1.
Niagara Gorge
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Niagara Gorge is an 11 km gorge carved by the Niagara River along the Canada–US border in New York and Ontario. It begins at the base of Niagara Falls and ends at the Niagara escarpment near Queenston, Ontario, the force of the river current in the gorge is one of the most powerful in the world. Because of the dangers this presents, kayaking the gorge has generally been prohibited, however, on isolated occasions, world class experts have been permitted to navigate the stretch. Gorge Niagara Escarpment Niagara River Niagara Whirlpool
2.
Welland Canal
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The Welland Canal is a ship canal in Ontario, Canada, connecting Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. It forms a key section of the St. Lawrence Seaway, traversing the Niagara Peninsula from Port Weller to Port Colborne, it enables ships to ascend and descend the Niagara Escarpment and bypass Niagara Falls. Approximately 40,000,000 tonnes of cargo are carried through the canal annually by about 3,000 ocean and it was a major factor in the growth of the city of Toronto. The Welland Canal eclipsed other, narrower canals in the region, such as the Trent-Severn Waterway and, significantly, the southern, Lake Erie terminus of the canal is 99.5 metres higher than the northern terminus on Lake Ontario. The canal includes eight 24. 4-metre-wide ship locks, seven of the locks are 233.5 m long and raise passing ships by between 13 and 15 m each. The southernmost lock, is 349.9 m in length, the Garden City Skyway passes over the canal, restricting the maximum height of the masts of the ships allowed on this canal to 35.5 m. All other highway or railroad crossings of the Welland Canal are either movable bridges or subterranean tunnels, the maximum permissible length of a ship in this canal is 225.5 metres. It takes ships an average of eleven hours to traverse the entire length of the Welland Canal. The Welland Canal Company was incorporated by the Province of Upper Canada, in 1824, One of the petitioners was William Hamilton Merritt, who was in part looking to provide a regular flow of water for his watermills. The construction began at Allanburg, Ontario, on November 30 and this canal opened for a trial run on November 30,1829. After a short ceremony at Lock One, in Port Dalhousie, the first canal ran from Port Dalhousie, Ontario on Lake Ontario south along Twelve Mile Creek to St. Catharines. From there it took a route up the Niagara Escarpment through Merritton, Ontario to Thorold. Ships went east on the Welland River to Chippawa, at the end of the old portage road. Originally, the section between Allanburg and Port Robinson was planned to be carried in a subterranean tunnel, however, the sandy soil in this part of Ontario made a tunnel infeasible, and a deep open-cut canal was dug instead. A southern extension from Port Robinson opened in 1833, with the founding of Port Colborne and this extension followed the Welland River south to Welland, and then split to run south to Port Colborne on Lake Erie. A feeder canal ran southwest from Welland to another point on Lake Erie, with the opening of the extension, the canal stretched 44 km between the two lakes, with 40 wooden locks. The minimum lock size was 33.5 by 6.7 m, deterioration of the wood used in the 40 locks and the increasing size of ships led to demand for the Second Welland Canal, which used cut stone locks, within just a few years. The public buyout was completed in 1841, and work began to deepen the canal and to reduce the number of locks to 27, each 45.7 by 8.1 m
3.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
Lake Erie
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Lake Erie is the fourth-largest lake of the five Great Lakes in North America, and the thirteenth-largest globally if measured in terms of surface area. It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes, at its deepest point Lake Erie is 210 feet deep. Lake Eries northern shore is bounded by the Canadian province of Ontario, with the U. S. states of Ohio, Pennsylvania and these jurisdictions divide the surface area of the lake by water boundaries. The lake was named by the Erie people, a Native Americans people who lived along its southern shore and that Iroquoian tribe called it Erige because of its unpredictable and sometimes violently dangerous nature. It is a matter of whether the lake was named after the tribe. Situated below Lake Huron, Eries primary inlet is the Detroit River, Lake Erie has a mean elevation of 571 feet above sea level. It has an area of 9,990 square miles with a length of 241 statute miles. The warm summer of 1999 caused lake temperatures to come close to the 85 °F limit necessary to keep the plants cool, also because of its shallowness, and in spite of being the warmest lake in the summer, it is also the first to freeze in the winter. The waves build very quickly, according to other accounts, after being trapped for an hour-and-a-half, Baker was back on dry land, exhausted and battered but alive. This area is known as the thunderstorm capital of Canada with breathtaking lightning displays. Lake Erie is primarily fed by the Detroit River and drains via the Niagara River, navigation downstream is provided by the Welland Canal, part of the Saint Lawrence Seaway. Other major contributors to Lake Erie include the Grand River, the Huron River, the Maumee River, the Sandusky River, the Buffalo River, the drainage basin covers 30,140 square miles. Point Pelee National Park, the southernmost point of the Canadian mainland, is located on a peninsula extending into the lake. Several islands are found in the end of the lake, these belong to Ohio except for Pelee Island and eight neighboring islands. Major cities along Lake Erie include Buffalo, Erie, Pennsylvania, Toledo, Ohio, Islands tend to be located in the western side of the lake and total 31 in number. The island-village of Put-in-Bay on South Bass Island attracts young crowds who sometimes wear red hats and are prone to break off cartwheels in the park. Pelee Island is the largest of Eries islands, accessible by ferry from Leamington, Ontario and Sandusky, songbirds migrate to Pelee in spring, and monarch butterflies stop over during the fall. Lake Erie has a retention time of 2.6 years
6.
River mouth
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A river mouth is the part of a river where the river flows into a larger river, a lake, a reservoir or an ocean. The water from a river can enter the body in a variety of different ways. The motion of the river mainly depends on the density of the river compared to the receiving water and any ambient motion in the receiving water. If the river water is denser than the surface of the receiving water, the river water will then either form an underflow or an interflow within the lake. Alongside these advective transports, inflowing water will also diffuse, at the mouth of a river, the change in flow condition can cause the river to drop any sediment it is carrying. This sediment deposition can generate a variety of landforms, such as deltas, sand bars, spits, many places in England take their names from their positions at the mouths of rivers, for example Plymouth, Sidmouth and Great Yarmouth. Confluence River delta Estuary Liman Aber and Inver
7.
Lake Ontario
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Lake Ontario is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. Ontario, Canadas most populous province, was named for the lake, in the Wyandot language, ontarío means “Lake of Shining Waters”. Its primary inlet is the Niagara River from Lake Erie, the last in the Great Lakes chain, Lake Ontario serves as the outlet to the Atlantic Ocean via the St. Lawrence River. Lake Ontario is the easternmost of the Great Lakes and the smallest in surface area and it is the 14th largest lake in the world. When its islands are included, the lake has a shoreline that is 712 miles long. As the last lake in the Great Lakes hydrologic chain, Lake Ontario has the lowest mean elevation of the lakes at 243 feet above sea level,326 feet lower than its neighbor upstream. Its maximum length is 193 statute miles and its width is 53 statute miles. The lakes average depth is 47 fathoms 1 foot, with a depth of 133 fathoms 4 feet. The lakes primary source is the Niagara River, draining Lake Erie, the drainage basin covers 24,720 square miles. As with all the Great Lakes, water levels both within the year and among years. These water level fluctuations are a part of lake ecology. The lake also has an important freshwater fishery, although it has negatively affected by factors including over-fishing, water pollution. Baymouth bars built by prevailing winds and currents have created a significant number of lagoons and sheltered harbors, mostly near Prince Edward County, Ontario, perhaps the best-known example is Toronto Bay, chosen as the site of the Upper Canada capital for its strategic harbour. Other prominent examples include Hamilton Harbour, Irondequoit Bay, Presquile Bay, the bars themselves are the sites of long beaches, such as Sandbanks Provincial Park and Sandy Island Beach State Park. These sand bars are associated with large wetlands, which support large numbers of plant and animal species. Presquile, on the shore of Lake Ontario, is particularly significant in this regard. The lake basin was carved out of soft, weak Silurian-age rocks by the Wisconsin ice sheet during the last ice age, the action of the ice occurred along the pre-glacial Ontarian River valley which had approximately the same orientation as todays basin. As the ice sheet retreated toward the north, it still dammed the St. Lawrence valley outlet and this stage is known as Lake Iroquois
8.
Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
9.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
10.
Bruce Trigger
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Bruce Graham Trigger, OC, OQ, FRSC was a Canadian archaeologist, anthropologist, and ethnohistorian. Born in Preston, Ontario, Trigger received a doctorate in archaeology from Yale University in 1964 and his research interests at that time included the history of archaeological research and the comparative study of early cultures. He was arguably best known for The Children of Aataentsic, his study of the Huron peoples. The Children of Aataentsic earned Trigger numerous accolades, including adoption by the Huron-Wendat Nation as an honorary member, Trigger would later reiterate some of the key arguments of the book in Natives and Newcomers, a polemical work aimed at educating laypeople. Triggers book A History of Archaeological Thought investigates the development of theory, a second and expanded edition was published in 2006. In 2004 a session at the Society for American Archaeology conference was dedicated to the research of Bruce Trigger, Trigger also made significant contributions to theory and debates on epistemological issues within archaeology. The 2003 book Artifacts and Ideas is a collection of published papers that trace the history. In particular were his arguments about how the social and political contexts of research affect archaeological interpretation, for example, prior to 1914 Euro-American stereotypes resulted in a prehistory that saw native cultures as being primitive and inherently static. It was commonly believed that Native Americans had not undergone any significant developmental changes and it was believed that natives had arrived in the Americas only recently, and this fact explained their alleged lack of cultural development. These popular beliefs, supported by the claims of early archaeologists, john Wesley Powell, who led the debunking of the mound builder myths, not coincidentally also recognized that great injustices had been perpetuated against Native American peoples. In 1979 Trigger was awarded the Cornplanter Medal, in 2001, Trigger was made an Officer of the National Order of Quebec. In 2005, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada, a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, he won their Innis-Gérin Medal in 1985. In 1991, he won the Quebec governments Prix Léon-Gérin, Trigger died of cancer on December 1,2006. History and Settlement in Lower Nubia, new Haven, Yale University Publications in Anthropology,1965. The Late Nubian Settlement at Arminna West, new Haven, Publications of the Pennsylvania-Yale Expedition to Egypt,1965. Beyond History, The Methods of Prehistory, new York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston,1968. The Huron, Farmers of the North, new York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston,1969, revised edition,1990. The Impact of Europeans on Huronia, toronto, The Copp Clark Publishing Company,1969
11.
