1.
American Indian Wars
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These conflicts occurred in the current boundaries of the United States from the time of earliest colonial settlements until 1924. In many cases, wars resulted from competition for resources and land ownership as Europeans, Warfare and raiding also took place as a result of conflicts between European governments and later the United States. These governments enlisted Native Americans tribes to help them conduct warfare against each others settlements, after 1776, many conflicts were local, involving disputes over land use, and some entailed cycles of reprisal. In the 1800s, conflicts were spurred by ideologies such as Manifest Destiny, in the years leading up to the Indian Removal Act of 1830 there were many armed conflicts between settlers and Native Americans. Prior to the Act of 1830, some conflicts were resolved through sale or exchange of territory through treaties between the government and specific tribes. The 1830 act authorized the removal of indigenous peoples who lived East of the Mississippi River to the West. As United States citizens continued to settle areas towards the Pacific, the policy of removal was refined to move some indigenous peoples to very specific reservations. The 2010 census found 2,932,248 Americans who identified themselves as being Native American, no consensus exists on how many native people lived in the Americas before the arrival of Columbus, but extensive research has been and continues to be conducted. Estimates on the population of pre-Colombus North America range from a low of 2.1 million to 7 million people to 18 million, scholars believe that the overwhelming main causes were new infectious diseases carried by European explorers and traders. Native Americans had no acquired immunity to diseases, which had been chronic in Eurasian populations for over five centuries. For instance, some estimates indicate case fatality rates of 80–98% in Native American populations during smallpox epidemics. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, the actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the number given. Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate, from about 1600 onwards, the process of European colonization of North America by the English, French, Spanish, Dutch and Swedish was contested by various indigenous tribes. Similarly, in the American Revolution and the War of 1812, the British planned to set up an Indian nation in what is now the Ohio-Wisconsin area to block further American expansion. The U. S. protested and finally, in 1812, most Indian tribes, especially those allied with Tecumseh, supported the British and were ultimately defeated by General William Henry Harrison. The latter were defeated by General Andrew Jackson, during and after such warfare, many refugees from defeated tribes went over the border to Canada, those in the South went to Florida while it was under Spanish control. During the early 19th century, the government was under pressure by settlers in many regions to expel Native Americans from their areas. Some resisted fiercely, most notably the Seminoles in a series of wars in Florida and they were never finally defeated, although some Seminole did remove to Indian Territory
2.
Oregon
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Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Oregon is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the north by Washington, on the south by California, on the east by Idaho, the Columbia River delineates much of Oregons northern boundary, and the Snake River delineates much of the eastern boundary. The parallel 42° north delineates the boundary with California and Nevada. Oregon was inhabited by indigenous tribes before Western traders, explorers. An autonomous government was formed in the Oregon Country in 1843 before the Oregon Territory was created in 1848, Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14,1859. Today, at 98,000 square miles, Oregon is the ninth largest and, with a population of 4 million, the capital of Oregon is Salem, the second most populous of its cities, with 164,549 residents. Portland is Oregons most populous city, with 632,309 residents, Portlands metro population of 2,389,228 ranks the 23rd largest metro in the nation. The Willamette Valley in western Oregon is the states most densely populated area, the tall conifers, mainly Douglas fir, along Oregons rainy west coast contrast with the lighter-timbered and fire-prone pine and juniper forests covering portions to the east. Abundant alders in the west fix nitrogen for the conifers, stretching east from central Oregon are semi-arid shrublands, prairies, deserts, steppes, and meadows. At 11,249 feet, Mount Hood is the states highest point, Oregons only national park, Crater Lake National Park, comprises the caldera surrounding Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States. The state is home to the single largest organism in the world, Armillaria ostoyae. Because of its landscapes and waterways, Oregons economy is largely powered by various forms of agriculture, fishing. It is also the top timber-producer of the lower 48 states, Technology is another one of the states major economic forces, which began in the 1970s with the establishment of the Silicon Forest and the expansion of Tektronix and Intel. Sportswear company Nike, Inc. headquartered in Beaverton, is the states largest public corporation with a revenue of $30.6 billion. The earliest evidence of the name Oregon has Spanish origins and this chronicle is the first topographical and linguistic source with respect to the place name Oregon. There are also two other sources with Spanish origins such as the name Oregano which grows in the part of the region. Another early use of the name, spelled Ouragon, was in a 1765 petition by Major Robert Rogers to the Kingdom of Great Britain, the term referred to the then-mythical River of the West. By 1778 the spelling had shifted to Oregon, in his 1765 petition, Rogers wrote, The rout. is from the Great Lakes towards the Head of the Mississippi, and from thence to the River called by the Indians Ouragon
3.
Idaho
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Idaho is a state in the northwestern region of the United States. It borders the state of Montana to the east and northeast, Wyoming to the east, Nevada and Utah to the south, to the north, it shares a small portion of the Canadian border with the province of British Columbia. With a population of around 1.7 million people and an area of 83,569 square miles, Idaho is the 14th largest, the states capital and largest city is Boise. Idaho prior to European settlement was inhabited solely by Native American peoples, in the early 19th century, Idaho was considered part of the Oregon Country, an area disputed between the U. S. and the United Kingdom. Idaho was eventually admitted to the Union on July 3,1890, forming part of the Pacific Northwest, Idaho is divided into several distinct geographic and climatic regions. In the states north, the relatively isolated Idaho Panhandle is closely linked with Eastern Washington, the states south includes the Snake River Plain, while the south-east incorporates part of the Great Basin. Idaho is quite mountainous, and contains several stretches of the Rocky Mountains, additionally, around 38 percent of Idahos land is held by the United States Forest Service, the most of any state. Industries significant for the economy include manufacturing, agriculture, mining, forestry. Idahos agricultural sector supplies a number of different products, but the state is best known for its potato crop, the official state nickname is the Gem State, which references Idahos reputation for gemstones and, more broadly, its many wilderness areas. The exact origin of the remains a mystery. Willing later claimed that he had invented the name. Congress ultimately decided to name the area Colorado Territory when it was created in February 1861, thinking they would get a jump on the name, locals named a community in Colorado Idaho Springs. However, the name Idaho did not fall into obscurity, the same year Congress created Colorado Territory, a county called Idaho County was created in eastern Washington Territory. The county was named after a steamship named Idaho, which was launched on the Columbia River in 1860 and it is unclear whether the steamship was named before or after Willings claim was revealed. Regardless, a portion of Washington Territory, including Idaho County, was used to create Idaho Territory in 1863. Despite this lack of evidence for the origin of the name, the name Idaho may be derived from the Plains Apache word ídaahę́, which means enemy. The Comanches used this word to refer to the Idaho Territory, a 1956 Idaho history textbook says, Idaho is a Shoshoni Indian exclamation. The word consists of three parts, the first is Ee, which in English conveys the idea of coming down
4.
Wyoming
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Wyoming /waɪˈoʊmɪŋ/ is a state in the mountain region of the western United States. The state is the tenth largest by area, the least populous, Wyoming is bordered on the north by Montana, on the east by South Dakota and Nebraska, on the south by Colorado, on the southwest by Utah, and on the west by Idaho. Cheyenne is the capital and the most populous city in Wyoming, the state population was estimated at 586,107 in 2015, which is less than the population of 31 of the largest U. S. cities. The Crow, Arapaho, Lakota, and Shoshone were some of the inhabitants of the region. Southwestern Wyoming was included in the Spanish Empire and then Mexican territory until it was ceded to the United States in 1848 at the end of the Mexican–American War. The region acquired the name Wyoming when a bill was introduced to Congress in 1865 to provide a government for the territory of Wyoming. The territory was named after the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania, with the name ultimately being derived from the Munsee word xwé, wamənk, the mineral extraction industry—especially coal, oil, natural gas, and trona—along with the travel and tourism sector are the main drivers behind Wyomings economy. Agriculture has historically been an important component of the economy with the main commodities being livestock, hay, sugar beets, grain. The climate is generally semi-arid and continental, being drier and windier in comparison to the rest of the United States, except for the 1964 election, Wyoming has been a politically conservative state since the 1950s, with the Republican party winning every presidential election. Wyoming is one of three states to have borders along only straight latitudinal and longitudinal lines, rather than being defined by natural landmarks. Wyoming is bordered on the north by Montana, on the east by South Dakota and Nebraska, on the south by Colorado, on the southwest by Utah, and on the west by Idaho. It is the tenth largest state in the United States in total area, from the north border to the south border it is 276 miles, and from the east to the west border is 365 miles at its south end and 342 miles at the north end. The Great Plains meet the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming, the state is a great plateau broken by many mountain ranges. Surface elevations range from the summit of Gannett Peak in the Wind River Mountain Range, at 13,804 feet, to the Belle Fourche River valley in the states northeast corner, at 3,125 feet. In the northwest are the Absaroka, Owl Creek, Gros Ventre, Wind River, in the north central are the Big Horn Mountains, in the northeast, the Black Hills, and in the southern region the Laramie, Snowy and Sierra Madre ranges. The Snowy Range in the central part of the state is an extension of the Colorado Rockies in both geology and appearance. The Wind River Range in the west central part of the state is remote and includes more than 40 mountain peaks in excess of 13,000 ft tall in addition to Gannett Peak, the highest peak in the state. The Big Horn Mountains in the central portion are somewhat isolated from the bulk of the Rocky Mountains
5.
Montana
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Montana /mɒnˈtænə/ is a state in the Western region of the United States. The states name is derived from the Spanish word montaña, Montana has several nicknames, although none official, including Big Sky Country and The Treasure State, and slogans that include Land of the Shining Mountains and more recently The Last Best Place. Montana has a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It also borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, Montana is ranked 4th in size, but 44th in population and 48th in population density of the 50 United States. The western third of Montana contains numerous mountain ranges, smaller island ranges are found throughout the state. In total,77 named ranges are part of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern half of Montana is characterized by western prairie terrain and badlands. The economy is based on agriculture, including ranching and cereal grain farming. Other significant economic activities include oil, gas, coal and hard rock mining, lumber, the health care, service, and government sectors also are significant to the states economy. Millions of tourists annually visit Glacier National Park, the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, the name Montana comes from the Spanish word Montaña and the Latin word Montana, meaning mountain, or more broadly, mountainous country. Montaña del Norte was the name given by early Spanish explorers to the mountainous region of the west. The name was changed by Representatives Henry Wilson and Benjamin F. Harding, when Ashley presented a bill to establish a temporary government in 1864 for a new territory to be carved out of Idaho, he again chose Montana Territory. This time Rep. Samuel Cox, also of Ohio, objected to the name, Cox complained that the name was a misnomer given most of the territory was not mountainous and that a Native American name would be more appropriate than a Spanish one. Other names such as Shoshone were suggested, but it was decided that the Committee on Territories could name it whatever they wanted, with an area of 147,040 square miles, Montana is slightly larger than Japan. It is the fourth largest state in the United States after Alaska, Texas, and California, the largest landlocked U. S. state, and the worlds 56th largest national state/province subdivision. To the north, Montana shares a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, the states topography is roughly defined by the Continental Divide, which splits much of the state into distinct eastern and western regions. Most of Montanas 100 or more named mountain ranges are in the western half. The Absaroka and Beartooth ranges in the states south-central part are part of the Central Rocky Mountains
6.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
7.
