, newspaper and magazine owner Frank A. Munsey purchased The Telegram in June 1920, at the time of the sale, the paper was known as The New York Telegram, and it had a circulation of 200,000. The newspaper became the World-Telegram in 1931, following the sale of the New York World by the heirs of Joseph Pulitzer to Scripps Howard, the World-Telegram enjoyed a reputation as a liberal paper for some years after the merger, based on memories of the Pulitzer-owned World. However, under Scripps Howard the paper moved steadily to the right, in 1950, the paper became the New York World-Telegram and Sun after Dewart and his family sold Scripps the remnants of another afternoon paper, the New York Sun. Early in 1966, a proposal to create New Yorks first joint operating agreement led to the merger of the World-Telegram, the intention was to produce a joint afternoon edition, with a separate morning paper to be produced by the Herald Tribune. The last edition of the World-Telegram and Sun was published on April 23,1966, but when strikes prevented the JOA from taking effect, the papers instead united in August 1966 to become the short-lived New York World Journal Tribune, which lasted only until May 5,1967. Its closure left New York City with three newspapers, The New York Times, the New York Post and the New York Daily News. Media of New York City Library of Congress New York World Telegram and Sun Newspaper Photograph Collection