George R. Stewart
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George Rippey Stewart was an American historian, toponymist, novelist, and a professor of English at the University of California, Berkeley. His 1959 book Picketts Charge, a history of the final attack at Gettysburg, was called essential for an understanding of the Battle of Gettysburg. His 1949 post-apocalyptic novel Earth Abides won the first International Fantasy Award in 1951 and he accepted a position in the English department at Berkeley in 1923. After his father died, he dropped the Jr. from his name, Stewart was a founding member of the American Name Society in 1956-57, and he once served as an expert witness in a murder trial as a specialist in family names. His best-known academic work is Names on the Land, A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States and he wrote three other books on names, A Concise Dictionary of American Place-Names, Names on the Globe, and American Given Names. His scholarly works on the meter of ballads, beginning with his 1922 Ph. D. dissertation at Columbia. As an author, Stewarts output was at once diverse, original and this radically altered circumstance permits Stewart to raise and examine issues rarely, if ever, tackled by other novelists. East of Giants is historical fiction, not So Rich as You Think was a prescient early essay in environmentalism. Storm takes an immense storm as its protagonist, a departure in itself. Other works, such as Names on the Land and American Ways of Life offer other unique insights, achievements of this stature should have earned Stewart a lasting reputation as one of Americas greatest writers and men of letters. However, the significance of his output was largely overlooked during his lifetime and he is today known primarily for his only science fiction novel Earth Abides, a post-apocalyptic novel, for which he won the inaugural International Fantasy Award for fiction in 1951. It was dramatized on radios Escape and served as an inspiration for Stephen Kings The Stand, the Encyclopedia of Science Fiction calls it one of the finest of all Post-Holocaust/Ruined Earth novels. Storm was dramatized as A Storm Called Maria on the November 2,1959 episode of ABCs Walt Disney Presents, the cast included non-actors, among them the dam superintendent George Kritsky, the telephone lineman Walt Bowen, and the highway superintendent Leo Quinn. Another novel, Fire, and a work, Ordeal by Hunger. The Technique of English Verse Bret Harte, Argonaut and Exile English Composition, A Laboratory Course, Ordeal by Hunger, ISBN 978-1-890771-74-4 Names on the Land, an historical account of place-naming in the United States. ISBN 978-1-59017-273-5 Man, An Autobiography Fire Earth Abides, reprinted as Pioneers Go West The Years of the City N. A.1, The North-South Continental Highway Picketts Charge, A Microhistory of the Final Attack at Gettysburg, July 3,1863,1959 Revised in 1963. ISBN 978-0-19-504040-1 Tropical cyclone naming Other sources Scott, Donald, The Life and Truth of George R. Stewart, George R. Stewart, toponymist, Names, Volume 24,1976, pp. 77–85. OTR Network Library, Escape, Earth Abides, parts one and two Two short radio episodes from Storm, Valley Rain and Final Success
12.
Iroquois
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The Iroquois or Haudenosaunee are a historically powerful northeast Native American confederacy. The Iroquois have absorbed many other peoples into their cultures as a result of warfare, adoption of captives, the historic Erie, Susquehannock, Wyandot, and St. Lawrence Iroquoians, all independent peoples, spoke Iroquoian languages. In 2010, more than 45,000 enrolled Six Nations people lived in Canada, the most common name for the confederacy, Iroquois, is of somewhat obscure origin. The first time it appears in writing is in the account of Samuel de Champlain of his journey to Tadoussac in 1603, other spellings occurring in the earliest sources include Erocoise, Hiroquois, Hyroquoise, Irecoies, Iriquois, Iroquaes, Irroquois, and Yroquois. In the French spoken at the time, this would have been pronounced as or. In 1883, Horatio Hale wrote that the Charlevoix etymology was dubious, Hale suggested instead that the term came from Huron, and was cognate with Mohawk ierokwa they who smoke or Cayuga iakwai a bear. Hewitt responded to Hales etymology in 1888 by expressing doubt that either of those words even exist in the respective languages, a more modern etymology is that advocated by Gordon M. Day in 1968, who elaborates upon an earlier etymology given by Charles Arnaud in 1880. Arnaud had claimed that the word came from Montagnais irnokué, meaning terrible man, Day proposes a hypothetical Montagnais phrase irno kwédač, meaning a man, an Iroquois, as the origin of this term. More recently, Peter Bakker has proposed a Basque origin for Iroquois. g and he proposes instead that the word derives from hilokoa, from the Basque roots hil to kill, ko, and a. He also argues that the /l/ was rendered as /r/ since the former is not attested in the inventory of any language in the region. Thus the word according to Bakker is translatable as the killer people, a different term, Haudenosaunee, is the designation more commonly used by the Iroquois to refer to themselves. It is also preferred by scholars of Native American history who consider the name Iroquois to be derogatory in origin. An alternate designation, Ganonsyoni, is encountered as well. More transparently, the Iroquois confederacy is also referred to simply as the Six Nations. The history of the Iroquois Confederacy goes back to its formation by the Peacemaker in 1142, each nation within the Iroquoian family had a distinct language, territory and function in the League. Iroquois influence extended into present-day Canada, westward along the Great Lakes, the League is governed by a Grand Council, an assembly of fifty chiefs or sachems, each representing one of the clans of one of the nations. The original Iroquois League or Five Nations, occupied areas of present-day New York State up to the St. Lawrence River, west of the Hudson River. The League was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, in or close to 1722, the Tuscarora tribe joined the League, having migrated from the Carolinas after being displaced by Anglo-European settlement
13.
Strait
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A strait is a naturally formed, narrow, typically navigable waterway that connects two larger bodies of water. Most commonly it is a channel of water that lies between two land masses, some straits are not navigable, for example because they are too shallow, or because of an unnavigable reef or archipelago. The terms channel, pass or passage, can be synonymous and used interchangeably with strait, in Scotland firth or kyle are also sometimes used as synonyms for strait. Straits can be important shipping routes, and wars have been fought for control of them, numerous artificial channels, called canals, have been constructed to connect two bodies of water over land, such as the Suez Canal. Although rivers and canals often provide passage between two large lakes or a lake and a sea, and these seem to suit the formal definition of strait, the term strait is typically reserved for much larger, wider features of the marine environment. There are exceptions, with straits being called canals, Pearse Canal, Straits are the converse of isthmuses. That is, while a strait lies between two masses and connects two larger bodies of water, an isthmus lies between two bodies of water and connects two larger land masses. Some straits have the potential to generate significant tidal power using tidal stream turbines, tides are more predictable than wave power or wind power. The Pentland Firth may be capable of generating 10 GW, cook Strait in New Zealand may be capable of generating 5. There may be no suspension of innocent passage through such straits, list of straits Media related to Straits at Wikimedia Commons
14.
Niagara Falls
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They form the southern end of the Niagara Gorge. From largest to smallest, the three waterfalls are the Horseshoe Falls, the American Falls and the Bridal Veil Falls, the Horseshoe Falls lies on the border of the United States and Canada with the American Falls entirely on the American side, separated by Goat Island. The smaller Bridal Veil Falls are also on the American side, the international boundary line was originally drawn through Horseshoe Falls in 1819, but the boundary has long been in dispute due to natural erosion and construction. Located on the Niagara River, which drains Lake Erie into Lake Ontario, Horseshoe Falls is the most powerful waterfall in North America, as measured by vertical height and flow rate. The falls are 17 miles north-northwest of Buffalo, New York, while not exceptionally high, the Niagara Falls are very wide. More than six cubic feet of water falls over the crest line every minute in high flow. The Niagara Falls are famed both for their beauty and as a source of hydroelectric power. Balancing recreational, commercial, and industrial uses has been a challenge for the stewards of the falls since the 19th century. The Horseshoe Falls drop about 188 feet, while the height of the American Falls varies between 70 and 100 feet because of the presence of giant boulders at its base. The larger Horseshoe Falls are about 2,600 feet wide, the distance between the American extremity of the Niagara Falls and the Canadian extremity is 3,409 feet. The volume of water approaching the falls during peak season may sometimes be as much as 225,000 cubic feet per second. The average annual rate is 85,000 cubic feet per second. Since the flow is a function of the Lake Erie water elevation. This is accomplished by employing a weir – the International Control Dam – with movable gates upstream from the Horseshoe Falls. The falls flow is further halved at night, and, during the low tourist season in the winter, water diversion is regulated by the 1950 Niagara Treaty and is administered by the International Niagara Board of Control. The current rate of erosion is approximately 1 foot per year and it is estimated that 50,000 years from now, even at this reduced rate of erosion, the remaining 20 miles to Lake Erie will have been undermined and the falls will cease to exist. The features that became Niagara Falls were created by the Wisconsin glaciation about 10,000 years ago, the same forces also created the North American Great Lakes and the Niagara River. All were dug by an ice sheet that drove through the area, deepening some river channels to form lakes
15.