Nez Perce people
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The Nez Perce /ˌnɛzˈpɜːrs/ are an Indigenous people of the Plateau, who live in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, which is on the Columbia River Plateau. They are federally recognized as the Nez Perce Tribe and govern their reservation in Idaho and they are one of five federally recognized tribes in the state. Anthropologists have written that the Nez Percé descend from the Old Cordilleran Culture and this name was given to this tribe and the nearby Chinook people by French explorers and trappers, meaning pierced nose, but only the Chinook used that form of decoration. Their name for themselves is Nimíipuu, meaning, The People, in their language, Nez Percé is an exonym given by French Canadian fur traders who visited the area regularly in the late 18th century, meaning literally pierced nose. English-speaking traders and settlers adopted the name in turn, since the late 20th century, the Nez Perce identify most often as Niimíipu in Sahaptin. The tribe also uses the term Nez Perce, as does the United States Government in its dealings with them. Older historical ethnological works and documents use the French spelling of Nez Percé, the original French pronunciation is, with three syllables. In his journals, William Clark referred to the people as the Chopunnish /ˈtʃoʊpənɪʃ/, Walker in 1998, writing for the Smithsonian, this term is an adaptation of the term cú·pʼnitpeľu. The term is formed from cú·pʼnit and peľu, by contrast, the Nez Perce Language Dictionary has a different analysis than did Walker for the term cúpnitpelu. The prefix cú- means in single file and this prefix, combined with the verb -piní, to come out. Finally, with the suffix of -pelú, meaning people or inhabitants of, together, these three elements, cú- + -piní + pelú = cúpnitpelu, or the People Walking Single File Out of the Forest. Nez Perce oral tradition indicates the name Cuupnitpeluu meant we walked out of the woods or walked out of the mountains, the interpreter of the Lewis and Clark Expedition mistakenly identified this people as the Nez Perce when the team encountered the tribe in 1805. They did not practice nose piercing or wearing ornaments, the tribe known as pierced nose lived on and around the lower Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest. They are commonly called the Chinook tribe by historians and anthropologists, the Chinook relied heavily upon salmon as a food staple, as did the Nez Perce. The peoples shared fishing and trading sites, but the Chinook had a different culture and more hierarchical social arrangements. The Nez Perce language, or Niimiipuutímt, is a Sahaptian language related to the dialects of Sahaptin. The Sahaptian sub-family is one of the branches of the Plateau Penutian family, the tribal area extended from the Bitterroots in the east to the Blue Mountains in the west between latitudes 45°N and 47°N. In 1800, the Nez Perce had more than 100 permanent villages, ranging from 50 to 600 individuals, depending on the season, archeologists have identified a total of about 300 related sites including camps and villages, mostly in the Salmon River Canyon
8.
Palus people
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The Palus /pəˈluːs/ are a Sahaptin tribe recognized in the Treaty of 1855 with the Yakamas, negotiated at the 1855 Walla Walla Council. A variant spelling is Palouse, which was the source of the name for the prairie of Washington. Today they are enrolled in the federally recognized Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation and are represented by the Colville Confederated Tribes. The people are one of the Sahaptin speaking groups of Native Americans living on the Columbia Plateau in eastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, the people of the region lived in three main groups, the Upper, Middle, and Lower bands. Traditional lands included areas around such as the Columbia, Snake. The ancestral people were nomadic, following food sources through the seasons, the Palus people gathered with other native peoples for activities such as food-gathering, hunting, fishing, feasting, trading, and celebrations that included dancing, sports and gambling. They lived near other groups including the Nez Perce, Wanapum, Walla Walla, in October 1805, Lewis and Clark met with the tribe, although most were away from the area for fall food-gathering and hunting. Lewis and Clark presented one of the expeditions silver peace medals to Chief Kepowhan, the Diaries of the Corps of Discovery describe the people as a separate and distinct group from the Nez Perce. The people were expert horsemen and the term Appaloosa is probably a derivation of the term Palouse horse, hundreds of tribal horses were slaughtered to cripple the tribe during the Indian Wars in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Chalfant, Stuart A. Ethnohistorical reports on land use and occupancy, Spokan Indians, Palus Indians, Columbia Salish. Note, S. A. Chalfants report was presented before the United States Indian Claims Commission as docket no, the conquest of the Coeur dAlenes, Spokanes and Palouses, the expeditions of Colonels E. J. Steptoe and George Wright against the northern Indians in 1858, trafzer, Clifford E. and Richard D. Scheuerman. Renegade Tribe, The Palouse Indians and the Invasion of the Inland Pacific Northwest, great battle of the Spokane plains, Washington Territory. Note, One and a half columns of text published in the September 23,1858 issue of The Press, Philadelphia. The newspaper story quotes dispatches sent by Col. G. Wright regarding an expedition against Northern Indians, camp on the Spokane River, one, spokane-Coeur dAlene-Paloos War Yakima War Cayuse War Okanagan Trail Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation National Geographic article
9.
Oliver Otis Howard
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Oliver Otis Howard was a career United States Army officer and a Union general in the American Civil War. Howards Bureau was primarily responsible for the affairs of the freedmen. He attempted to protect freed blacks from hostile conditions, but lacked adequate power, Howards allies, the Radical Republicans, won control of Congress in the 1866 elections and imposed Radical Reconstruction, with the result that freedmen were given the vote. With the help and advice of the Bureau, freedmen joined Republican coalitions, Howard was also a leader in promoting higher education for freedmen, most notably in founding of Howard University in Washington and serving as its president 1867–73. After 1874, Howard commanded troops in the West, conducting a campaign against the Nez Perce tribe. Oliver Howard was born in Leeds, Maine, the son of Rowland Bailey Howard, Rowland, a farmer, died when Oliver was 9 years old. Oliver attended Monmouth Academy in Monmouth, North Yarmouth Academy in Yarmouth, Kents Hill School in Readfield and he then attended the United States Military Academy, graduating in 1854, fourth in his class of 46 cadets, as a brevet second lieutenant of ordnance. He served at the Watervliet Arsenal near Troy, New York, in 1855, he married Elizabeth Anne Waite, with whom he would have seven children. In 1857 he was transferred to Florida for the Seminole Wars and it was in Florida that he experienced a conversion to evangelical Christianity and considered resigning from the Army to become a minister. His religious proclivities would later earn him the nickname the Christian general, Howard was promoted first lieutenant in July 1857, and returned to West Point the following September to become an instructor of mathematics. As the Civil War began with the surrender of Fort Sumter, thoughts of the ministry were put aside, Howard was appointed colonel of the 3rd Maine Infantry regiment and temporarily commanded a brigade at the First Battle of Bull Run. He was promoted to brigadier general effective September 3,1861 and he then joined Maj. Gen. George B. McClellans Army of the Potomac for the Peninsula Campaign, on June 1,1862, while commanding a Union brigade in the Fair Oaks, Howard was wounded twice in his right arm, which was subsequently amputated. Brig. Gen. Philip Kearny, who had lost his arm, visited Howard. Howard recovered quickly enough to rejoin the army for the Battle of Antietam and he was promoted to major general in November 1862 and assumed command of the XI Corps the following April, replacing Maj. Gen. Franz Sigel. Since the corps was composed largely of German immigrants, many of whom spoke no English, at the Battle of Chancellorsville, Howard suffered the first of two significant military setbacks, which together led to his occasional nickname, Uh-Oh Howard. On May 2,1863, his corps was on the flank of the Union line. Robert E. Lee and Lt. Gen. Thomas J. Stonewall Jackson devised a plan in which Jacksons entire corps would march secretly around the Union flank
10.
John Gibbon
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John Gibbon was a career United States Army officer who fought in the American Civil War and the Indian Wars. Gibbon was born in the Holmesburg section of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and he is the brother of Lardner Gibbon. When Gibbon was nearly 11 years old the family moved near Charlotte, North Carolina and he graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1847 and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 3rd U. S. Artillery. The manual was a scientific treatise on gunnery and was used by both sides in the Civil War. In 1855, Gibbon married Francis Fannie North Moale and they had four children, Frances Moale Gibbon, Catharine Katy Lardner Gibbon, John Gibbon, Jr. and John S. Gibbon. When war broke out between the states, Gibbon was serving as a captain of Battery B, 4th U. S, Artillery at Camp Floyd in Utah. Upon arrival in Washington, Gibbon, still in command of the 4th U. S. Artillery, in 1862, he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers and commanded the brigade of westerners known as Kings Wisconsin Brigade. Gibbon quickly set about drilling his troops and improving their appearance, ordering them to wear white leggings and distinctive, black,1858 regular army and their famous hats earned them the nickname, The Black Hat Brigade. He led the brigade into action against the famous Confederate Stonewall Brigade at the Battle of Brawners Farm, a prelude to the Second Battle of Bull Run. He was in command of the brigade during their strong uphill charge at the Battle of South Mountain, from then on, the brigade was known as the Iron Brigade. Gibbon led the brigade at the Battle of Antietam, where he was forced to take away from brigade command to personally man an artillery piece in the bloody fighting at the Cornfield. Gibbon was promoted to command the 2nd Division, I Corps at the Battle of Fredericksburg, the wound was minor but kept getting infected, so Gibbon was out of action for a few months. Shortly after returning to duty he learned of the death of his son, John Gibbon, Jr. Gibbon returned for the Battle of Chancellorsville. At the end of the council of war on the night of July 2, army commander Maj. Gen. George G. Meade took Gibbon aside and predicted, If Lee attacks tomorrow, it will be on your front. And his division did bear the brunt of fighting during the defense against Picketts Charge on July 3, Gibbon was back in command of the 2nd Division at the battles of the Wilderness, Spotsylvania Court House, and Cold Harbor. During the Siege of Petersburg, Gibbon became disheartened when his troops refused to fight at Reams Station. He briefly commanded the XVIII Corps before going on sick leave and his troops helped achieve the decisive breakthrough at Petersburg, capturing Fort Gregg, part of the Confederate defenses. He led his troops during the Appomattox Campaign and blocked the Confederate escape route at the Battle of Appomattox Courthouse and he was one of three commissioners for the Confederate surrender
11.
Nelson A. Miles
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Nelson Appleton Miles was a United States soldier who served in the American Civil War, Indian Wars, and the Spanish–American War. Miles was born in Westminster, Massachusetts, on his familys farm and he worked in Boston, read military history, and mastered military principles and techniques, including battle drills. Miles was working as a store clerk in Boston when the Civil War began. He entered the Union Army on September 9,1861, as a volunteer and he became a lieutenant in the 22nd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, and was commissioned lieutenant colonel of the 61st New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment on May 31,1862. He was promoted to colonel after the Battle of Antietam, other battles he participated in include Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, and the Appomattox Campaign. Wounded four times in battle, on March 2,1867 he was brevetted a brigadier general in the army in recognition of his actions at Chancellorsville. He was again brevetted, this time to the rank of general for his actions at Spotsylvania Court House. He received the Medal of Honor for his gallantry at Chancellorsville and he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers as of May 12,1864, for the Battles of the Wilderness and Spotsylvania Court House. On October 21,1865, he was appointed general of volunteers at age 26. After the war, he was commandant of Fort Monroe, Virginia, during his tenure at Fort Monroe, Miles was forced to defend himself against charges that Davis was being mistreated. In July 1866, Miles was appointed a colonel in the Regular Army, in March 1869 he became commander of the 5th U. S. On June 30,1868, he married Mary Hoyt Sherman, Miles played a leading role in nearly all of the U. S. Armys campaigns against the American Indian tribes of the Great Plains. In 1874–1875, he was a commander in the force that defeated the Kiowa, Comanche. In the winter of 1877, he drove his troops on a march across Montana. For the rest of Miles career, he would quarrel with General Oliver O. Howard over credit for Josephs capture, the heliographs were supplied by Brig. Gen. Albert J. Myer of the Signal Corps. In December 1880, he was promoted to general in the Regular Army. Crook had relied heavily on Apache scouts in his efforts to capture the Chiricahua leader, instead, Miles relied on white troops, who eventually traveled 3,000 miles without success as they tracked Geronimo through the tortuous Sierra Madre Mountains. Gatewood, who had studied Apache ways, succeeded in negotiating a surrender, under the terms of which Geronimo and his followers, agreed to spend two years in a Florida reservation
12.