Niagara Escarpment
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The Niagara Escarpment is a long escarpment, or cuesta, in the United States and Canada that runs predominantly east/west from New York, through Ontario, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Illinois. The escarpment is most famous as the cliff over which the Niagara River plunges at Niagara Falls, the Niagara Escarpment is the most prominent of several escarpments formed in the bedrock of the Great Lakes Basin. From its easternmost point near Watertown, New York, the escarpment shapes in part the individual basins and landforms of Lakes Ontario, Huron, in Rochester, New York, three waterfalls over the escarpment are where the Genesee River flows through the city. The escarpment thence runs westward to the Niagara River, forming a gorge north of Niagara Falls. Study of rock exposures and drillholes demonstrates that no displacement of the rock layers occurs at the escarpment, the escarpments caprock is dolomitic limestone, which is more resistant and overlies weaker, more easily eroded shale as a weathering-resistant cap. The escarpment thus formed over millions of years through a process of erosion of rocks of different hardnesses. Through time the soft rocks weather away or erode by the action of streams, the gradual removal of the soft rocks undercuts the resistant caprock, leaving a cliff or escarpment. The erosional process is most readily seen at Niagara Falls, where the river has quickened the process and it can also be seen at the three waterfalls of the Genesee River at Rochester. Also, in places thick glacial deposits conceal the Niagara Escarpment, such as north of Georgetown, Ontario. The dolostone cap was laid down as sediment on the floor of a marine environment, in Michigan, behind the escarpment, the cuesta capstone slopes gently to form a wide basin, the floor of an Ordovician-Silurian-age tropical sea. During the Silurian period, some magnesium substituted for some of the calcium in the carbonates, worldwide sea levels were at their all-time maximum in the Ordovician, as the sea retreated, erosion inevitably began. This dolostone basin contains Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Erie, the Welland Canal allows ships to traverse the escarpment between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario on the Niagara Peninsula of Ontario. In southern Ontario, the Bruce Trail runs the length of the escarpment from Queenston on the Niagara River to Tobermory on the Bruce Peninsula. Highway 401, Canadas busiest, also crosses the Niagara Escarpment, beginning its descent through rolling hills, farmland. Rock exposed on the face of the escarpment can be seen along Highway 26 from Owen Sound eastwards towards Meaford, hamilton, Ontario, is situated on the escarpment in such a way that the north end of the city is below and the south part above. Affectionately referred to as The Mountain by its residents, many roads or mountain accesses join the urban core below with the suburban expansion above. High Cliff State Park in Wisconsin shows how modern and prehistoric humans used the escarpment for not only cultural reasons, a number of different animal and geometric effigy mounds and the remains of an early 20th-century limestone quarry and kiln are within the park. The relief and exposed edge are used by wind farms stretching from Pipe, Wisconsin, to Brownsville
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Electricity generation
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Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from sources of primary energy. For electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers, the other processes as transmission, distribution, energy storage and recovery using pumped-storage methods are normally carried out by the electric power industry. Other energy sources include solar photovoltaics and geothermal power, the fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday. This method is used today, electricity is generated by the movement of a loop of wire. Central power stations became practical with the development of alternating current power transmission, using power transformers to transmit power at high voltage. Electricity has been generated at central stations since 1882, the use of power-lines and power-poles have been significantly important in the distribution of electricity. There are seven fundamental methods of transforming other forms of energy into electrical energy. Static electricity, form the physical separation and transport of charge and it was the first form discovered and investigated, and the electrostatic generator is still used even in modern devices such as the Van de Graaff generator and MHD generators. In Electromagnetic induction, a generator, dynamo or alternator transforms kinetic energy into electricity. This is the most used form for generating electricity and is based on Faradays law and it can be experimented by rotating a magnet within closed loops of a conducting material. Almost all commercial electrical generation is done using electromagnetic induction, in mechanical energy forces a generator to rotate. Almost all electrical power on Earth is generated with a turbine, driven by wind, water, there are many different methods of developing mechanical energy, including heat engines, hydro, wind and tidal power. Most electric generation is driven by heat engines, the combustion of fossil fuels supplies most of the heat to these engines, with a significant fraction from nuclear fission and some from renewable sources. The modern steam turbine currently generates about 80% of the power in the world using a variety of heat sources. Power sources include, Steam Water is boiled by coal burned in a power plant. Nuclear fission heat created in a nuclear reactor creates steam, less than 15% of electricity is generated this way. Natural gas, turbines are directly by gases produced by combustion. Combined cycle are driven by steam and natural gas
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Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Generating Stations
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Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Generating Stations are two hydroelectric generating stations in Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. Sir Adam Beck Generating Station I, Sir Adam Beck Generating Station II, at the time it was built, it was the largest hydroelectric generating station in the world. The stations divert water from the Niagara and Welland Rivers above Niagara Falls which is released into the lower portion of the Niagara River. Adam Beck I contains 10 generators and first produced power in 1922 and it was originally called the Queenston-Chippawa Hydroelectric Plant and was renamed after Adam Beck in 1950 on the twenty-fifth anniversary of his death. The water is diverted through the Chippawa-Queenston Power Canal from the Welland River, as the first large-scale hydroelectric generation project in the world, Adam Beck I was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1990. Adam Beck II contains 16 generators and first produced power in 1954, the water was first diverted from the Niagara River by two five-mile tunnels under the city of Niagara Falls, Ontario, that start above the falls. A reservoir was created that permits the holding of water, diverted during the night, a CAD60 million refurbishment was started in 2016. The faulty relay later tripped open causing a major blackout created by a series of cascading failures which affected over 30 million people for up to 12 hours, the open cut Chippawa-Queenston Power Canal diverts water from the Welland River to the stations. Upstream of the International Control Dam are two tunnel inlets which run under Niagara Falls, Ontario and surface 2 km upstream of the Sir Adam Beck Generating Stations and this Treaty is monitored by the International Niagara Control Board. 96–97, the delicate controlled blast in 1954 to connect the two reservoirs
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Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant
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The Robert Moses Niagara Hydroelectric Power Station is a hydroelectric power station in Lewiston, New York, near Niagara Falls. Owned and operated by the New York Power Authority, the plant diverts water from the Niagara River above Niagara Falls and it uses 13 generators at an installed capacity of 2,525 megawatts. Named for New York city planner Robert Moses, the plant was built to power production after a nearby hydroelectric plant collapsed in 1956. It stands across the river from Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Power Stations in Ontario, the land that the Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant occupies has a long history of use. Several other companies later attempted similar projects without success, in 1853, the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company was chartered, in 1861, it completed a 35-foot wide and 8-foot deep canal. The powerhouse finally opened in 1874, but produced little electricity even by the standards of the day, in 1877, Jacob F. Schoellkopf purchased the canal, along with the water and power rights, for $71,000. He improved the canal and put the powerhouse to commercial use, in 1881, his company completed Schoellkopf Power Station No. 1, it would operate until 1904, in 1891, Schoellkopf Power Station No.2 opened directly in front of the original, in the gorge below the falls, with a higher 210-foot drop. In 1904, the company built Schoellkopf Stations No, in 1886, the competing Niagara Falls Power Company, owned by the Cataract Construction Company, built the Adams Power Plant. Between 1900 and 1904, the built the Powerhouse No. 2, bringing its total generators to 11, in 1918, World War I led the power companies to merge into the Niagara Falls Power Company. From 1921 to 1924, the company built Schoellkopf Station No, 3C next to the previous ones. It contained three 25Hz generators with a capacity of 160 megawatts, bringing the Schoellkopf Power Stations to 19 generators with a capacity of 340 megawatts. On June 7,1956, water seeping into a back wall caused the collapse of two-thirds of Schoellkopf Power Station No,2, killing one worker and causing an estimated $100 million in damage. To replace the antiquated and now partially destroyed Schoellkopf power stations, during planning, it was called the Niagara Power Project, later, it was named for NYPA head Robert Moses. In 1957, the United States Congress approved the project, Construction began that year, although its completion would require the NYPA to gain the rights to 550 acres of Tuscarora Indian Reservation for a new 1, 900-acre, 22-billion-US-gallon reservoir. This it did in 1960, through a United States Supreme Court decision, during construction, over 12 million cubic yards of rock were excavated and twenty workers died. When it opened in 1961, it was the Western worlds largest hydropower facility, water enters the forebay via tunnels from the Niagara River controlled via the International Control Dam upstream of the natural falls
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Gigawatt
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The watt is a derived unit of power in the International System of Units defined as 1 joule per second and can be used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. Power has dimensions of M L2 T −3, when an objects velocity is held constant at one meter per second against constant opposing force of one newton the rate at which work is done is 1 watt. 1 W =1 V ⋅ A Two additional unit conversions for watt can be using the above equation. 1 W =1 V2 Ω =1 A2 ⋅ Ω Where ohm is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance, a person having a mass of 100 kilograms who climbs a 3-meter-high ladder in 5 seconds is doing work at a rate of about 600 watts. Mass times acceleration due to gravity times height divided by the time it takes to lift the object to the given height gives the rate of doing work or power. A laborer over the course of an 8-hour day can sustain an output of about 75 watts, higher power levels can be achieved for short intervals. The watt is named after the Scottish scientist James Watt for his contributions to the development of the steam engine, in 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted it for the measurement of power into the International System of Units. For additional examples of magnitude for multiples and submultiples of the watt, technologically important powers that are measured in femtowatts are typically found in reference to radio and radar receivers. For example, meaningful FM tuner performance figures for sensitivity, quieting and these input levels are often stated in dBf. This is 0.2739 microvolt across a 75-ohm load or 0.5477 microvolt across a 300-ohm load, the picowatt is equal to one trillionth of a watt. Technologically important powers that are measured in picowatts are typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers, acoustics, the nanowatt is equal to one billionth of a watt. Important powers that are measured in nanowatts are also used in reference to radio. The microwatt is equal to one millionth of a watt, compact solar cells for devices such as calculators and watches are typically measured in microwatts. The milliwatt is equal to one thousandth of a watt, a typical laser pointer outputs about five milliwatts of light power, whereas a typical hearing aid for people uses less than one milliwatt. Audio signals and other electronic signal levels are measured in dBm. The kilowatt is equal to one thousand watts and this unit is typically used to express the output power of engines and the power of electric motors, tools, machines, and heaters. It is also a unit used to express the electromagnetic power output of broadcast radio. One kilowatt is equal to 1.34 horsepower
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Great Lakes
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Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth, containing 21% of the worlds surface fresh water by volume. The total surface is 94,250 square miles, and the volume is 5,439 cubic miles. Due to their sea-like characteristics the five Great Lakes have also long been referred to as inland seas, Lake Superior is the second largest lake in the world by area, and Lake Michigan is the largest lake that is entirely within one country. The southern half of the Great Lakes is bordered by the Great Lakes Megalopolis, the lakes have been a major highway for transportation, migration and trade, and they are home to a large number of aquatic species. Many invasive species have been introduced due to trade, and some threaten the regions biodiversity, though the five lakes reside in separate basins, they form a single, naturally interconnected body of fresh water, within the Great Lakes Basin. The lakes form a chain connecting the interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. From the interior to the outlet at the Saint Lawrence River, water flows from Superior to Huron and Michigan, southward to Erie, the lakes drain a large watershed via many rivers, and are studded with approximately 35,000 islands. There are also several smaller lakes, often called inland lakes. The surface area of the five primary lakes combined is roughly equal to the size of the United Kingdom, while the area of the entire basin is about the size of the UK. Lake Michigan is the one of the Great Lakes that is located entirely within the United States. The lakes are divided among the jurisdictions of the Canadian province of Ontario and the U. S. states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. Both Ontario and Michigan include in their boundaries portions of four of the lakes, Ontario does not border Lake Michigan, New York and Wisconsins jurisdictions extend into two lakes, and the remaining states into one of the lakes. This designation, however, is not universal and those living on the shore of Lake Superior often refer to all the other lakes as the lower lakes, because they are farther south. This corresponds to thinking of Lakes Erie and Ontario as down south, vessels sailing north on Lake Michigan are considered upbound even though they are sailing toward its effluent current. The Chicago River and Calumet River systems connect the Great Lakes Basin to the Mississippi River System through man-made alterations, the St. Marys River, including the Soo Locks, connects Lake Superior to Lake Huron. The Straits of Mackinac connect Lake Michigan to Lake Huron, the St. Clair River connects Lake Huron to Lake St. Clair. The Detroit River connects Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie, the Niagara River, including Niagara Falls, connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. The Welland Canal, bypassing the Falls, connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, the Saint Lawrence River connects Lake Ontario to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which connects to the Atlantic Ocean
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Saint Lawrence Seaway
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The Seaway is named for the Saint Lawrence River, which flows from Lake Ontario to the Atlantic Ocean. Legally, the Seaway extends from Montreal, Quebec, to Lake Erie, Lawrence River to bypass several rapids and dams along the way. The section of the downstream of Montreal, which is fully within Canadian jurisdiction, is regulated by the offices of Transport Canada in the Port of Quebec. The Saint Lawrence Seaway was preceded by a number of other canals, in 1871, locks on the Saint Lawrence allowed transit of vessels 186 ft long,44 ft 6 in wide, and 9 ft deep. The First Welland Canal, constructed from 1824–1829, had a minimum size of 110 ft long,22 ft wide, and 8 ft deep. The Welland Canals minimum lock size was increased to 150 ft long,26, the first proposals for a bi-national comprehensive deep waterway along the St. Lawrence were made in the 1890s. United States proposals for development up to and including the First World War met with little interest from the Canadian federal government, but the two national governments submitted St. Lawrence plans to a group for study. By the early 1920s, both The Wooten-Bowden Report and the International Joint Commission recommended the project and this treaty was submitted to the United States Senate in November 1932 and hearings continued until a vote was taken on March 14,1934. The majority voted in favor of the treaty, but it failed to gain the necessary two-thirds vote for ratification, subsequent attempts between the governments in the 1930s to forge an agreement came to naught due to opposition by the Ontario government of Mitchell Hepburn, and that of Quebec. President Franklin D. Roosevelt to get his support of the Seaway concept, Beukema and St. Lawrence Seaway proponents were convinced that such a nautical link would lead to development of the communities and economies of the Great Lakes region by enabling ocean-going ships. In this period, grain exports to Europe were highly important to the national economy, the negotiations on the treaty resumed in 1938 and by January 1940, substantial agreement was reached between Canada and the United States. By 1941, President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Mackenzie King made an agreement to build the joint hydro and navigation works. The railroads carried freight and goods between the ports and the Great Lakes cities. After 1945, proposals to introduce tolls to the Seaway were not sufficient to support by the U. S. Congress for the project. Growing impatient, and with Ontario desperate for the power to be generated by hydro-electricity and this seized the imagination of Canadians, engendering a groundswell of St. Lawrence nationalism. Fueled by this support, St. Laurents administration decided over the course of 1951 and 1952 to construct the waterway alone, the International Joint Commission issued an order of approval for joint construction of the dam in October 1952. U. S. Senate debate on the bill began on January 12,1953, and it received approval by the Senate and the House by May 1954. The need for cheap haulage of Quebec - Labrador iron ore was one of the arguments that finally swung the balance in favor of the seaway, ground-breaking ceremonies took place in Massena, New York, on August 10,1954
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Niagara Whirlpool
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The Niagara Whirlpool is a natural whirlpool along the Niagara River located along the Canada–US border between New York and Ontario. The whirlpool is located in the Niagara Gorge, downstream from Niagara Falls, the whirlpools greatest depth is 125 feet. It is estimated that the whirlpool formed approximately 4,200 years ago by the erosion of the Niagara Escarpment by the Niagara River. Niagara Falls is located along the boundary of the Niagara Escarpment and has been retreating upstream since its formation, during this normally slow process, the retreating falls intersected with an ancient pre-glacial river bed inside Saint Davids Buried Gorge. During the retreat of ice from the Wisconsinan glaciation of the last glacial period, when the falls intersected with this buried gorge, the river quickly washed away the filled-in silt and rocks. The ancient buried gorge was nearly perpendicular to the Niagara River and this sharp and sudden change in direction of water flow, coupled with the rapid flow of water exiting the Niagara Gorge, resulted in turbulent swirling of the river. Further erosion of the rock has resulted in a rounded basin that extends just to the side of the actual rivers course. The whirlpool naturally spins in a counterclockwise motion during normal flow, when more water from the river is diverted to the surrounding hydroelectric power plants, however, the flow often reverses. There are two parks located alongside the whirlpool. On the U. S. side is the Whirlpool State Park, on the Canadian side is the Niagara Glen Nature Reserve. The Whirlpool Aero Car, which traverses the river above the whirlpool, is located on the Canadian side
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Grand Island, New York
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Grand Island is a town located in Erie County, New York, United States. As of the 2010 census, the population was 20,374. The towns name derives from the French name La Grande Île, as Grand Island is the largest island in the Niagara River, the phrase La Grande Île appears on the town seal. Over its history, Grand Island has served as home to the Attawandaron Nation, in 1945, Grand Island was part of a plan to make a new World Peace Capital on the international border between Southern Ontario, Canada, and Western New York. The plan proposed placing the United Nations headquarters on adjacent Navy Island, an artists rendering of the World Peace Capital showed the property with bridges spanning both countries. The proposal was turned down in favor of the current U. N. headquarters in New York City, the town of Grand Island is located in the northwestern corner of Erie County, and on the Canada–US border, although there is no river crossing. It is northwest of Buffalo and is traversed by Interstate 190, in the early historical period of the island, French explorers found members of the Neutral Nation of Native Americans, also known as the Attawandaron, living on the island. By 1651, the nearby Seneca Nation had chased off or killed the Neutrals, the Seneca then used the island for hunting and fishing. In 1764, as part of the Treaty of Cession after the French and Indian War, the island became part of the British colonies in North America. In 1815, New York State purchased Grand Island and other islands in the Niagara River from the Iroquois nation for $1,000 in hand, and annually. The treaty was signed by Governor Daniel D. Tompkins, Peter B, porter, Chief Red Jacket, Falling Boards, Twenty Canoes, Sharp Shins, Man Killer, and others. The Senecas reserved the right to hunt, fish and fowl on the islands, in 1824, in a precursor to modern Zionism, journalist and Utopian Mordecai Manuel Noah tried to found a Jewish homeland on Grand Island. It would be called Ararat, after Mount Ararat, the Biblical resting place of Noahs Ark, however, the idea failed to attract Noahs fellow Jews, and it never got further than a ceremonial laying of a cornerstone. MacArthur Award-winning cartoonist Ben Katchor fictionalized Noahs scheme for Grand Island in his graphic novel The Jew of New York, the town of Grand Island was organized in 1852 from part of the town of Tonawanda. The Senecas sought the ejection of more than 2,000 property owners on the island, New York states purchase of them in 1815 was intended to avoid conflict with the Senecas over land it already owned. This decision was appealed, and the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit affirmed the courts decision on September 9,2004. The Senecas then sought review of decision by the Supreme Court of the United States. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 33.3 square miles, of which 28.3 square miles is land and 5.0 square miles