Samuel D. Sturgis
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Samuel Davis Sturgis was an American military officer who served in the Mexican-American War, as a Union general in the American Civil War, and later in the Indian Wars. Sturgis was born in Shippensburg, Pennsylvania and his parents were Mary Brandenburg and James Sturgis. He entered United States Military Academy at the age of twenty and was graduated 32/59 in the class of 1846 as a brevet second lieutenant in the 2nd U. S. Dragoons. That class also included among its graduates John Gibbon, George B, mcClellan, Jesse Reno, and George Stoneman, who would fight on the Union side and Ambrose Powell Hill, Thomas Jonathan Stonewall Jackson, and George Pickett, who would fight on the Confederate side. During the Mexican-American War, he served with the 1st U. S. Dragoons and was captured and held for eight days as a prisoner of war while making a reconnaissance near Buena Vista, Mexico. After the war, he served in the West, was promoted to first lieutenant and captain, during this time, Sturgis was sent to West Ely, Missouri, where he met Jerusha Wilcox. In 1851 they married and had six children, when the Civil War broke out, Sturgis served in the 1st U. S. Cavalry. He was promoted to major and in August 1861, at the Battle of Wilsons Creek, in March 1862 he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers to rank from August 10,1861, the day of the battle. After a tour of duty in the Washington, D. C. defenses and his reaction was his now-famous remark, I dont care for John Pope one pinch of owl dung. Sturgis then commanded the 2nd Division in the IX Corps at the battles of South Mountain, Antietam and he went west with IX Corps in 1863 and later had a number of relatively unimportant commands in Tennessee and Mississippi. He also served as Chief of Cavalry of the Department of the Ohio, in June 1864 he was routed by Nathan Bedford Forrest at the Battle of Brices Crossroads in Mississippi, an encounter that effectively ended his Civil War service. Sturgis was breveted brigadier general and major general, regular army, in March 1865 and he reverted to his regular rank of lieutenant colonel of the 6th U. S. Cavalry. On May 6,1869, he became colonel and commander of the 7th U. S. Cavalry, Sturgis was on detached duty at St. Louis, Missouri when parts of the 7th Cavalry were destroyed at the Battle of Little Big Horn. Samuel Sturgis then took command of the regiment and led the 7th Cavalry in the campaign against the Nez Percé in 1877. Sturgis and his soldiers headed off the Nez Perce and waited to attack them after when they emerged from their passage through the wilderness of Yellowstone Park, the Indians deceived Sturgis with a feint and eluded him, continuing their flight northward toward Canada. Sturgis soon caught up with the Nez Perce but at the Battle of Canyon Creek, Sturgis retired in 1886 and died at Saint Paul, Minnesota. He is buried at Arlington National Cemetery and his son Samuel D. Sturgis, Jr. became a general in the United States Army, and was a division commander in the American Expeditionary Force during World War I. His grandson Samuel D. Sturgis, Jr. also became a general in the United States Army, the city of Sturgis, South Dakota, is named for Samuel D. Sturgis
13.
Chief Joseph
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They were pursued eastward by the U. S. Army in a campaign led by General Oliver O. Howard. This 1, 170-mile fighting retreat by the Nez Perce in 1877 became known as the Nez Perce War, coverage of the war in United States newspapers led to widespread recognition of Joseph and the Nez Perce. For his principled resistance to the removal, he became renowned as a humanitarian, Chief Joseph was born Hinmuuttu-yalatlat (alternatively Hinmaton-Yalaktit or Hin-mah-too-yah-lat-kekt, or Hinmatóoyalahtqit in the Wallowa Valley of north eastern Oregon. He was known as Young Joseph during his youth because his father, Tuekakas, was baptized with the same Christian name, while initially hospitable to the regions newcomers, Joseph the Elder grew wary when settlers wanted more Indian lands. Tensions grew as the settlers appropriated traditional Indian lands for farming and grazing livestock, isaac Stevens, governor of the Washington Territory, organized a council to designate separate areas for natives and settlers in 1855. Joseph the Elder and the other Nez Perce chiefs signed a treaty with the United States establishing a Nez Perce reservation encompassing 7.7 million acres in present-day Idaho, Oregon, the 1855 reservation maintained much of the traditional Nez Perce lands, including Josephs Wallowa Valley. It is recorded that Chief Josephs father requested that Young Joseph protect their 7. 7-million-acre homeland, an influx of new settlers, attracted by a gold rush, led the government to call a second council in 1863. Government commissioners asked the Nez Perce to accept a new, much smaller reservation of 760,000 acres situated around the village of Lapwai in Idaho, in exchange, they were promised financial rewards, schools, and a hospital for the reservation. Chief Lawyer and one of his allied chiefs signed the treaty on behalf of the Nez Perce Nation and their refusal to sign caused a rift between the non-treaty and treaty bands of Nez Perce. The treaty Nez Perce moved within the new boundaries, while the non-treaty Nez Perce remained on their lands. Joseph the Elder demarcated Wallowa land with a series of poles, proclaiming and it circles the graves of our fathers, and we will never give up these graves to any man. Joseph the Younger succeeded his father as leader of the Wallowa band in 1871, before his death, the latter counseled his son, My son, my body is returning to my mother earth, and my spirit is going very soon to see the Great Spirit Chief. When I am gone, think of your country and you are the chief of these people. They look to you to guide them, always remember that your father never sold his country. You must stop your ears whenever you are asked to sign a treaty selling your home, a few years more and white men will be all around you. They have their eyes on this land and my son, never forget my dying words. This country holds your fathers body, never sell the bones of your father and your mother. Joseph commented, I clasped my fathers hand and promised to do as he asked, a man who would not defend his fathers grave is worse than a wild beast
14.
Looking Glass (Native American leader)
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Looking Glass was a principal Nez Perce architect of many of the military strategies employed by the Nez Perce during the Nez Perce War of 1877. He, along with Chief Joseph, directed the 1877 retreat from eastern Oregon into Montana and he led the Alpowai band of the Nez Perce, which included the communities of Asotin, Alpowa, and Sapachesap along the Clearwater River in Idaho. He inherited his name from his father, the prominent Nez Percé chief Apash Wyakaikt or Ippakness Wayhayken and was called by the whites Looking Glass. His village of about 140 people was already within the bounds of the reservation on the site of the present-day Kooskia National Fish Hatchery in Idaho, whipple and his men arrived at the village on July 1. After a random shot was fired by a party, the soldiers opened fire on the village with Gatling guns. Looking Glass and most of his band escaped, but the village, after the attack, Looking Glass and his followers joined Josephs band, raising the total number of the group to about 800 men, women, and children. Looking Glass persuaded the others to flee eastwards across the Bitterroot Mountains, because of his experience, Looking Glass became perhaps the most important battle leader of the Nez Perce. His prestige, however, was diminished when he allowed the Nez Perce to be surprised by the U. S. army at the Battle of the Big Hole, Looking Glass encouraged the Nez Perce to travel east and seek sanctuary with the Crow nation in Montana. He had helped the Crow defeat the Dakota Sioux in a battle in 1874, however, the Crow, fearing retaliation by the U. S. military, refused to grant the Nez Perce sanctuary. The Nez Perce, pursued by the army, then turned north to attempt reaching safety in Canada, however, on September 29,1877, they were surrounded 40 miles short of Canada in the Bear Paw Mountains of Montana. After the five-day siege and the Battle of Bear Paw Chief Joseph proposed surrender, white Bird and Looking Glass opposed the surrender and they and their bands attempted to break through the siege and continue on to Canada and join the Lakota leader Sitting Bull. White Bird and 150 Nez Perce succeeded but Looking Glass was killed by a Cheyenne scout employed by the Army, joseph’s famous surrender speech later that same day, October 5, mentioned that Looking Glass was dead
15.
White Bird (Native American leader)
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White Bird, also referred to as White Pelican, was leader, war chief and tooat of the Lamátta or Lamtáama band of the Nez Perce tribe with the Lamata village along the Salmon River. His band and the village took its name from Lahmatta, by which White Bird Canyon was known to the Nez Perce, Chief White Bird, like many of his people, was a Dreamer, a follower of the teachings of Smohalla, the Wanapam shaman and prophet. Alongside Chief Joseph, White Bird directed the 1877 withdrawal from eastern Oregon into Montana, White Birds following was second in size to Josephs but did not exceed 1000 men. White Bird and Joseph led the Nez Percé Indians until October 1877, following a five-day fight, Joseph and many of the fatigued band acknowledged a cessation of hostilities, surrendered to Miles, and became prisoners of war. White Bird refused to relinquish and left on the night of October 5 and he effectively slipped through enemy lines with over a hundred of the band. In October 1877, about ninety adults and a number of children led by White Bird arrived with some three hundred head of horses at Sitting Bulls camp in Saskatchewan. White Bird and his family settled in Pincher Creek, Alberta, the war chief never returned to the United States, choosing to stay in Canada at Pincher Creek. White Bird was murdered on March 6,1892, by a fellow Nez Percé named Charley Hasenahamahkikt, the 22-year-old killer was captured and sent to the Stony Mountain Penitentiary, in Manitoba, Canada to serve a life sentence. The town of White Bird, Idaho, and the adjacent White Bird Hill in Idaho County are named for the chief, the Battle of White Bird Canyon took place in this area in June 1877
16.
Ollokot
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Ollokot was a war leader of the Wallowa band of Nez Perce Indians and a leader of the young warriors in the Nez Perce War in 1877. Ollokot was the son of Tuekakas or Old Joseph and the brother of Chief Joseph. His father and brother were advocates of peace and passive resistance to encroachments by White settlers and miners on the land of the Nez Perce. S. in early 1877, Ollokot participated with Chief Joseph in negotiations with General O. O. Howard. Howard demanded that Joseph’s and Ollokot’s people move from their lands in the Wallowa Valley of Oregon to a reservation established for them in Idaho. ”Ollokot was married to Tamalwinonmi. The Nez Perce, numbering only about 800 with less than 200 fighting men, then undertook a remarkable 1,400 mile retreat across Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana. The Nez Perce won victories, or escaped from larger U. S. army forces, in battles at Cottonwood, Clearwater, Big Hole, and Canyon Creek. Ollokot and 60 young men surrounded and pinned down a number of soldiers at the Battle of the Big Hole. Later, he and others immobilized General Howard by stealing his pack mules at the Battle of Canyon Creek. However, the Nez Perce were surrounded in the Bear Paw Mountains of Montana by hundreds of U. S. soldiers, only 40 miles from their objective, after the five-day Battle of Bear Paw, Chief Joseph surrendered on October 5,1877. Ollokot had been killed on the first day of the battle, in his famous surrender speech Joseph acknowledged Ollokot, “He who led the young men is dead. ”
17.
Battle of White Bird Canyon
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The Battle of White Bird Canyon was fought on June 17,1877 in Idaho Territory. White Bird Canyon was the battle of the Nez Perce War between the Nez Perce Indians and the United States. The battle was a significant defeat of the U. S. Army and it took place in the western part of present-day Idaho County, southwest of the city of Grangeville. The original treaty between the U. S. government and the Nez Perce, signed in 1855, established a reservation that acknowledged the ancestral homelands of the Nez Perce. In 1860, the discovery of gold on the Nez Perce Indian Reservation brought an influx of miners and settlers into the area. Despite numerous treaty violations, the Nez Perce remained peaceful, in 1863, responding to pressures to make land available to settlers, the U. S. government forced another treaty on the Nez Perce, reducing the size of the reservation by 90%. The leaders of the bands living outside the new reservation refused to sign the steal treaty, in May 1877, after several attacks from the U. S. Army, the non-treaty bands moved from their homelands towards the new reservation. The Wal-lam-wat-kain Band, led by Chief Joseph, lost a number of horses. Josephs and Chief White Birds bands eventually gathered at Tepahlewam, the camping ground on the Camas Prairie at Tolo Lake to enjoy the last days of their traditional lifestyle. It was a rendezvous, not all the people agreed with the course of peace and compliance. On June 14, seventeen young men, including Wahlitits, entered the Salmon River area to seek revenge for the 1875 murder of Wahlitits father, Tipyahlanah Siskan and others killed in the attacks. The proclaimed success of their mission roused the desire for vengeance among other warriors, at least 18 settlers were killed by the Nez Perce. Settlers sent messengers from the community of Mount Idaho to Fort Lapwai describing these events, the Nez Perce at Tepahlewam were aware that General O. O. Howard was preparing to send his soldiers against them. By June 16, the bands had moved to the end of White Bird Canyon, about five miles long, one mile wide at its maximum. That night, sentinels reported the approach of U. S. soldiers from the north, after much deliberation, the Nez Perce decided that they would stay at White Bird and make an effort to avoid war, but fight if they were forced to do so. Captain David Perry commanded Company F and Captain Joel Graham Trimble commanded Company H of the U. S, the officers and men of the two companies totaled 106. Eleven civilian volunteers rode with the soldiers and 13 Nez Perce scouts from treaty bands had been recruited at Fort Lapwai, nearly half the soldiers were foreign-born and most were inexperienced and inexpert horsemen and marksmen. Their horses, as well as the riders, were untrained for battle and both men and horses arrived exhausted at White Bird Canyon after a two-day ride of more than 70 miles
18.