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Navy Island
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Navy Island is a small, uninhabited island in the Niagara River in the province of Ontario, managed by Parks Canada as a National Historic Site of Canada. It is located about 4.5 km upstream from Horseshoe Falls and it was designated a national historic site in 1921 in recognition of its role in shipbuilding and the location of the short-lived Republic of Canada. The site is closed to the public, has no visitor facilities, Navy Island was settled by the Lamoka people in approximately 2000 BC and Meadowood culture peoples in 1000 BC. During the French colonization of New France, Navy Island was known as Île de la Marina, here the French built four ships that they used to service the Great Lakes. When New France was ceded to the British in 1763, they set up a shipyard here, in the War of 1812, a detachment was stationed on the island. In 1837, William Lyon Mackenzie and about 200 of his supporters captured the island, initially Mackenzie started with twenty-five men, but the population eventually swelled to over six hundred men. On January 11,1838, the rebels were forced from the island, in 1875, the Queens Hotel was established as a popular summer resort on the islands south side. It was destroyed by fire in 1910, farms and orchards were located on the northeast, south, central, northwest and southwest ends of the island. Since abandoned, most of the lands have been re-forested. There are some reminders of habitation on the south side, a pier still exists for boaters to the island. Navy Island was proposed to be the new World Peace Capital, the island was considered to be an ideal location as it lay on the boundary between two peaceful countries. An artists rendering of the World Peace Capital showed the property with bridges spanning both countries and it was proposed that Navy Island would be ceded to the United Nations as long as the headquarters remained, and to revert to the Canadian government should the U. N. move. The proposal was turned down in favour of the current U. N. headquarters in New York City. Parks Canada, Management Plan for Navy Island
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Goat Island (New York)
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Goat Island is a small island in the Niagara River, located in the middle of Niagara Falls between the Bridal Veil Falls and the Horseshoe Falls. The island is at the southwest corner of the City of Niagara Falls, New York, Goat Island is connected to the U. S. mainland by two bridges carrying foot, car, and trackless train traffic, and to the smaller Luna Island by a pedestrian bridge. Goat island is wooded and is interlaced with foot trails. The Cave of the Winds tour elevator provides access down to the foot of the falls, the island was formed during the recent retreat of the falls as it cut inward through the Niagara Escarpment. The Niagara Rivers channel splits in two above the falls, creating two sets of falls, one on side of the island. In 1959–60, the eastern side was extended about 8.5 acres for additional parking. Fill was provided from excavation for the construction of the Robert Moses State Parkway, in 1955 the area between the Terrapin Rocks and Goat Island was filled in, creating Terrapin Point. In the early 1980s, the United States Army Corps of Engineers filled in land and built diversion dams. All together 400 feet of the Horseshoe Falls was eliminated, including 100 feet on the Canadian side, according to author Ginger Strand, the Horseshoe Falls is now entirely in Canada. Other sources say most of Horseshoe Falls is in Canada, the islands western end is slowly being eroded by the falls and the entire island will eventually disappear as the falls erode further upstream. The waters around Goat Island are relatively shallow and studded with islets and rocks, many of them scenes of dramatic rescues, john Stedman—an early pioneer and miller—kept a herd of goats on the island. Upon returning to the island after the winter of 1780, Stedman found all but one of the goats had died. The islands preservation as parkland is due to the efforts of Augustus Porter. Porter purchased the island and allowed a group of Tuscarora Native Americans to live on it and sell their crafts to the tourists who came to the falls by stagecoach, in spite of pressure, Porter refused to tame the environment on the island. In 1817, he built a bridge to the island for tourists. It was swept away by ice, so another was built the year downstream. Basil Hall called it one of the most singular pieces of engineering in the world, almost seven hundred feet long, it soon became the regions best-travelled walkway. In 1885, the island was included in the Niagara Reservation State Park which is the oldest state park in the U. S, the island is home to the Tesla Monument which honors the Serbian-American inventor, Nikola Tesla
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Luna Island
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Luna Island is a very small uninhabited island in the Niagara River, located in the U. S. state of New York. Luna Island is located in Niagara Falls, New York between Goat Island and Niagara Falls State Park and it is between the American Falls and Bridal Veil Falls, which are two of the three waterfalls that make up Niagara Falls. It is approximately 130 feet wide and 350 feet long, the geology of the island is dolostone rock and concrete base in the area around the falls. White cedar trees cover the end of the island and shrubs along north end. The original bridge to the island was wooden, added in the 1800s, spectators can view the falls from Luna Island and the proximate Goat Island, both of which are accessible by pedestrian bridges that cross the rapids of the Niagara River upstream from the falls. Spectators on Luna Island can stand a few feet away from both Bridal Veil Falls and American Falls by walking across the island, representatives of the nearby Schoellkopf Geological Museum often come to Luna Island where they bring photographs and answer questions about Niagara Falls. The island is said to derive its name from the ability of an observer, when standing on the island during a full moon, to see lunar rainbows in the Niagara mist
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Horseshoe Falls
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Horseshoe Falls, also known as Canadian Falls, is part of Niagara Falls, on the Niagara River. Approximately 90% of the Niagara River, after diversions for hydropower generation, the remaining 10% flows over American Falls. It is located between Terrapin Point on Goat Island in the US state of New York, and Table Rock in the Canadian province of Ontario, in 1955 the area between the rocks and Goat Island was filled in, creating Terrapin Point. In the early 1980s the United States Army Corps of Engineers filled in land and built diversion dams. Altogether 400 feet of the Horseshoe Falls was eliminated, due to erosion, the falls will continue to move in relation to the boundary line in the future. The official national maps for both Canada and the United States indicate that a portion of the Horseshoe Falls is located within the United States
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Bridal Veil Falls (Niagara Falls)
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The Bridal Veil Falls is the smallest of the three waterfalls that make up Niagara Falls. It is located on the American side, Luna Island separates it from the American Falls, the Bridal Veil Falls faces to the northwest and has a crest 56 feet wide. The total vertical drop is 181 feet, the crest elevation of the Falls is 508 feet. The Cave of the Winds attraction allows visitors to walk up to the base of Bridal Veil Falls, a pedestrian bridge crosses from Goat Island to Luna Island several yards upstream from the crest of the falls. The waterfall has also known in the past as Luna Falls. Historic and Current images of Bridal Veil Falls Niagara Falls Public Library Live stream of Bridal Veil Falls Niagara Falls Live Stream
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American Falls
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The American Falls is one of three waterfalls that together are known as Niagara Falls on the Niagara River along the Canada–U. S. The falls receive approximately 10% of the flow from Niagara River, with most of the rest going over Horseshoe Falls and it has a straight line crest width of about 830 feet. If measured along the lip of the falls, the crest is about 950 feet long. The torrent of water passing over the crest of the falls is about 2 feet deep, the height of the American Falls ranges between 70 to 110 feet. This measurement is taken from the top of the Falls to top of the rock pile, the height of the Falls from the top of the Falls to the river is 188 feet. The falls are viewable from an angle on the American side. The falls are viewable head-on from the Canadian side in Niagara Falls, the ledge of the American Falls is shaped in a modified W form, caused by numerous rock falls over the past 150 years which have resulted in the huge mound of rock at its base. The most notable recent rockfall occurred in 1954 with the collapse of Prospect Point to the north, results conflict as to whether tourist attendance that season was higher or lower than normal. Attendance increases were due to the news that the cataract was dried off. By December 1969, water was flowing over the American Falls again, in the mid‑1970s, it was decided not to make alterations to the rockwall and remove the talus, citing the trend to allow nature to take its course. A review of the official U. S. Geological Survey map for Niagara Falls confirms that about one-third of Horseshoe Falls lies in U. S. territory, the two other named falls encompassing Niagara Falls lie completely within U. S. territory. Images from the Historic Niagara Digital Collections Art works in the collection of the Niagara Falls Public Library Dewatering timeline
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Unity Island
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Unity Island is an approximately 160-acre island separating the Niagara River and the Black Rock Canal, located within the city limits of Buffalo, New York. The historic island is home to two parks and a water treatment facility. The islands original name in the Seneca language is Deyowenoguhdoh, from about the time of the War of 1812 to July 2015, the island was also known by the English name Squaw Island. New signs reflecting the change were installed on the island beginning in October 2015. Although the new name was adopted by the city, the official name of the island as declared by the U. S. Board on Geographic Names remains Squaw Island, a proposal to the BGN to change the name was submitted in September 2016. The proposal is under evaluation and open for comment as of late 2016. From their arrival in 1780, Unity Island was known to the native Seneca Indians as Deyowenoguhdoh, meaning divided island, the name Squaw Island first appeared prior to the War of 1812, however, its origin is unknown. Not until the early 19th century did the island leave the hands of the Seneca Nation, philip Kenjockety, one of the last of the Neutral Nation and namesake of Scajaquada Creek, owned a corn field on the island at the time of his death in 1808. Kenjockety is known to have traveled the creek that once divided the island by canoe during his travels to, light winds and swift waters at the mouth of the Niagara River made it impossible for the Americans to escape British artillery at nearby Fort Erie. Both the British and Americans contested the grounded Detroit until her battered hulk was set afire, the island remained in the hands of the Senecas until 1816, when the Nation gifted the property to Captain Jasper Parrish for his service to them as an agent and interpreter. Parrish later sold the island to local attorney Henry F. Penfield in 1823, in later years, Unity Island came into public ownership and its northern end was used as a landfill, the area was eventually capped and turned into todays Unity Island Park. A City of Buffalo water treatment facility began operations on the island in 1938, the facilitys construction slightly expanded the size of the island. At the southern tip of Unity Island is Broderick Park, the location of the former Black Rock ferry, the ferry operated continuously at that location between 1825 and the middle of the 20th century, when service was discontinued. The ferrys dock along the edge of the park was used as an Underground Railroad station from at least the 1830s until the American Civil War. Escaped slaves that arrived at the park would take the ferry and other boats from this location across the Niagara River to Canada, extending from the southern tip of Unity Island is a long, narrow stone pier known as Bird Island Pier, completed in 1860. The structure once connected Unity Island to the former Bird Island, the island was noted in the personal journal of DeWitt Clinton, who surveyed the area prior to construction of the Erie Canal. An 1829 map of the Niagara River and proposed Black Rock Harbor illustrates the then-proposed Bird Island Pier connecting Unity Island to Bird Island
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Buffalo, New York
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Buffalo is a city in western New York state and the county seat of Erie County, on the eastern shores of Lake Erie at the head of the Niagara River. As of 2014, Buffalo is New York states 2nd-most populous city after New York City, the metropolitan area has a population of 1.13 million. After an economic downturn in the half of the 20th century, Buffalos economy has transitioned to sectors that include financial services, technology, biomedical engineering. Residents of Buffalo are called Buffalonians, the citys nicknames include The Queen City, The Nickel City and The City of Good Neighbors. The city of Buffalo received its name from a creek called Buffalo Creek. British military engineer Captain John Montresor made reference to Buffalo Creek in his journal of 1764, there are several theories regarding how Buffalo Creek received its name. In 1804, as principal agent opening the area for the Holland Land Company, Joseph Ellicott, designed a radial street and grid system that branches out from downtown like bicycle spokes similar to the street system he used in the nations capital. Although Ellicott named the settlement New Amsterdam, the name did not catch on, during the War of 1812, on December 30,1813, Buffalo was burned by British forces. The George Coit House 1818 and Samuel Schenck House 1823 are currently the oldest houses within the limits of the City of Buffalo, on October 26,1825, the Erie Canal was completed with Buffalo a port-of-call for settlers heading westward. At the time, the population was about 2,400, the Erie Canal brought about a surge in population and commerce, which led Buffalo to incorporate as a city in 1832. In 1845, construction began on the Macedonia Baptist Church, an important meeting place for the abolitionist movement, Buffalo was a terminus point of the Underground Railroad with many fugitive slaves crossing the Niagara River to Fort Erie, Ontario in search of freedom. During the 1840s, Buffalos port continued to develop, both passenger and commercial traffic expanded with some 93,000 passengers heading west from the port of Buffalo. Grain and commercial goods shipments led to repeated expansion of the harbor, in 1843, the worlds first steam-powered grain elevator was constructed by local merchant Joseph Dart and engineer Robert Dunbar. Darts Elevator enabled faster unloading of lake freighters along with the transshipment of grain in bulk from barges, canal boats, by 1850, the citys population was 81,000. At the dawn of the 20th century, local mills were among the first to benefit from hydroelectric power generated by the Niagara River, the city got the nickname City of Light at this time due to the widespread electric lighting. It was also part of the revolution, hosting the brass era car builders Pierce Arrow. President William McKinley was shot and mortally wounded by an anarchist at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo on September 6,1901, McKinley died in the city eight days later and Theodore Roosevelt was sworn in at the Wilcox Mansion as the 26th President of the United States. The Great Depression of 1929–39 saw severe unemployment, especially working class men
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Tonawanda Creek
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Tonawanda Creek is a small tributary of the Niagara River in Western New York, United States. After rising in Wyoming County, the flows through Genesee County before forming part of the boundary between Erie County and Niagara County. The length of Tonawanda Creek is 90 miles and its drainage basin is nearly 650 square miles in area. It flows on a course for most of its length. Tonawanda Creek rises in Wyoming County and enters the Niagara River between Niagara County and Erie County, forming a boundary between them, just after being joined by Ellicott Creek, it enters the Niagara River. The creek has a small 30-foot-high waterfall at Indian Falls where the stream descends from the Onondaga Escarpment, during the spring of each year, some sections of Tonawanda Creek flood to varying degrees. These floods are more of an inconvenience than a danger, but can be more serious, the larger flooding can cause property damage. Tonawanda Creek is also part of the Erie Canal, which joins the creek southwest of Lockport, in its upper reaches, Tonawanda Creek and the Little Tonawanda, which is tributary, are trout streams. The name Tonawanda or derives from the Iroquois language meaning swift water, downstream of Indian Falls, Tonawanda Creek flows through the Tonawanda Indian Reservation, and there is a NYS historical marker where George Washington made a troop fording across the river. When the Erie Canal was first built, the Tonawanda Creek was the source of water for the section of the Canal. List of New York rivers Flooding on the Tonawanda Creek
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Welland River
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It drains an area of 880 square kilometres. The river was called the Chippawa Creek since it drained into Niagara River at Chippawa. Like many other places in Niagara, it was renamed by John Graves Simcoe, the present name is taken from River Welland in Lincolnshire in eastern England. The river is occasionally referred to as Chippawa Creek, especially by those in the Chippawa area itself. The Welland Canal was named after the river since it originally was planned to link Lake Ontario to Welland River, the city of Welland, Ontario was later named after both waterways, which cross in the city. The river flows under two navigable aqueducts, the Welland Recreational Waterway and the new alignment of the Welland Canal, an important tributary of the river is Coyle Creek, a picturesque and thickly forested creek that flows into the river on the north bank. The oldest structure spanning the river was OReillys Bridge, which was built in 1901, the settler, Patrick OReilly, son of Sgt. John Reilly, of Stamford Township, settled in Wainfleet in 1806, after Meeting the daughter, Sarah, of John Brown of Pelham Township Patrick OReilly felled a couple of very tall trees across the River to shorten his journey to see her. A better bridge was built after they married and Patrick realized Sarah was frightened of walking along the logs, John Brown OReilly was their son who acted as Clerk of Wainfleet Township for many years. OReillys Bridge was demolished in 2010 and was replaced with a more modern, hydroelectric generation activities in the Niagara Falls region actually cause the flow in the lower section of this river to reverse, as seen in this satellite picture. List of rivers of Ontario Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority Welland River Keepers
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Erie Canal
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The Erie Canal is a canal in New York that is part of the east–west, cross-state route of the New York State Canal System. Originally, it ran about 363 miles from Albany, on the Hudson River, to Buffalo and it was built to create a navigable water route from New York City and the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. First proposed in the 1780s, then re-proposed in 1807, a survey was authorized, funded, proponents of the project gradually wore down opponents, its construction began in 1817. The canal has 35 numbered locks, plus the Federal Black Rock Lock, and it opened on October 26,1825. In a time when bulk goods were limited to pack animals and it was faster than carts pulled by draft animals, and cut transport costs by about 95%. The canal fostered a population surge in western New York and opened regions farther west to settlement and it was enlarged between 1834 and 1862. The canals peak year was 1855, when 33,000 commercial shipments took place. In 1918, the part of the canal was enlarged to become part of the New York State Barge Canal, which ran parallel to the eastern half of the Erie Canal. Mainly used by recreational watercraft since the retirement of the last large ship, the Day Peckinpaugh in 1994. This was not unique to the Americas, and the still exists in those parts of the world where muscle power provides a primary means of transportation within a region. An equally ancient solution was implemented in many cultures — things in the water weighed far less, passengers and freight had to travel overland, a journey made more difficult by the rough condition of the roads. In 1800, it typically took 2.5 weeks to travel overland from New York to Cleveland, the principal exportable product of the Ohio Valley was grain, which was a high-volume, low-priced commodity, bolstered by supplies from the coast. Frequently it was not worth the cost of transporting it to far-away population centers and this was a factor leading to farmers in the west turning their grains into whiskey for easier transport and higher sales, and later the Whiskey Rebellion. In time, projects were devised in Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, the successes of the Canal du Midi in France, Bridgewater Canal in Britain, and Eiderkanal in Denmark spurred on what was called in Britain canal mania. Two men, Gouverneur Morris and Elkanah Watson, were proponents of a canal along the Mohawk River. Their efforts led to the creation of the Western and Northern Inland Lock Navigation Companies in 1792, by 1788, Washingtons Potomac Company was successful in constructing five locks which took boats 4,500 feet past the Potomac Great Falls. However, the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal superseded the Potomac Canal in 1823, christopher Colles surveyed the Mohawk Valley, and made a presentation to the New York state legislature in 1784, proposing a shorter canal from Lake Ontario. The proposal drew attention and some action, but was never implemented, jesse Hawley finally got the canal built