Battle of Cottonwood
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The Battle of Cottonwood was a series of engagements July 3–5,1877 in the Nez Perce War between the native American Nez Perce people, and U. S. Army soldiers and civilian volunteers. After their victory at the Battle of White Bird Canyon the Nez Perce crossed the Salmon River to escape General O. O. Howard, the Nez Perce numbered about 600, of whom 150 were warriors. With them were more than 2,000 livestock, mostly horses, with the guns and ammunition the Nez Perce had captured at White Bird Canyon, they were fairly well-armed. Their objective in the Battle of Cottonwood was to engage the whites only long enough allow the passage of their families. After recrossing the Salmon and leaving Howard behind, the Nez Perce headed east across the Camas Prairie, in their path, stationed at Nortons Ranch was Captain Stephen Whipple with 65 soldiers and several civilian volunteers. On July 3, two of Whipples civilian scouts stumbled across the Nez Perce horse herd, the Nez Perce killed one man but the other escaped and reported that the Nez Perce were nearby. Whipple sent out Lieutenant Sevier Rains with 10 soldiers and two civilians to investigate, the Nez Perce ambushed the Rains group and killed them all. Whipple dug in around Nortons ranch with his remaining soldiers and he was reinforced on July 4 by Captain David Perry with 20 soldiers and six civilian volunteers. Perry, who had led the soldiers in the White Bird Canyon battle two weeks earlier took command of the soldiers and volunteers, now numbering about 85. For the remainder of the day the soldiers stayed in their rifle pits while the Nez Perce sniped at them from long distance, the soldiers did not contest their passage. A group of 17 civilian volunteers appeared near Cottonwood at this time and they attempted to reach the soldiers by breaking through the Nez Perce screen, but they had to take up a defensive position on a hilltop about one and 1.5 miles west of Cottonwood. Three of the volunteers were killed and two wounded, one elderly Nez Perce warrior was killed – the first to die in the war – and one wounded. Although Captain Perry could see from his fortifications the plight of the volunteers he declined to help until the Nez Perce had withdrawn. That evening 50 civilian volunteers arrived to reinforce Perry, but the Nez Perce were gone, casualties for the engagements totaled eleven soldiers and six civilian volunteers dead and several wounded. The Nez Perce suffered one dead and one wounded, Captain Perry was severely criticized for his tardiness in rescuing the civilian volunteers. He requested a Court of Inquiry, which declared that his delay was not excessive under the circumstances, the civilian volunteers acquired a place in Idaho history as the Brave Seventeen. The Nez Perce continued their journey east unmolested for 25 miles, the band of Looking Glass and other Nez Perce joined the main group there and brought their strength up to about 800 with about 200 fighting men. A few days later General Howard and a force of more than 500 men caught up with the Nez Perce, ten members of Company E and L of the 1st Cavalry killed in this battle are buried at the Fort Walla Walla Cemetery
19.
Battle of the Clearwater
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The Battle of the Clearwater was a battle between the Nez Perce under Chief Joseph and the United States army. The army under General O. O. Howard surprised a Nez Perce village, the Nez Perce counter-attacked and inflicted significant casualties on the soldiers, but they were forced to abandon the village. After the battle, the Nez Perce retreated in good order, after the defeat of the U. S. Army by the Nez Perce at the Battle of White Bird Canyon, General Oliver Otis Howard took personal command of the army. Howard dispatched a force to capture the neutral Looking Glass. Along their route they burned 30 ranches and farms, the proprietors had fled to nearby Mt. Idaho. The ranches and farms were on the Nez Perce Reservation and illegal in the view of the Nez Perce and they established a camp in the steep-walled valley of the South Fork of the Clearwater River north of the present day town of Stites. There, on July 7, they were joined by Looking Glass, on July 8, a company of 75 civilian volunteers under Edward McConville, found the Nez Perce camp and reported its location to General Howard. The Nez Perce discovered the volunteers the next morning and attacked them, forcing them to refuge on a hilltop. Out of water and their horses stolen by the Indians, the volunteers dubbed their hilltop “Fort Misery. ”About noon on June 11 the volunteers withdrew from their hill to Mount Idaho without opposition. About noon on July 11, Howard spotted the village, spread along both banks of the Clearwater, perhaps lulled into complacency by their previous successes, the Nez Perce were surprised at his sudden appearance. To combat approximately 200 Nez Perce warriors, Howard had 440 soldiers plus civilian packers, scouts, messengers and Indian scouts, among the Indian scouts were some Nez Perce. The old warrior Toohoolhoolzote and 24 Nez Perce, including Yellow Wolf and they built a stone fort and began firing at the soldiers, stalling Howard’s cavalry. Soon, they were surrounded and they retreated back to the village. About 100 Nez Perce opposed Howard as he advanced and took up positions on the prairie, “Although we outnumbered the Indians, ” said a correspondent, “we fought to a great disadvantage. The redskins were in a fortified canyon…while our men were obliged to approach them along an open and treeless prairie. ”After extensive fighting all afternoon, the soldiers spent the night hungry and thirsty. The Nez Perce in the line were supplied by women from the village in their rear. On the morning of July 12 Howard’s entire force was facing the Nez Perce on the prairie and he drove the Nez Perce away from a spring and was able to provide water and food to his men. Howard prepared an attack on the Nez Perce left flank by Captain Marcus Miller, unexpectedly, a pack train of 120 mules bearing supplies for Howard appeared on the battlefield
20.
Fort Fizzle (Montana)
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Fort Fizzle was a temporary military barricade erected in July 1877 to intercept the Nez Perce Indians in their flight from Idaho across the Lolo Pass into the Bitterroot Valley of Montana. The name describes the effectiveness of the fort, in the Nez Perce War the U. S. Army defeated, but did not demoralize, the Nez Perce under Chief Joseph at the Battle of the Clearwater, July 11–12,1877. The Nez Perce were familiar with this region, having been frequent visitors while en route to the plains to hunt buffalo. White settlers and U. S. Army soldiers in the Bitterroot Valley, informed by telegraph that the Nez Perce were coming their way, Captain Charles Rawn had only 35 soldiers to defend the valley. The youths had been released to bring a message from the Nez Perce that they wished to pass peacefully through the settlements. Rawn, however, was ordered to “compel the Indians to surrender their arms and ammunition, on July 26, Rawn met with Looking Glass who requested to traverse the Bitterroot Valley without violence. Rawn demanded that the Nez Perce surrender their arms and ammunition, the next day,216 armed men, including 15 to 20 Flathead Indian scouts were gathered at the improvised fort and the Governor of Montana, Benjamin F. Potts, had arrived. Rawn and Looking Glass met again and each repeated their demands. When Rawn returned to the fort and said that he anticipated a battle with the Nez Perce, most of the left, declaring that “no act of hostility on their part should provoke the Indians. ”The next morning, July 27, less than 100 men were left to man the fort. Governor Potts had also found reason to depart, according to Chief Joseph, Captain Rawn agreed to allow the Nez Perce to pass through Bitterroot Valley in peace. Rawn never admitted making such an agreement. The barricade where Rawn and his men were entrenched was in a constricted 200 yard wide passage in the canyon enclosed on both sides by precipitous ridges where “a goat could not pass. ”Nevertheless, on July 28 the Nez Perce – men, women, children, and livestock—climbed the ridges and bypassed the barricade, leaving the defenders in their rear. Rawn and his soldiers exchanged a few shots with the Nez Perce on the ridge and then abandoned the fort, an advance party of soldiers bumped into the rear guard of the Nez Perce. Looking Glass exchanged friendly greetings with them, fifty of the civilian volunteers stumbled into the Nez Perce camp and were captured, but were released after Looking Glass promised no violence against anybody. Thus, the fort acquired its name -- “Fort Fizzle. The Fort Fizzle fiasco prompted volleys of charges and counter-charges of cowardice and ineptitude between and among the government and citizens of Montana and the U. S. government, a volunteer explained that “we were not silly enough to uselessly incite the Indians to devastate our valley. However, the respite from war of the Nez Perce was brief, lulled into complacency by their peaceful passage through the Bitterroot Valley, they would be attacked on August 9 by Colonel John Gibbon and 200 men in the bloody Battle of the Big Hole. A portion of the fort has been reconstructed at Fort Fizzle Historic Site, the Fort Fizzle Historic Site parallels the historic Lolo trail once used by the Nez Perce, Salish and Kootenai tribes and Lewis and Clark
21.
Battle of the Big Hole
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The Battle of the Big Hole was fought in Montana, August 9–10,1877, between the U. S. Army and the Nez Perce tribe of Native Americans during the Nez Perce War. The Nez Perce withdrew in order from the battlefield and continued their long fighting retreat that would result in their attempt to reach Canada. The Nez Perce leaders had led their people on an extensive trek after the Battle of the Clearwater to escape the soldiers of General Oliver Otis Howard, the Nez Perce crossed from Idaho into Montana via rugged Lolo Pass. After a brief confrontation at Fort Fizzle on July 28 the Nez Perce entered the Bitterroot Valley, Looking Glass seems to have taken over leadership from Chief Joseph. Looking Glass persuaded the Nez Perce that Howard was far behind, thus, their progress was leisurely and they took few precautions for defense, not sending out scouts or setting pickets to guard their encampments. They left the Bitterroot Valley, crossed a range, and camped in the Big Hole Basin. The Nez Perce numbered about 750 persons in all with about 200 warriors, unknown to the Nez Perce, Colonel John Gibbon had left Fort Shaw with 161 officers and men and one howitzer. Following the trail of the Nez Perce he collected 45 civilian volunteers in the Bitterroot Valley, on August 8, Gibbon located the Nez Perce encampment in the Big Hole. That night Gibbon marched overland to the Nez Perce camp, reaching it at dawn, leaving his 12-pound howitzer and he had come to fight, his orders were no prisoners and no negotiations. Between Gibbon’s position and the Nez Perce encampment, which consisted of 89 tipis in a V-shaped pattern, was the waist-deep, approaching the Nez Perce encampment on foot at dawn, Gibbon’s men encountered an old Nez Perce man and killed him. The soldiers crossed the river and rushed into the village and began firing into the tipis where most of the Nez Perce were still sleeping, the Indians were taken by surprise and fled in all directions. Gibbon’s men fired indiscriminately at men, women, and children – although some of the women were said to have been armed, lieutenant James H. Bradley, leading Gibbon’s left wing, was killed early in the battle. Leaderless, his men did not continue their advance and left the part of the village unoccupied, giving a refuge. Gibbon halted his men in their pursuit, not wishing his force to be scattered and this proved difficult to do and the pause gave the Nez Perce time to regroup. The voices of White Bird and Looking Glass rallying their men from the end of the village were heard by the soldiers. From sheltered positions the Nez Perce began to return fire, gibbons horse was hit and he was wounded in the leg and several other soldiers were killed. As usual, the Nez Perces marksmanship was excellent – although, according to the warrior Yellow Wolf, most of the Nez Perce warriors had fled without their weapons, the soldiers dug rifle pits and constructed rock and log barriers. At this point Gibbon’s howitzer appeared on the battlefield and fired two or three ineffectual rounds, the Nez Perce killed or wounded most of the howitzer crew, who abandoned the gun but not before dismantling it
22.