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Lockport (city), New York
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Lockport is a city in Niagara County, New York, United States. The population was 21,165 at the 2010 census and it is so-named from a set of Erie Canal locks within the city. Lockport is the county seat of Niagara County and is surrounded by the town of Lockport and it is part of the Buffalo–Niagara Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area. The New York State Legislature authorized the Erie Canals construction in April 1816, the route proposed by surveyors was to traverse an area in central Niagara County, New York, which was then uncivilized and free of White settlers. At the time, the nearest settlers were in nearby Cold Springs, as it became known where the proposed canal was to be built, land speculators began to buy large plots along and near the proposed route of the canal. By December 1820, when the location of the step locks had been determined. The canal reached Lockport in 1824, but the locks were not completed until 1825, by 1829, Lockport had become an established village. The community was centered on the locks, and consisted mainly of immigrant Scottish and Irish canal workers, the workers remained in Lockport after the completion of the locks, giving the city a heavy Celtic influence still discernible today, especially in the Lowertown and North Lockport neighborhoods. The city of Lockport was incorporated in 1865, the Erie Canal was supplanted by the larger New York State Barge Canal in 1918, and the famous south flight of five locks was replaced by two much larger locks E34 and E35. The north flight of five lock chambers still remains as a spill way, in recent years public officials and private businesses have made an effort to incorporate Lockport history into a regional or national tourist attraction. This includes the completion of the Canal Discovery Center, the Lockport Cave and Underground Boat Ride tour, local officials are seeking state grants to reconstruct the historic flight of five and make it a living history site complete with boat rides and reenactors. Published reports state a living history site in Lockport marketed as a day trip from Niagara Falls could draw thousands to Lockport each year, the city has a number of properties on the National Register of Historic Places. Lockports largest employer is General Motors Components, the former Harrison Radiator Corporation, which was founded locally in 1912, following 10 years of ownership by Delphi Corporation as Delphi Thermal Systems, it returned to General Motors in October 2009. In 1948, the Lockport Chief of Police denied a permit for a Jehovahs Witnesses minister to preach in a public park using a sound truck. In Saia v. New York, the U. S. Supreme Court struck down the city ordinance as a violation of the First Amendment. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 8.6 square miles. The Erie Canal passes through the center of the city, turning south toward Tonawanda Creek and it climbs the Niagara Escarpment through a series of two modern locks. Originally, a set of five combined smaller locks were used
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Queenston, Ontario
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Queenston is a Compact Rural Community and unincorporated place 5 kilometres north of Niagara Falls in the Town of Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Canada. Across the river and the Canada–US border is the village of Lewiston, the Lewiston-Queenston Bridge links the two communities. Queenston was first settled in the 1770s by United Empire Loyalist refugees, during the War of 1812, British, Mohawk and Canadian colonial troops repelled an American invasion force here in the Battle of Queenston Heights. Nearby is a monument to Brocks gray horse, Alfred. It was also the home of Laura Secord, a Canadian heroine of the 1812 war, riverBrink Art Museum is also in Queenston. It is home to a collection of over 1,400 artworks and artefacts by Canadian and international artists. Completed in 1970, the building features Georgian-style architecture, including a mansard roof and it served as Weirs country residence, and was converted into an art museum following his death in 1981. This village is at the point where the Niagara River began eroding the Niagara Escarpment, during the ensuing 12,000 years the Falls cut an 11 kilometres long gorge in the Escarpment southward to its present-day position. In the early 19th century, the name was spelled as Queenstown. Queenston marks the terminus of the Bruce Trail. The cairn marking the terminus is in a parking lot. Joint Support Ship Project will be named Queenston-Class and one ship as HMCS Queenston to commemorate the site of the battle at Queenston
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Louis Hennepin
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Baptized Antoine, was a Roman Catholic priest and missionary of the Franciscan Recollet order and an explorer of the interior of North America. Antoine Hennepin was born in Ath in the Spanish Netherlands, in 1659, Béthune, the town where he lived, was captured by the army of Louis XIV of France. Henri Joulet, who accompanied Hennepin and wrote his own journal of their travels, at the request of Louis XIV the Récollets sent four missionaries to New France in May 1675, including Hennepin, accompanied by René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle. In 1678, Hennepin was ordered by his superior to accompany La Salle on an expedition to explore the western part of New France. Hennepin was 39 when he departed in 1679 with La Salle from Quebec City to construct the 45-ton barque Le Griffon, sail through the Great Lakes, Hennepin was with La Salle at the construction of Fort Crevecouer in January 1680. In February, La Salle sent Hennepin and two others as a party to search for the Mississippi River. The party followed the Illinois River to its junction with the Mississippi, shortly thereafter, Hennepin was captured by a Sioux war party and carried off for a time into what is now the state of Minnesota. In September 1680, thanks to Daniel Greysolon, Sieur Du Lhut, Hennepin, Hennepin returned to France and was never allowed by his order to return to North America. Local historians credit the Franciscan Récollet friar as the first European to step ashore at the site of present-day Hannibal, in 1683, he published a book about Niagara Falls called A New Discovery. The Regionalist painter Thomas Hart Benton created a mural, Father Hennepin at Niagara Falls for the New York Power Authority at Lewiston, wreckage is located west of South Haven, Michigan. Hennepin Island is in the Mississippi River at St. Anthony Falls, Father Hennepin Bluffs Park lies on the east bank of the Mississippi River adjacent to Hennepin Island. It is administered by the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board and features picnic areas, a bandshell, Hennepin Room at the Minneapolis Hilton The Father Hennepin Memorial stands on the grounds of Saint Marys Basilica in Minneapolis. Its lyrics tell a story of Fr. Hennepin and his leap from the Hennepin Avenue Bridge over the Mississippi River, the truth of much of Hennepins accounts has been called into question — or flatly denied — notably by American historian Francis Parkman. Hennepin has been denounced by many historians and historical critics as an arrant falsifier, certain writers have sought to repel this charge by claiming that the erroneous statements are in fact interpolations by other persons. The weight of the evidence is however adverse to such a theory
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Lewiston, New York
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Lewiston is a village in Niagara County, New York, United States. The population was 2,701 at the 2010 census, the village is named after Morgan Lewis, an early 19th-century governor of New York. It is part of the Buffalo–Niagara Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area, the Village of Lewiston, NY is within the Town of Lewiston. The Earl W. Brydges Artpark State Park lies at its southern border, Lewiston was selected by Rand McNally as one of the Top Ten Best Small Towns in America in November 2012. Lewiston is situated on the Niagara River, just across the river from Canada, the Niagara River intersects the Niagara Escarpment between Lewiston and Queenston, Ontario, identifying the Lewiston-Queenston section of the escarpment as the geologic origin of Niagara Falls. Over a roughly 12,500 year span, the falls has eroded nearly 7 miles south from Lewiston to its present location in Niagara Falls, NY, Lewiston lies halfway between the world-famous Niagara Falls and historic Fort Niagara in Youngstown, New York. Niagara Falls is about a ten-minute drive to the south, visitors from Canada can take the Lewiston-Queenston Bridge across the Niagara River. Popular summer festivals include the Outdoor Art Festival and the Historic Lewiston Jazz Festival, the famous Kiwanis Peach Festival takes place during the second weekend of September. Several other festivals, such as the Harvest Fest, take place during the year, most are held on or near Center Street, the Villages main street. Lewiston recently won an online voting contest sponsored by USA Today and Rand McNally for Best for Food small town in America, Lewiston has over 30 locally owned and operated restaurant/food establishments within a mile, located primarily on Center Street, catering to a variety of tastes. It was also designated in the same contest as one of the Top Ten Best Small Towns in America, various cultures of Native American tribes inhabited the Lewiston area for thousands of years, with the earliest known artifacts dating to 5000 B. C. By the 14th century, this area was inhabited by Iroquoian-speaking peoples, before the mid-17th century, they had coalesced into the Five Nations, the historic Iroquois tribes of the Haudenosaunee based in present-day New York. In the early 18th century, they were joined by the Iroquoian Tuscarora from the South, in 1722, the Iroquois accepted the Tuscarora as the Sixth Nation of the confederacy. The Tuscarora had a village here before the American Revolutionary War called Yehęwakwáʼthaʼ, during the war, Tuscarora and Oneida Iroquois bands allied individually with the colonists or the British. Those who allied with the British went north with Joseph Brant before the end of the war and are part of the Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation in Ontario and those allied with the American colonists stayed in New York. The Village of Lewiston was the site of the first European settlement in western New York in 1720, french explorers arriving from Canada across the river had visited the area as early as 1615. The village, incorporated in 1822, claims to be the most historic square mile in America and it was named after Morgan Lewis, the 3rd Governor of New York. In addition to its ancient indigenous settlement, Lewiston became historically significant during European development of North America and it was the site from which the US invaded Canada in the Battle of Queenston Heights which took place October 13,1812
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Fort George, Ontario