Battle of Camas Creek
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The Battle of Camas Creek, August 20,1877, was a raid by the Nez Perce Indians on a U. S. Army encampment and a subsequent battle during the Nez Perce War. The Nez Perce defeated three companies of U. S. cavalry and continued their retreat to escape the U. S. Army. The Nez Perce were aware that the U. S. army was pursuing them and, to confound the army, they took a circuitous route less familiar to them than their usual direct route to the Montana Great Plains. During this section of their retreat, their guide and the leader of their march was a half-Nez Perce, half-French man of several names, the most common being Poker Joe. The White settlers in the Lemhi Valley had been warned that the Nez Perce might be coming their way, Howard was coming under severe criticism for his failure to defeat the Nez Perce during a campaign that had now lasted two months. The Nez Perce pursued by Howard probably numbered, after their losses at the Big Hole battle, about 700 persons with less than 200 warriors. The death of many Nez Perce women and children at the Big Hole Battle caused a thirst for revenge among the warriors of the Nez Perce. On August 12, the Nez Perce killed five ranchers on Horse Prairie, on August 13, after crossing into Idaho over Bannock Pass, the Nez Perce encountered a stockade full of White settlers at Junction. Leaders Looking Glass and White Bird met with the settlers and expressed their friendship for the settlers, however, two days later, the Nez Perce on Birch Creek encountered a caravan of eight covered wagons and eight men. The initial contact was friendly, but after the Indians demanded and were served whiskey the situation became ugly, one White escaped and two Chinese were released. One Nez Perce was killed, apparently in a brawl with another warrior. The leaders poured the remainder of the whiskey on the ground, from Birch Creek the Nez Perce turned eastward and headed toward Henrys Lake. Howard’s route paralleled them to the north in Montana on the side of the Continental Divide. Howard’s plan was to cross into Idaho via the Monida Pass and intercept the Nez Perce at Camas Creek near Dubois, on August 17, Howard was overtaken by 39 Virginia City volunteers under the command of James E. Callaway, who joined Howards cavalry. That same day, Captain Randolph Norwood and fifty cavalry men, designated as Company 4 of the Second Infantry. Howard expended all energy to intercept the Nez Perce near Camas Creek, Bannock Indian scouts, ahead of Howards cavalry, observed the Nez Perce rear guard cross the road toward Camas Meadows. Chief Buffalo Horn, one of Howards scouts, obtained a view of their camp, on August 18, the Nez Perce camped at Camas Meadows 15 miles to Howards east in a meadow bisected by Spring and Camas creeks. The Nez Perce name for their camp was Kamisnim Takin, meaning camas meadows, Howard marched to Camas Meadows on August 19
23.
Nez Perce in Yellowstone Park
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The Nez Perce in Yellowstone Park was the flight of the Nez Perce Indians through Yellowstone National Park between August 20 and Sept 7, during the Nez Perce War in 1877. As the U. S. army pursued the Nez Perce through the park, by late August, the Nez Perce had travelled hundreds of miles and fought several battles in which they defeated or held off the U. S. army forces pursuing them. The Nez Perce had the notion that after crossing the next mountain range or defeating the latest army sent to oppose them they would find a peaceful new home. The Nez Perce War was extensively reported in the nation’s press, the fighting retreat of the Nez Perce had made their leader Chief Joseph something of a national hero and a military genius in the eyes of many in the American public. On Aug 9,1877 the Nez Perce engaged the U. S. Army under the command of Colonel John Gibbon at the Battle of the Big Hole near the headwaters of the West fork of the Big Hole River in Montana. By all accounts, this battle was a draw with heavy casualties on both sides, but the Nez Perce escaped to the south and into Idaho. General Oliver O. Howards force, just a ride to the west from the Big Hole encounter. The Army was embarrassed by its failure to defeat the Nez Perce, on August 20,1877 the Nez Perce and the U. S. Army engaged again at the Battle of Camas Creek 44°21′52″N 111°53′40″W just west of Henrys Lake, Idaho. The Nez Perce raided a camp of soldiers, stealing mostly mules, the ensuing fight lasted a full day, but resulted in few casualties. General Howard’s Bannock scouts and White scout Stanton G. Fisher followed the Nez Perce a day behind and they reported back to Howard and he predicted correctly that the Nez Perce’s objective was to cross the Yellowstone plateau and then head for the Crow agency on the Yellowstone River. Howards command was exhausted and did not immediately pursue the Nez Perce into the park, Major Hart with 250 cavalry and 100 Indian scouts was to guard the Shoshone River exit also on the east. To the south, Colonel Wesley Merritt with 500 men was positioned on the Wind River, to the North at Fort Keogh46°22′32″N 105°53′00″W in Montana, Colonel Nelson Miles was standing by with a force of several hundred soldiers. Against 2,000 soldiers plus hundreds of Indian scouts, the Nez Perce numbered only about 700, poker Joe, one-half White and fluent in English, was their guide through Yellowstone. Their leadership was collective, drawn from each of the five bands of the tribe represented among the refugees, looking Glass was probably the most influential war leader. Although Chief Joseph is credited with being the leader of the Nez Perce. The chiefs attempted to restrain their men from taking revenge on White non-combatants. When the Nez Perce entered Yellowstone there were eight or nine parties of tourists totaling at least 35 persons in the park, Two of these parties would experience hostile encounters with elements of the Nez Perce. The Radersburg Party as they became known, nine tourists from Radersburg, made up of George F. and Emma Cowan, Emmas brother and sister, Frank and Ida Carpenter, Charles Mann and Henry Meyers, this group also included A. J
24.
Battle of Canyon Creek
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The Battle of Canyon Creek was a military engagement between the Nez Perce Indians and the United States 7th Cavalry. The battle was part of the larger Indian Wars of the latter 19th century and it took place on September 13,1877, west of present day Billings, Montana in the canyons and benches around Canyon Creek. By September, the Nez Perce had travelled nearly one thousand miles, the Nez Perce had the mistaken notion that after crossing the next mountain range or defeating the latest army sent to oppose them they would find a peaceful new home. After passing through Yellowstone National Park the Nez Perce eluded the forces of Colonel Samuel D. Sturgis, general O. O. Howard, who had chased the Nez Perce unsuccessfully for three months, ordered Sturgis to continue the pursuit. Sturgis had 360 men in six companies, divided into two battalions, one commanded by Major Lewis Merrill and the second by Captain Frederick Benteen. Howard reinforced Sturgis’s 360 men with 50 additional cavalrymen, two howitzers, twenty-five white scouts, and a few Bannock and Crow scouts. Howard and his soldiers, whose horses were worn out, would rest, the route of the Nez Perce had been predicated on the belief, especially by Looking Glass, that they would find asylum and safety among their friends, the Crow who lived near the Yellowstone River. Looking Glass met with representatives of both bands of the Crow on the Clark’s Fork, the Crow, realizing that helping the Nez Perce would lead to retaliation on them by the U. S. army, rejected the appeal of the Nez Perce for help. Moreover, a few Crow warriors would join the Army as scouts with an eye on capturing the large Nez Perce horse herd. At this point, the Nez Perce realized that their one hope for safety was to join the Sioux leader Sitting Bull in Canada,250 miles to their north, in their journey down the Clark’s Fork, the Nez Perce killed several prospectors and ranchers. The Yellowstone River, above and below the mouth of Clark’s Fork, is bounded on the bank by cliffs about 400 feet high. The one passage through the cliffs was Canyon Creek, the canyons are separated by steep flat-topped ridges 300 to 500 feet high. The narrow canyons are about six long and lead to open prairie above. It was among these multiple canyons and the ridges surmounting them that the battle would take place, the Nez Perce camped September 12 near the entrance to the narrow canyons of Canyon Creek. On the morning of September 13, many of the warriors were raiding ranches for supplies and horses up and they had not expected him to catch them so quickly. Seeing an opportunity, Sturgis sent Major Lewis Merrill and his battalion ahead atop a ridge to head off the Nez Perce traversing the shallow canyon below. Benteen’s battalion followed, while Sturgis stationed himself with the rear guard, Merrill was halted on the ridge by a scattering of rifle shots from Nez Perce warriors. In the words of his scout, Stanton G. Fisher, Merrill’s battalion dismounted and deployed “instead of charging which they should have done. ”According to Yellow Wolf
25.
Cow Creek (Montana)
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Cow Creek is a tributary of the Missouri River, approximately 35 miles long, in north central Montana in the United States. Cow Creek flows down to the Missouri in a canyon that passes through the Missouri Breaks and this pathway was used by migrating buffalo/bison and nomadic American Natives for centuries. S. Army, made the decision to slow down, rather than push on for the Canada–US border. Today, modern highways have by passed Cow Creek, and the buffalo, Cow Creek is dormant, in one of the most remote spots of the isolated regions of the vast area known as the Montana Missouri Breaks. Cow Creek flows from the foothills of the Bear Paw Mountains to the Missouri through a unique. The breaks are extensive and steeply eroded badlands and they are so rough that they are a barrier to travel by animals or man. They extend along the Missouri River for over 200 miles, in this long stretch of river the Missouri Breaks extend back from the river on either side, for many miles. As the Missouri flows through this 200 mile stretch, the breaks limit access to the river from the wide undulating grasslands north and south of the river, Cow Creek provides one of the few access routes down to the Missouri River through the Missouri Breaks. As Cow Creek flows through the breaks it passes between high canyon walls, but the stream meanders back and forth over a canyon floor that is relatively level. The canyon bottom along Cow Creek creates a corridor of travel from the northern Montana plains down to the river through the breaks, sediments seasonally washed out from the mouth of Cow Creek into the Missouri River formed Cow Island, just downriver from the creek mouth. Cow Island divides the Missouri into two channels, which crossing the broad Missouri easier at this point. On the south side of the river opposite the Cow Island and this combination of geographic features made Cow Creek and the ford at Cow Island an ancient highway of travel. Lewis and Clark passed Cow Creek on May 26,1805 after they had camped two miles below Cow Creek, Cow Creek was originally named Windsor Creek in the journals of the expedition for Pvt. Richard Windsor, but was later named Cow Creek by fur traders, may 26,1805 was the day that Clark climbed out of the breaks, where he saw the Rocky Mountains for the first time. When Windsor/Cow Creek was noted by Lewis, it was reported to be 30 yards wide, normally Windsor/Cow Creek would be a few yards wide, and in very dry weather it can become a trickle between stagnant pools of water. Being some 126 river miles short of Ft. Benton, steamboats had to offload their cargo at the Cow Island landing for it to be freighted the rest of the way up the Cow Island trail. The final 1,300 miles of the river was called the upper Missouri – this stretch traversed remote unsettled plains, and the last few hundred miles to Ft. Benton passed through the Missouri Breaks. In May and June the Missouri River has high water from snow melt
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Battle of Bear Paw
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The Battle of Bear Paw was the final engagement of the Nez Perce War. Some of the Nez Perce were able to escape to Canada, the battlefield today is part of the Nez Perce National Historical Park and the Nez Perce National Historic Trail. The Nez Perce began their journey with the notion that after crossing the next mountain range or defeating the latest army sent to oppose them they would find a peaceful new home. They came to realize, however, that the only available to them was in Saskatchewan Canada with the Lakota led by Sitting Bull. After passing through Yellowstone National Park they headed north through Montana toward Canada. In the most recent of those battles, on September 13, However, the Crow and Bannock scouts of Sturgis captured about 400 of the Nez Perce horses which slowed them in their race to the Canada–US border. Meeting up with Sturgis after the battle, General Howard continued the pursuit, on September 12, Howard sent a message to Colonel Nelson A. Miles stationed at Fort Keogh requesting his assistance. To permit Miles the time he needed to get into position between the Nez Perce and the Canada–US border, Howard slowed down his pursuit, the Nez Perce, exhausted by their long ordeal, also slowed down their flight, believing themselves a safe distance ahead of Howard’s forces. They were not aware of Miles and his approach toward them, the flight of the Nez Perce had incited sympathy among large segments in the American public, and even in the U. S. army. After the Canyon Creek fight, an army surgeon said of the Nez Perce, “I am actually beginning to admire their bravery, on September 23, the Nez Perce crossed the Missouri River near Cow Island landing. A small contingent of about a dozen soldiers under a Sergeant were stationed at the landing to protect the goods until they could be freighted on to Fort Benton by wagon train. Upon the approach of the Nez Perce the outnumbered soldiers, along with two civilians, retreated into their camp, which had a low earth embankment built around it to protect it during rains. After crossing the river at some distance from the soldiers camp, a small delegation peacefully approached the small detachment of soldiers and asked for some of the stockpiled food. Upon being turned away with only a side of bacon and some hardtack and they then rifled the stockpiled supplies, which were located at some distance from the soldiers camp, and set them afire. Sporadic gunfire left two civilians wounded, the Nez Perce departed up Cow Creek the next morning. They were only 90 miles from the Canada–US border, the soldiers were able to send a message downriver informing Colonel Miles of the location of the Nez Perce. From the landing the Nez Perce proceeded upstream on Cow Creek, where they encountered a train with more supplies. They thwarted an effort by 50 soldiers and civilian volunteers under Major Guido Igles to pursue them, in their raids around Cow Creek, the Nez Perce killed five men and stole or destroyed at least 85 tons of military supplies