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Fort George National Historic Site is a historic military structure at Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, that was the scene of several battles during the War of 1812. Opposite the fort, across the Niagara River, stands Fort Niagara in New York, Fort George was built by the British Army after Jays Treaty required Britain to withdraw from Fort Niagara. The new fort was completed in 1802 and became the headquarters for the British Army, Fort George was captured by U. S. forces in May 1813 at the Battle of Fort George. The American Army used the fort as a base to invade Upper Canada, the fort was retaken by the British Army in December of that year after U. S. forces abandoned the British side of the river. The fortification was used by the Canadian Army as a training base during the First World War. The grounds were eventually abandoned by the military in 1965, the site is now a National Historic Site of Canada, maintained by Parks Canada with operating hours varying as appropriate to the season. The staff maintains the image of the fort as it was during the early 19th century, with costumes, exhibits. They train summer students in the tactics and firing drills of the 41st regiment from the War of 1812. They also have the 41st Fife and Drum Corps which provides an example of how the fife, reenactors from both the United States and Canada meet on and near the grounds of the fort and reenact the battle that took place in May 1813. This has taken place since 1984 and has grown from a group of 300 troops to over 1800. The grounds surrounding the fort and the adjacent to the fort provided the site for the 8th World Scout Jamboree held in August 1955. Fort George National Historic Site is one of a handful of sites managed under the administrative name Niagara National Historic Sites by Parks Canada, the television show The Girly Ghosthunters paid a visit to the fort to investigate any paranormal activity that was allegedly documented there. The episode was shown as the second, of thirteen, episodes of the show in 2005, the interpreters and infantry members are dressed in period dress and uniforms. Infantry soldiers, officers and fifes and drums are dressed representing the 41st Regiment of Foot, the reproduction British 8 mortars are a unique pattern found nowhere else. It has been a site since the mid 1900s
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Fort Niagara
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Fort Niagara is a fortification originally built to protect the interests of New France in North America. It is located near Youngstown, New York, on the bank of the Niagara River at its mouth. René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle built the first structure, called Fort Conti, in 1687, the Governor of New France, the Marquis de Denonville, constructed a new fort at the former site of Fort Conti. He named it Fort Denonville and posted a hundred men under the command of Capt, pierre de Troyes, Chevalier de Troyes. The winter weather and disease was severe, and all but twelve perished by the time a relief force returned from Montreal and it was decided in September 1688 to abandon the post and the stockade was pulled down. In 1726, a two story Maison a Machicoulis or Machicolated House was constructed on the site by French engineer Gaspard-Joseph Chaussegros de Léry. It was called the House of Peace or trading post to appease the Haudenosaunee, the name used today, The French Castle was not used until the 19th Century. The fort was expanded to its present size in 1755 due to increased tensions between French and British colonial interests. The fort played a significant part in the French and Indian War, the fort remained in British hands for the next thirty-seven years. Fort Niagara served as the Loyalist base in New York during the American Revolutionary War for Colonel John Butler and his Butlers Rangers, a Tory militia in the command of the British Army. Lt. Col. William Stacy, a officer of the Continental Army, was captured at the attack on Cherry Valley. He was held captive at Fort Niagara during the summer of 1779, Niagara became notorious for drinking, brawling, whoring, and cheating. Crude taverns, stores, and bordellos sprouted on the Bottom, though Fort Niagara was ceded to the United States after the Treaty of Paris ended the American War of Independence in 1783, the region remained effectively under British control for thirteen years. Only after signing of the Jay Treaty did American forces occupy the fort in 1796, during the War of 1812 the forts guns sank the Provincial Marine schooner Seneca on 21 November 1812. British forces captured the fort on the night of 19 December 1813 in retaliation for the burning of Niagara nine days earlier, the British held the fort for the remainder of the war until they relinquished it under the terms of the Treaty of Ghent. It has remained in US custody ever since, nine currently active battalions of the Regular Army are derived from American units that were at Fort Niagara during the War of 1812. 52 Battery Royal Artillery, Royal Scots and a number of other British units that fought at the Capture of Fort Niagara still exist today, a number of other units that served in the Fort in the War of 1812 also endure. The name Old Fort Niagara which is associated with the fort today does not refer to its age, the post-Civil War era saw the building of New Fort Niagara outside the original walls of the fort
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Fort Erie, Ontario
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Fort Erie is a town on the Niagara River in the Niagara Region, Ontario, Canada. It is directly across the river from Buffalo, New York, Fort Erie is one of Niagaras fastest growing communities, and has experienced a high level of residential and commercial development in the past few years. Garrison Road is the commercial corridor, stretching east to west through Fort Erie. Fort Erie is also home to other core areas as a result of the 1970 amalgamation of Bertie Township. The soil is shallow, with a clay subsoil, the towns beaches on Lake Erie, most notably Erie Beach, Crystal Beach and Bay Beach, are considered the best in the area and draw many weekend visitors from the Toronto and Buffalo areas. While summers are enjoyable, winters can occasionally be fierce, with many snowstorms, whiteouts, Erie Beach is a designated place in Canadian census data, it had a population of 199 in 2006. Fort Erie Secondary School and Ridgeway-Crystal Beach High School are the two high schools serving Fort Erie and area communities. The Fort Erie area contains deposits of flint, and became important in the production of spearheads, arrowheads, and other tools. In 1650, during the Beaver Wars, the Iroquois Confederacy declared war on the Neutral Nation, driving them from their territory by 1651. This was an attempt to further conflict with the Indians. The British also built a string of forts to defend their new territory, including Fort Erie. During the American Revolution Fort Erie was used as a depot for British troops. After the war the territory of what is now the Town of Fort Erie was settled by soldiers demobilised from Butlers Rangers, the original fort was destroyed by ice, as was a second fort built on the same site. In 1803, the British began work on a new, stone, during the War of 1812, the Americans attacked Fort Erie twice in 1812, captured and abandoned it in 1813, and then recaptured it in 1814. The Americans held it for a time, breaking a prolonged British siege, later they destroyed Fort Erie and returned to Buffalo in the winter of 1814. The Fort Erie area became a terminus for slaves using the Underground Railroad in the middle of the 19th century, many of whom crossed into Canada from Buffalo. Bertie Hall is believed to have been a point on the Underground Railroad. In 1866, during the Fenian raids, between 1,000 and 1,350 Fenians crossed the Niagara River and advanced toward the Welland Canal
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French and Indian War
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The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
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American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
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Battle of Queenston Heights
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The Battle of Queenston Heights was the first major battle in the War of 1812 and resulted in a British victory. It took place on 13 October 1812, near Queenston, Upper Canada, the battle was fought as the result of an American attempt to establish a foothold on the Canadian side of the Niagara River before campaigning ended with the onset of winter. This decisive battle was the culmination of a poorly managed American offensive, as a result, British reinforcements arrived and defeated the unsupported American forces, forcing them to surrender. The United States invasion across the Niagara River was originally intended to be part of an attack on Upper Canadas border strongpoints. These attacks were expected to bring the colony to its knees, however, the four attacks on Upper Canada failed or were not even launched. Hull was besieged in Detroit and, fearing a massacre by Britains Native American allies, surrendered the town, Dearborn and his army remained relatively inactive at Albany, New York and seemed to be in no hurry to attempt an invasion. Van Rensselaer was also unable to launch any immediate attack on the Niagara Peninsula, lacking troops, Van Rensselaer secured the appointment of his second cousin, Colonel Solomon Van Rensselaer, as his aide-de-camp. Solomon van Rensselaer was a soldier, and a valuable source of advice to the General. Major General Isaac Brock was both the civil Administrator of Upper Canada and Commander of the forces there. However, his superior at Quebec, Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost, was of a more cautious bent, Brock had hastened back from Detroit, intending to cross the Niagara, defeat Van Rensselaer before he could be reinforced and occupy upper New York State. Prevost vetoed this plan, ordering Brock to behave more defensively and he believed that peace negotiations might result and did not wish to prejudice any talks by taking offensive action. He opened negotiations with General Dearborn, and arranged local armistices, the United States government rejected Prevosts approach, and ordered Dearborn to proceed with the utmost vigor in your operations, after giving Prevost notice of the resumption of hostilities. However, it several weeks for this correspondence to travel between Washington and the frontier. While Brock had been at Detroit, Major General Sheaffe had been in command of the troops on the Niagara, Brock returned to the Niagara on 22 August, to find the armistice in effect. The armistice ended on 8 September, by which time Van Rensselaers army was better supplied than it had been before. The one aggressive action which Brock was able to take during the armistice was to facilitate the Siege of Fort Wayne on the Maumee River, even with Hulls failure and Dearborns inaction, Van Rensselaers situation appeared strong. On 1 September he had only 691 unpaid men fit for duty, in addition to his own force of around 6,000 regulars, volunteers and militia, Van Rensselaer had Brigadier General Alexander Smyths force of 1,700 regular soldiers under his command. However, Smyth, who was a regular officer although a lawyer by trade, as soon as his force reached the frontier, Smyth deployed his force near Buffalo, New York, at the head of the Niagara River
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War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
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American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
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African Americans
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African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
Canada
United States
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NY 18F lines the river on the state side from Fort Niagara to Lewiston. 
Niagara Scenic Parkway on the state side only travels along the River from the Falls to Lewiston. The remaining river sections (with some interruptions) are covered by the 
LaSalle Expressway, 
NY 384, 
NY 266 and 
I-190 (Niagara Thruway) / New York Thruway.