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War
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War is a state of armed conflict between societies. It is generally characterized by extreme aggression, destruction, and mortality, an absence of war is usually called peace. Warfare refers to the activities and characteristics of types of war. Total war is warfare that is not restricted to legitimate military targets. While some scholars see war as a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature, as concerns a belligerents losses in proportion to its prewar population, the most destructive war in modern history may have been the Paraguayan War. In 2013 war resulted in 31,000 deaths, down from 72,000 deaths in 1990, in 2003, Richard Smalley identified war as the sixth biggest problem facing humanity for the next fifty years. Another byproduct of some wars is the prevalence of propaganda by some or all parties in the conflict, the word is related to the Old Saxon werran, Old High German werran, and the German verwirren, meaning “to confuse”, “to perplex”, and “to bring into confusion”. In German, the equivalent is Krieg, the Spanish, Portuguese, the scholarly study of war is sometimes called polemology, from the Greek polemos, meaning war, and -logy, meaning the study of. Studies of war by military theorists throughout military history have sought to identify the philosophy of war, asymmetric warfare is a conflict between two populations of drastically different levels of military capability or size. Biological warfare, or germ warfare, is the use of weaponized biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, chemical warfare involves the use of weaponized chemicals in combat. Poison gas as a weapon was principally used during World War I. Civil war is a war between forces belonging to the nation or political entity. Conventional warfare is declared war between states in which nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons are not used or see limited deployment, cyberwarfare involves the actions by a nation-state or international organization to attack and attempt to damage another nations information systems. Information warfare is the application of force on a large scale against information assets and systems, against the computers. Nuclear warfare is warfare in which weapons are the primary, or a major. War of aggression is a war for conquest or gain rather than self-defense, the earliest recorded evidence of war belongs to the Mesolithic cemetery Site 117, which has been determined to be approximately 14,000 years old. About forty-five percent of the skeletons there displayed signs of violent death, since the rise of the state some 5,000 years ago, military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare
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Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
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United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
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Pacific Northwest
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The Pacific Northwest, sometimes referred to as Cascadia, is a geographic region in western North America bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the west and loosely, by the Rocky Mountains on the east. Though no agreed boundary exists, a common conception includes the U. S. states of Oregon and Washington and the Canadian province of British Columbia. Broader conceptions reach north into Alaska and Yukon, south into far northern California and east to the Continental Divide, thus including Idaho, Western Montana, narrower conceptions may be limited to the northwestern US or to the coastal areas west of the Cascade and Coast mountains. The variety of definitions can be attributed to partially overlapping commonalities of the history, geography, society. The Northwest Coast is the region of the Pacific Northwest. The term Pacific Northwest should not be confused with the Northwest Territory or the Northwest Territories of Canada. The border — in two sections, along the 49th parallel south of British Columbia and the Alaska Panhandle west of northern British Columbia — has had an effect on the region. According to Canadian historian Ken Coates, the border has not merely influenced the Pacific Northwest—rather, definitions of the Pacific Northwest region vary, and there is no commonly agreed-upon boundary, even among Pacific Northwesterners. A common conception of the Pacific Northwest includes the U. S. states of Oregon and Washington as well as the Canadian province of British Columbia. Broader definitions of the region may include the U. S. state of Alaska, the Canadian territory of Yukon, the portion of the state of California. Definitions based on the historic Oregon Country reach east to the Continental Divide, thus including all of Idaho and parts of western Montana. Sometimes the Pacific Northwest is defined as being the Northwestern United States, often these definitions are made by government agencies whose scope is limited to the United States. Some definitions include, in addition to Washington, Oregon, Idaho and British Columbia, Southeast Alaska, western Montana, the coast of northern California, the Pacific Northwest has been occupied by a diverse array of indigenous peoples for millennia. The Pacific Coast is seen by scholars as a major coastal migration route in the settlement of the Americas by late Pleistocene peoples moving from northeast Asia into the Americas. Other evidence for human occupation dating back as much as 14,500 years ago is emerging from Paisley Caves in south-central Oregon, however, despite such research, the coastal migration hypothesis is still subject to considerable debate. Due in part to the richness of Pacific Northwest Coast and river fisheries, in the interior of the Pacific Northwest, the indigenous peoples, at the time of European contact, had a diversity of cultures and societies. Some areas were home to mobile and egalitarian societies, others, especially along major rivers such as the Columbia and Fraser, had very complex, affluent, sedentary societies rivaling those of the coast. In British Columbia and Southeast Alaska, the Tlingit and Haida erected large, throughout the Pacific Northwest, thousands of indigenous people live, and some continue to practice their rich cultural traditions, organizing their societies around cedar and salmon
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Indian reservation
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Each of the 326 Indian reservations in the United States are associated with a particular Nation. Not all of the countrys 567 recognized tribes have a reservation—some tribes have more than one reservation, some share reservations and this jumble of private and public real estate creates significant administrative, political, and legal difficulties. The collective geographical area of all reservations is 56,200,000 acres, while most reservations are small compared to US states, there are 12 Indian reservations larger than the state of Rhode Island. The largest reservation, the Navajo Nation Reservation, is similar in size to West Virginia, Reservations are unevenly distributed throughout the country, the majority are west of the Mississippi River and occupy lands that were first reserved by treaty or granted from the public domain. Because tribes possess tribal sovereignty, even though it is limited and these laws can permit legal casinos on reservations, for example, which attract tourists. The tribal council, not the local or federal government, generally has jurisdiction over reservations, different reservations have different systems of government, which may or may not replicate the forms of government found outside the reservation. Most Native American reservations were established by the government, a limited number, mainly in the East. The name reservation comes from the conception of the Native American tribes as independent sovereigns at the time the U. S, the term remained in use even after the federal government began to forcibly relocate tribes to parcels of land to which they had no historical connection. A majority of Native Americans and Alaska Natives live somewhere other than the reservations, often in big cities such as Phoenix. In 2012, there were over 2.5 million Native Americans with about 1 million living on reservations, from the beginning of the European colonization of the Americas, Europeans often removed native peoples from lands they wished to occupy. The means varied, including voluntary moves based on agreement, treaties made under considerable duress, forceful ejection. The removal caused many problems such as tribes losing means of livelihood by being subjected to an area, farmers having inadmissible land for agriculture. In 1764 the “Plan for the Future Management of Indian Affairs” was proposed by the Board of Trade, additionally, this plan dictated that the Indians would be properly consulted when ascertaining and defining the boundaries of colonial settlement. For much of North America, the American Revolution was more of a battle against the Indians than a war against the British, the treaty was seen by Americans as a confirmation of their conquest of Indian land. The private contracts that once characterized the sale of Indian land to various individuals and this protocol was adopted by the United States Government after the America Revolution. On March 11,1824, John C. Calhoun founded the Office of Indian Affairs as a division of the United States Department of War, to solve the land problem with 38 treaties with American Indian tribes. The passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 marked the systematization of a US federal government policy of forcibly moving Native populations away from European-populated areas, some of the lands these tribes were given to inhabit following the removals eventually became Indian Reservations. In 1851, the United States Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Act which authorized the creation of Indian reservations in modern-day Oklahoma, relations between settlers and natives had grown increasingly worse as the settlers encroached on territory and natural resources in the West
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Walla Walla Council (1855)
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The Walla Walla Council was a meeting in the Pacific Northwest between the United States and sovereign tribal nations of the Cayuse, Nez Perce, Umatilla, Walla Walla, and Yakima. The council occurred from May 29-June 11,1855, the treaties signed at this council on June 9 were ratified by the U. S. Senate in 1859. These treaties codified the constitutional relationship between the living on the Nez Perce, Umatilla, and Yakama reservations. This treaty was one of the earliest treaties obtained in the Pacific Northwest, washingtons first governor Isaac I. Stevens secured this treaty, allowing larger portions of the land to be given to the two largest and most powerful tribes the Yakimas and Nez Perces. These reservations encompassed most of their hunting grounds. The smaller tribes moved to the smaller of the three reservations, Stevens was able to acquire forty-five thousand square miles of land. Yakima War Palouse War Treaty with the Nez Perce 1855, Treaty with the Walla Walla, Cayuse and Umatilla 1855
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Crow tribe
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In the 21st century, the Crow people are a Federally recognized tribe known as the Crow Tribe of Montana, and have a reservation located in the south central part of the state. From there, they were pushed to the west by the Cheyenne, the Cheyenne eventually became allies of the Lakota, as they sought to expel European Americans from the area. The Crow remained bitter enemies of both the Sioux and Cheyenne, the Crow were generally friendly with the whites and managed to retain a large reservation of more than 9300 km2 despite territorial losses. Since the 19th century, Crow people have been concentrated on their reservation established south of Billings and they also live in several major, mainly western, cities. Tribal headquarters are located at Crow Agency, Montana, the name of the tribe, Apsáalooke, meaning children of the large-beaked bird, was given to them by the Hidatsa, a neighboring Siouan-speaking tribe. French interpreters translated the name as gens du corbeaux, and they became known in English as the Crow, Other tribes also refer to the Apsáalooke as crow or raven in their own languages. In 1743 the Absaroka encountered their first people of European descent, the explorers called the Apsáalooke beaux hommes. The Crow called the French explorers baashchíile, the early home of the Crow-Hidatsa ancestral tribe was in the Ohio country, near Lake Erie. Driven from there by armed, aggressive neighbors, they settled for a while south of Lake Winnipeg in Manitoba. Later the people moved to the Devils Lake region of North Dakota before the Crow split from the Hidatsa, the Crow were largely pushed westward due to intrusion and influx of the Cheyenne and subsequently the Sioux, also known as the Lakota. To acquire control of their new territory, they warred against Shoshone bands and they allied with local Kiowa and Kiowa Apache bands. The Kiowa and Kiowa Apache bands later migrated southward, and the Crow remained dominant in their area through the 18th and 19th centuries. Formerly semi-nomad hunters and farmers in the woodland, they adapted to the nomadic lifestyle of the Plains Indians as hunters and gatherers. Before 1700, they were using dog travois for carrying goods, from about 1740, the Plains tribes rapidly adopted the horse, which allowed them to move out on to the Plains and hunt buffalo more effectively. However, the winters in the North kept their herds smaller than those of Plains tribes in the South. The Crow, Hidatsa, Eastern Shoshone and Northern Shoshone soon became noted as horse breeders and dealers, at the time, other eastern and northern tribes were also moving on to the Plains, in search of game for the fur trade, bison, and more horses. The Crow were subject to raids and horse thefts by horse-poor tribes, including the powerful Blackfoot Confederacy, Gros Ventre, Assiniboine, Pawnee, later they had to face the Lakota and their allies, the Arapaho and Cheyenne, who also stole horses from their enemies. Their greatest enemies became the tribes of the Blackfoot Confederacy and the Lakota-Cheyenne-Arapaho alliance, the Crow were generally friendly with the northern Plains tribes of the Flathead, Nez Perce, Kutenai, Shoshone, Kiowa and Kiowa Apache
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Lakota people
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They speak the Lakota language, the westernmost of the three Siouan language groups, occupying lands in both North and South Dakota. Siouan language speakers may have originated in the lower Mississippi River region and they were agriculturalists and may have been part of the Mound Builder civilization during the 9th–12th centuries CE. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Dakota-Lakota speakers lived in the upper Mississippi Region in present-day Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, conflicts with Anishnaabe and Cree peoples pushed the Lakota west onto the Great Plains in the mid- to late-17th century. Early Lakota history is recorded in their Winter counts, pictorial calendars painted on hides or later recorded on paper, the Battiste Good winter count records Lakota history back to 900 CE, when White Buffalo Calf Woman gave the Lakota people the White Buffalo Calf Pipe. Around 1730, Cheyenne people introduced the Lakota to horses, called šuŋkawakaŋ, after their adoption of horse culture, Lakota society centered on the buffalo hunt on horseback. The total population of the Sioux was estimated at 28,000 by French explorers in 1660, the Lakota population was first estimated at 8,500 in 1805, growing steadily and reaching 16,110 in 1881. The Lakota were, thus, one of the few Native American tribes to increase in population in the 19th century, the number of Lakota has now increased to more than 170,000, of whom about 2,000 still speak the Lakota language. However, by about 1750 the Saône had moved to the east bank of the Missouri River, followed 10 years later by the Oglála, the large and powerful Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa villages had long prevented the Lakota from crossing the Missouri. However, the smallpox epidemic of 1772–1780 destroyed three-quarters of these tribes. The Lakota crossed the river into the drier, short-grass prairies of the High Plains and these newcomers were the Saône, well-mounted and increasingly confident, who spread out quickly. In 1765, a Saône exploring and raiding party led by Chief Standing Bear discovered the Black Hills, ten years later, the Oglála and Brulé also crossed the river. In 1776, the Lakota defeated the Cheyenne, who had taken the region from the Kiowa. The Cheyenne then moved west to the Powder River country, initial United States contact with the Lakota during the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804–1806 was marked by a standoff. Lakota bands refused to allow the explorers to continue upstream, and the expedition prepared for battle, some bands of Lakotas became the first Indians to help the United States Army in an Indian war west of the Missiouri during the Arikara War in 1823. In 1843, the southern Lakotas attacked Pawnee Chief Blue Coats village near the Loup in Nebraska, killing many, next time the Lakotas inflicted a blow so severe on the Pawnee would be in 1873, during the Massacre Canyon battle near Republican River. The Cheyenne and Lakota had previously attacked emigrant parties in a competition for resources, the Fort Laramie Treaty acknowledged Lakota sovereignty over the Great Plains in exchange for free passage on the Oregon Trail for as long as the river flows and the eagle flies. The United States government did not enforce the treaty restriction against unauthorized settlement, Lakota and other bands attacked settlers and even emigrant trains, causing public pressure on the U. S. Army to punish the hostiles. On September 3,1855,700 soldiers under American General William S. Harney avenged the Grattan Massacre by attacking a Lakota village in Nebraska, killing about 100 men, women, and children
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Sitting Bull
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Sitting Bull was a Hunkpapa Lakota holy man who led his people during years of resistance to United States government policies. He was killed by Indian agency police on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation during an attempt to arrest him, Sitting Bulls leadership inspired his people to a major victory. S. A small remnant of his band under Waŋblí Ǧi decided to stay at Wood Mountain, after working as a performer with Buffalo Bills Wild West show, Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency in South Dakota. Because of fears that he would use his influence to support the Ghost Dance movement and his body was taken to nearby Fort Yates for burial. In 1953, his Lakota family exhumed what were believed to be his remains, reburying them near Mobridge, South Dakota, Sitting Bull was born on land later included in the Dakota Territory. In 2007, Sitting Bulls great-grandson asserted from family tradition that Sitting Bull was born along the Yellowstone River, south of present-day Miles City. He was named Jumping Badger at birth, and nicknamed Hunkesi, or Slow, said to describe his careful, when the boy was fourteen years old he accompanied a group of Lakota warriors in a raiding party to take horses from a camp of Crow warriors. Jumping Badger displayed bravery by riding forward and counting coup on one of the surprised Crow, upon returning to camp his father gave a celebratory feast at which he conferred his own name upon his son. The name, Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotaŋka, which in the Lakota language means Buffalo Bull Who Sits Down, thereafter, Sitting Bulls father was known as Jumping Bull. Despite being embroiled in the American Civil War, the United States Army retaliated in 1863 and 1864, in 1864, two brigades of about 2200 soldiers under Brigadier General Alfred Sully attacked a village. The defenders were led by Sitting Bull, Gall and Inkpaduta, the Lakota and Dakota were driven out, but skirmishing continued into August. In September, Sitting Bull and about one hundred Hunkpapa Lakota encountered a party near what is now Marmarth, North Dakota. They had been left behind by a wagon train commanded by Captain James L. Fisk to effect repairs to an overturned wagon. When he led an attack, Sitting Bull was shot in the hip by a soldier. The bullet exited out through the small of his back, from 1866 to 1868, Red Cloud as a leader of the Oglala Lakota fought against US forces, attacking their forts in an effort to keep control of the Powder River Country of Montana. In support of him, Sitting Bull led numerous war parties against Fort Berthold, Fort Stevenson, Sitting Bull also made guerrilla attacks on emigrant parties and smaller forts throughout the upper Missouri River region. By early 1868, the U. S. government desired a settlement to Red Clouds War. It agreed to Red Clouds demands that the US abandon forts Phil Kearny, Gall of the Hunkpapa signed a form of the Treaty of Fort Laramie on July 2,1868 at Fort Rice
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Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
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Battle of the Little Bighorn
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The battle, which occurred June 25–26,1876, near the Little Bighorn River in eastern Montana Territory, was the most prominent action of the Great Sioux War of 1876. The fight was a victory for the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne. The U. S. 7th Cavalry, including the Custer Battalion, five of the 7th Cavalrys twelve companies were annihilated, Custer was killed, as were two of his brothers, a nephew, and a brother-in-law. The total U. S. casualty count included 268 dead and 55 severely wounded, including four Crow Indian scouts, the battle, and Custers actions in particular, have been studied extensively by historians. Even though many of the native peoples eventually agreed to relocate to ever-shrinking reservations, among the Plains Tribes, the long-standing ceremonial tradition known as the Sun Dance was the most important religious event of the year. It is a time for prayer and personal sacrifice on behalf of the community, towards the end of spring in 1876, the Lakota and the Cheyenne held a Sun Dance that was also attended by a number of Agency Indians who had slipped away from their reservations. Col. John Gibbons column of six companies of the 7th Infantry and four companies of the 2nd Cavalry marched east from Fort Ellis in western Montana on March 30 and they were accompanied by teamsters and packers with 150 wagons and a large contingent of pack mules that reinforced Custer. They were later joined there by the steamboat Far West, which was loaded with 200 tons of supplies from Fort Lincoln, the coordination and planning began to go awry on June 17,1876 when Crooks column retreated after the Battle of the Rosebud. Unaware of Crooks battle, Gibbon and Terry proceeded, joining forces in early June near the mouth of the Rosebud Creek, as this was the likely location of Native encampments, all army elements were to converge around June 26 or 27, attempting to engulf the Native Americans. Custer had been offered the use of Gatling guns but declined, at sunrise on June 25, Custers scouts reported they could see a massive pony herd and signs of the Native American village roughly 15 miles in the distance. After a nights march, the officer who was sent with the scouts could see neither. Custers scouts also spotted the regimental cooking fires that could be seen from 10 miles away, assuming his presence had been exposed, Custer decided to attack the village without further delay. On the morning of June 25, Custer divided his 12 companies into three battalions in anticipation of the forthcoming engagement, three companies were placed under the command of Major Marcus Reno, and three were placed under the command of Capt. Frederick Benteen. Five companies remained under Custers immediate command, the 12th, Company B under Capt. Thomas McDougall, had been assigned to escort the slower pack train carrying provisions and additional ammunition. Unknown to Custer, the group of Native Americans seen on his trail were actually leaving the encampment on the Big Horn, Custers overriding concern was that the Native American group would break up and scatter. The command began its approach to the village at noon and prepared to attack in full daylight, the 7th Cavalry was created just after the American Civil War. Many men were veterans of the war, including most of the leading officers, six other troopers had died of drowning and 51 from cholera epidemics. Half of the 7th Cavalrys companies had just returned from 18 months of duty in the Deep South
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Bears Paw Mountains
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The Bears Paw Mountains are an insular-montane island range in North-Central Montana, USA, located approximately 10 miles south of Havre, Montana. Baldy Mountain, which rises 6,916 feet above sea level, is the highest peak in the range, the Bears Paw Mountains extend in a 45-mile arc between the Missouri River and Rocky Boy Indian Reservation south of Havre. While highway signs designate the range as the Bears Paw Mountains, historically, the U. S. Geological Survey continues to use Bearpaw Mountains on publications, and, colloquially, local residents have historically used the misspelling “Bear Paw Mountains” as the name of the range. The Cretaceous Bearpaw Formation outcrops in these mountains, and is named for the range, native oral history ties the name to a lone hunter in search of deer to feed his clan. He killed a deer but, while returning to the prairie, the bear held the hunter to the ground, and the hunter appealed to the Great Spirit to release him. The Great Spirit filled the heavens with lightning and thunder, striking the bear dead, looking at Box Elder Butte, one can see the paw, and Centennial Mountain to the south resembles a reclining bear. Locals refer to the range as the Bearpaws, chief Joseph of the Nez Perce surrendered to Col. Nelson Miles in the foothills of the Bears Paw Mountains in October 1877 after the Battle of Bear Paw. List of mountain ranges in Montana Montana Historical Society
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Fort Leavenworth
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Fort Leavenworth is a United States Army installation located in Leavenworth County, Kansas, immediately north of the city of Leavenworth in the upper northeast portion of the state. Built in 1827, it is the oldest active United States Army post west of Washington, D. C. Fort Leavenworth has been historically known as the Intellectual Center of the Army. Fort Leavenworth was also the base of African-American soldiers of the U. S. 10th Cavalry Regiment of the United States Army, formed on 21 September 1866 at Fort Leavenworth and they became known as Buffalo Soldiers, nicknamed by the Native American tribes whom they fought. This term eventually was applied to all of the African-American regiments formed in 1866, during the countrys westward expansion, Fort Leavenworth was a forward destination for thousands of soldiers, surveyors, immigrants, American Indians, preachers and settlers who passed through. On August 1,1846, a Mormon Battalion, led by Col. James Allen, colonel Allen became ill and died at the fort, his headstone marks his grave at the Fort Leavenworth National Cemetery. Today, the garrison supports the U. S. Army Training, cACs mission involves leader development, collective training, Army doctrine and battle command. The fort occupies 5,600 ac and 7,000,000 ft2 of space in 1,000 buildings and 1,500 quarters. It is located on the Frontier Military Scenic Byway, which was originally a road connecting to Fort Scott National Historic Site. The garrison commander is a colonel reporting via IMCOM West to the Installation Management Command, the fort is nicknamed the intellectual center of the Army because much of its mission involves training. S. and allied soldiers and officers. The school trains almost all of the armys majors, all modern five-star army generals have passed through the college including George Marshall, Douglas MacArthur, Dwight Eisenhower, Henry “Hap” Arnold, and Omar Bradley. Since 1978 it has been commanded by a Lieutenant General, in 2007, its commander was David Petraeus. It reports to the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command, United States Disciplinary Barracks, which is the only maximum security prison for military personnel of all branches. Since a 2007 reorganization, its commander is a colonel who reports to the United States Army Corrections Command, midwest Joint Regional Correctional Facility, a low security prison. Reports to the United States Army Corrections Command, army/ACE Registry Transcript Systems See Fort Leavenworth School District The Fort Leavenworth Lamp newspaper serves the military community living on post. The fort is 10 miles south of the 18th century French Fort de Cavagnal and its commandant was François Coulon de Villiers, a brother to Louis Coulon de Villiers, who was the only military commander to force George Washington to surrender. The French abandoned the fort after ceding its territory to Louisiana at the conclusion of the French, early American explorers on the Missouri River to visit the area of Fort de Cavagnal include Lewis and Clark on 26–29 June 1804 and Stephen Harriman Long in 1819. The fort location had been chosen then because of its proximity to a large Kansa tribe village, the spot being chosen, he will then construct with the troops of his command comfortable, though temporary quarters sufficient for the accommodation of four companies. This movement will be made as early as the convenience of the service will permit, the first army installation in Cantonment Leavenworth was located on Scott Avenue, south of the Post Chapel with initial strength of 14 officers and 174 enlisted men
40.
William Tecumseh Sherman
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William Tecumseh Sherman was an American soldier, businessman, educator and author. Sherman began his Civil War career serving in the First Battle of Bull Run and he served under General Ulysses S. In 1864, Sherman succeeded Grant as the Union commander in the Western Theater of the war and he proceeded to lead his troops to the capture of the city of Atlanta, a military success that contributed to the re-election of Abraham Lincoln. Shermans subsequent march through Georgia and the Carolinas further undermined the Confederacys ability to continue fighting and he accepted the surrender of all the Confederate armies in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida in April 1865, after having been present at most major military engagements in the Western Theater. When Grant assumed the U. S. presidency in 1869, Sherman succeeded him as Commanding General of the Army, as such, he was responsible for the U. S. Armys engagement in the Indian Wars over the next 15 years. Sherman advocated total war against hostile Indians to force them back onto their reservations and he steadfastly refused to be drawn into politics and in 1875 published his Memoirs, one of the best-known first-hand accounts of the Civil War. British military historian B. H. Liddell Hart famously declared that Sherman was the first modern general, Sherman was born in 1820 in Lancaster, Ohio, near the banks of the Hocking River. His father Charles Robert Sherman, a lawyer who sat on the Ohio Supreme Court. He left his widow, Mary Hoyt Sherman, with eleven children, Sherman was distantly related to American founding father Roger Sherman and grew to admire him. Shermans older brother Charles Taylor Sherman became a federal judge, one of his younger brothers, John Sherman, served as a U. S. senator and Cabinet secretary. Another younger brother, Hoyt Sherman, was a successful banker, Sherman would marry his foster sister, Ellen Boyle Ewing, at age 30 and have eight children with her. Shermans unusual given name has attracted considerable attention. Sherman reported that his name came from his father having caught a fancy for the great chief of the Shawnees. Since an account in a 1932 biography about Sherman, it has often reported that, as an infant. According to these accounts, Sherman only acquired the name William at age nine or ten and his foster mother, Maria Willis Boyle, was of Irish ancestry and a devout Roman Catholic. Sherman was raised in a Roman Catholic household, though he left the church. Sherman wrote in his Memoirs that his father named him William Tecumseh, Sherman was baptized by a Presbyterian minister as an infant, as an adult, Sherman signed all his correspondence – including to his wife – W. T. Sherman. His friends and family called him Cump
41.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
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Editorial
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An editorial, leading article or leader, is an often-unsigned opinion piece written by the senior editorial staff or publisher of a newspaper, magazine, or any other written document. Editorials may be supposed to reflect the opinion of the periodical, australian and major United States newspapers, such as The New York Times and The Boston Globe, often classify editorials under the heading opinion. Illustrated editorials may appear in the form of editorial cartoons, typically, a newspapers editorial board evaluates which issues are important for their readership to know the newspapers opinion. However, a newspaper may choose to publish an editorial on the front page, in the English-language press this occurs rarely and only on topics considered especially important, it is more common, however, in some European countries such as Spain, Italy, and France
43.
Philip Sheridan
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Philip Henry Sheridan was a career United States Army officer and a Union general in the American Civil War. In 1865, his cavalry pursued Gen. Robert E. Lee and was instrumental in forcing his surrender at Appomattox, Sheridan fought in later years in the Indian Wars of the Great Plains. Both as a soldier and private citizen, he was instrumental in the development, in 1883, Sheridan was appointed general-in-chief of the U. S. Army, and in 1888 he was promoted to the rank of General of the Army during the term of President Grover Cleveland. Sheridan claimed he was born in Albany, New York, the child of six by John and Mary Meenagh Sheridan, Catholic immigrants from the parish of Killinkere, County Cavan. He grew up in Somerset, Ohio, fully grown, he reached only 165 cm tall, a stature that led to the nickname, Little Phil. Sheridan worked as a boy in general stores, and eventually as head clerk. In his third year at West Point, Sheridan was suspended for a year for fighting with a classmate, the previous day, Sheridan had threatened to run him through with a bayonet in reaction to a perceived insult on the parade ground. He graduated in 1853, 34th in his class of 52 cadets, Sheridan was commissioned as a brevet second lieutenant and was assigned to the 1st U. S. Infantry regiment at Fort Duncan, Texas, then to the 4th U. S, most of his service with the 4th U. S. He lived with a mistress during part of his tour of duty and he was promoted to first lieutenant in March 1861, just before the Civil War, and to captain in May, immediately after Fort Sumter. In the fall of 1861, Sheridan was ordered to travel to Jefferson Barracks, near St. Louis, Missouri, for assignment to the 13th U. S. Infantry. He departed from his command of Fort Yamhill, Oregon, by way of San Francisco, across the Isthmus of Panama, frémont, whose administration of the Department of the Missouri was tainted by charges of wasteful expenditures and fraud that left the status of $12 million in debt. Sheridan sorted out the mess, impressing Halleck in the process, much to Sheridans dismay, Hallecks vision for Sheridan consisted of a continuing role as a staff officer. Nevertheless, Sheridan performed the task assigned to him and entrenched himself as an excellent staff officer in Hallecks view, in January 1862, he reported for duty to Maj. Gen. Samuel Curtis and served under him at the Battle of Pea Ridge. Sheridan soon discovered that officers were engaged in profiteering and they stole horses from civilians and demanded payment from Sheridan. He refused to pay for the property and confiscated the horses for the use of Curtiss army. When Curtis ordered him to pay the officers, Sheridan brusquely retorted, Curtis had Sheridan arrested for insubordination but Hallecks influence appears to have ended any formal proceedings. Gen. William T. Sherman, who offered him the colonelcy of an Ohio infantry regiment and this appointment fell through, but Sheridan was subsequently aided by friends, who petitioned Michigan Governor Austin Blair on his behalf
44.
Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms
45.
Umatilla Indian Reservation
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The Umatilla Indian Reservation is an Indian reservation in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. It lies in northeastern Oregon, east of Pendleton, the reservation is mostly in Umatilla County, with a very small part extending south into Union County. It is managed by the three Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation, all the tribes historically inhabited the Columbia Plateau region. The tribes share land and a structure as part of their confederation. The reservation has an area of 271.047 square miles. In addition, some 300 Native Americans from other tribes and 1,500 non-natives live on the reservation. The largest community is Mission, which is the site of the headquarters as well as the Umatilla Agency of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Some BIA agency offices serve more than one federally recognized tribe, the tribes developed the Wildhorse Casino Resort on their reservation to generate revenues for their people. The casino is located near Interstate 84, in 2006 it started Cayuse Technologies, to provide software development and related services. These enterprises employ 1,000 persons and have reduced unemployment. Pendleton photographer Walter S. Bowman photographed tribe members in the early 20th century
46.
Oregon Territory
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Originally claimed by several countries, the region was divided between the UK and US in 1846. When established, the territory encompassed an area included the current states of Oregon, Washington. The capital of the territory was first Oregon City, then Salem, followed briefly by Corvallis, then back to Salem, originally inhabited by Native Americans, the region that became the Oregon Territory was explored by Europeans first by sea. The first documented exploration came in 1777 by the Spanish, with British, during the period of joint occupation, most activity in the region outside of the activities of the indigenous people came from the fur trade, which was dominated by the British Hudsons Bay Company. Over time, some began to settle down in the area and began farming. Some settlers also began arriving in the late 1830s, and covered wagons crossed the Oregon Trail beginning in 1841, at that time, no government existed in the Oregon Country, as no one nation held dominion over the territory. A group of settlers in the Willamette Valley began meeting in 1841 to discuss organizing a government for the area and these earliest documented discussions, mostly concerning forming a government, were held in an early pioneer and Native American encampment and later town known as Champoeg, Oregon. These first Champoeg Meetings eventually led to discussions, and in 1843 the creation of the Provisional Government of Oregon. In 1846, the Oregon boundary dispute between the U. S. and Britain was settled with the signing of the Oregon Treaty. The British gained sole possession of the north of the 49th parallel and all of Vancouver Island. On August 14,1848, Congress passed the Act to Establish the Territorial Government of Oregon, the Territory of Oregon originally encompassed all of the present-day states of Idaho, Oregon and Washington, as well as those parts of present-day Montana and Wyoming west of the Continental Divide. Its southern border was the 42nd parallel north, and it extended north to the 49th parallel, Oregon City, Oregon, was designated as the first capital. The territorial government consisted of a governor, a marshal, a secretary, an attorney, judges on the court also sat as trial level judges as they rode circuit across the territory. All of these offices were filled by appointment by the President of the United States, taxation took the form of an annual property tax of 0. 25% for territorial purposes with an additional county tax not to exceed this amount. This tax was to be paid on all town lots and improvements, mills, carriages, clocks and watches, Oregon City served as the seat of government from 1848 to 1851, followed by Salem from 1851 to 1855. Corvallis served briefly as the capital in 1855, followed by a permanent return to Salem later that year, in 1853, the portion of the territory north of the lower Columbia River and north of the 46th parallel east of the river was organized into the Washington Territory. On February 14,1859, the territory entered the Union as the U. S. state of Oregon within its current boundaries, the remaining eastern portion of the territory was added to the Washington Territory
47.
Walla Walla people
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Walla Walla, sometimes Waluulapam, are a Sahaptin indigenous people of the Northwest Plateau. The duplication in their name expresses the diminutive form, the name Walla Walla is translated several ways but most often as many waters. Many Walla Wallas live on the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation, the Walla Wallas share land and a governmental structure with the Cayuse and the Umatilla tribes as part of the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla. The reservation is located in the area of Pendleton, Oregon, United States, some Walla Wallas are also enrolled in the federally recognized Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation. The people are a Sahaptin-speaking tribe that inhabited the interior Columbia River region of present-day northwestern United States. From this zone, the Walla Walla followed a pattern of seasonal subsistence practices to that of the Yakama, Palouse, Umatilla. The first encounter with Euro-Americans for the Walla Wallas was the Lewis, first meeting in 1805, the Americans promised to Walla Walla chief Yellepit they would visit with the people after seeing the Pacific Ocean. The party returned in April 1806 and stayed at Yellepits village, during a transaction Yellepit presented Clark with a white horse in return for a copper kettle. The Americans had none in supply however, so Clark gave Yellepit his own sword, along with a quantity of gunpowder and musket balls. Lewis and Clark also gave Yellepit a peace medal engraved with a portrait of President Thomas Jefferson, to be worn around the neck, Yellepit, Washington was later named after him. David Thompson of the Canadian-British North West Company was the next European in the Walla Walla lands, about five miles upriver from Yellepits village on the confluence of the Snake River and the Columbia, Thompson ordered a pole be placed. An attached letter to the pole claimed the territory for the British Crown, Thompsons pole and letter were intended for the traders of the Pacific Fur Company, an American rival of the NWC. Continuing downriver, Thompson stopped at Yellepits village and discovered the flag, Thompson found Yellepit very friendly and intelligent, even encouraging Thompsons plan to set up a nearby trading post. For various reasons the post was not built until 1818, when the NWC established Fort Nez Perces at the mouth of the Walla Walla River, the Walla Wallas eventually adopted maintaining cattle herds, going as far as New Helvetia in California during 1844 to secure additional livestock. An estimated 40 Walla Wallas, Nez Perce and Cayuse under Walla Walla chief Piupiumaksmaks went on the expedition south, en route the party gathered stray horses, not aware the strays were stolen. Negotiations at New Helvetia were held one of Piupiumaksmaks sons, Toayahnu, and an employee of Sutter. The two men entered a dispute, and Toayahnu was killed, despite fears of retribution among Sutters staff by the Walla Wallas, Piupiumaksmaks returned with a small band of warriors and families in 1846 and declared peaceable intentions. The returning party had members infectees of measles, which began to spread across the Columbia Plateau, smallpox and other diseases were also introduced into the area, increasing the Walla Wallas population decline
United States
