1.
Inventor
–
An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition or process. The invention process is a process within an overall engineering and product development process and it may be an improvement upon a machine or product or a new process for creating an object or a result. An invention that achieves a unique function or result may be a radical breakthrough. Such works are novel and not obvious to others skilled in the same field, an inventor may be taking a big step in success or failure. A patent legally protects the property rights of the inventor. The rules and requirements for patenting an invention vary from country to country, another meaning of invention is cultural invention, which is an innovative set of useful social behaviours adopted by people and passed on to others. The Institute for Social Inventions collected many such ideas in magazines, Invention is also an important component of artistic and design creativity. Inventions often extend the boundaries of knowledge, experience or capability. Brainstorming also can spark new ideas for an invention, collaborative creative processes are frequently used by engineers, designers, architects and scientists. Co-inventors are frequently named on patents, in addition, many inventors keep records of their working process - notebooks, photos, etc. including Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, Evangelista Torricelli, Thomas Jefferson and Albert Einstein. In the process of developing an invention, the idea may change. The invention may become simpler, more practical, it may expand, working on one invention can lead to others too. History shows that turning the concept of an invention into a device is not always swift or direct. Inventions may also more useful after time passes and other changes occur. For example, the became more useful once powered flight was a reality. Invention is often a creative process, an open and curious mind allows an inventor to see beyond what is known. Seeing a new possibility, connection, or relationship can spark an invention, inventive thinking frequently involves combining concepts or elements from different realms that would not normally be put together. Sometimes inventors disregard the boundaries between distinctly separate territories or fields, several concepts may be considered when thinking about invention
Inventor
–
' BUILD YOUR OWN TELEVISION RECEIVER.'
Science and Invention magazine cover, November 1928
Inventor
–
Alessandro Volta with the first
electrical battery. Volta is recognized as one of the most influential inventors of all time.
Inventor
–
Thomas Edison with
phonograph. Edison is considered one of the most prolific inventors in history, holding
1,093 U.S. patents in his name.
Inventor
–
A rare 1884 photo showing the experimental recording of voice patterns by a photographic process at the
Alexander Graham Bell Laboratory in Washington, D.C. Many of their experimental designs panned out in failure.
2.
Photography
–
Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. A negative image on film is used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print. The word photography was created from the Greek roots φωτός, genitive of φῶς, light and γραφή representation by means of lines or drawing, several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung. Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566, wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, the discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley, a hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture, renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means dark chamber in Latin and it is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over, the first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. Niépce was successful again in 1825, in 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature. Because Niépces camera photographs required a long exposure, he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy, Daguerres efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process
Photography
–
Lens and mounting of a large-format camera
Photography
–
A camera obscura used for drawing images
Photography
–
Earliest known surviving heliographic engraving, 1825, printed from a metal plate made by
Nicéphore Niépce. The plate was exposed under an ordinary engraving and copied it by photographic means. This was a step towards the first permanent photograph taken with a camera.
Photography
–
World's earliest surviving camera photograph, 1826 or 1827:
View from the Window at Le Gras
3.
History of photography
–
In the mid-1820s, Nicéphore Niépce succeeded, but several days of exposure in the camera were required and the earliest results were very crude. Niépces associate Louis Daguerre went on to develop the daguerreotype process, the daguerreotype required only minutes of exposure in the camera, and produced clear, finely detailed results. It was commercially introduced in 1839, a generally accepted as the birth year of practical photography. The metal-based daguerreotype process soon had some competition from the paper-based calotype negative, subsequent innovations made photography easier and more versatile. In the mid-20th century, developments made it possible for amateurs to take pictures in color as well as in black-and-white. The commercial introduction of computer-based electronic digital cameras in the 1990s soon revolutionized photography, the coining of the word photography is usually attributed to Sir John Herschel in 1839. It is based on the Greek φῶς, meaning light, and γραφή, meaning drawing, writing, Photography is the result of combining several different technical discoveries. Long before the first photographs were made, Greek mathematicians Aristotle, daniel Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1568. Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694, the novel Giphantie described what could be interpreted as photography. In 1614, Angelo Sala demonstrated that silver nitrate is blackened by the sun. This discovery of the effect on powdered silver nitrate was not supported and was subsequently disregarded by then-respected scientists who said that his discovery had no practical application. But what he noticed and found to be strange was that part of it remained white and he then observed a cord hanging down and going across in front of the window, which he found out to be the cause. On further examination, he found that the entire mixture inevitably reverted to its white color. Experimenting further, Schulze succeeded in transferring words he pasted on the bottle printed into the substance. ”He put the silver nitrate in an oven and this proved to him, definitively, that heat had not facilitated the transformation, as popularly suspected. Of greater potential usefulness, Scheele found that ammonia dissolved the silver chloride and this discovery, which could have been used to stabilize or fix a camera image captured with silver chloride, was little-noticed at the time and unknown to the earliest photography experimenters. It was not until around the year 1800 that Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over because o attempts that have made to prevent the uncoloured part of the copy or profile from being acted upon by light have as yet been successful. Wedgwood may have abandoned his experiments due to frail and failing health
History of photography
–
World's earliest surviving camera photograph, 1826 or 1827:
View from the Window at Le Gras
History of photography
–
A camera obscura used for drawing images
History of photography
–
Earliest known surviving heliographic engraving, 1825, printed from a metal plate made by
Joseph Nicéphore Niépce with his
"heliographic process". The plate was exposed under an ordinary engraving and copied it by photographic means. This was a step towards the first permanent photograph from nature taken with a camera obscura.
History of photography
–
"
Boulevard du Temple ", a
daguerreotype made by
Louis Daguerre in 1838, is generally accepted as the earliest photograph to include people. It is a view of a busy street, but because the exposure time was at least ten minutes the moving traffic left no trace. Only the two men near the bottom left corner, one apparently having his boots polished by the other, stayed in one place long enough to be visible.
4.
Heliography
–
Heliography is the photographic process invented by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce around 1822, which he used to make the earliest known surviving photograph from nature, View from the Window at Le Gras. The process used Bitumen of Judea, a naturally occurring asphalt and it hardened in proportion to its exposure to light. When the plate was washed with oil of lavender, only the areas remained. The word has also used to refer to other phenomena, for description of the sun, for photography in general, for signalling by heliograph. Found on old reproductions, may stand for the French word héliogravure, Art & Architecture Thesaurus, s. v. heliography. The University of Texas at Austin, an Improved Method in the Art of Signalling for Military & Scientific Purposes
Heliography
–
Earliest known surviving heliographic engraving, 1825, printed from a metal plate made by
Joseph Nicéphore Niépce with his "heliographic process". The plate was exposed under an ordinary engraving and copied it by photographic means. Heliography was also used to capture
a scene directly from nature with a
camera.
5.
Photoengraving
–
Normally applied to metal, it can also be used on glass, plastic and other materials. A photoresist is selected which is resistant to the acid or other etching compound to be used. It may be a liquid applied by brushing, spraying, pouring or other means and then allowed to set, or it may come in sheet form and be applied by laminating. It is then exposed to strong ultraviolet light—through a photographic, mechanically printed. Alternatively, a lens may be used to project an image directly onto it, typically, the photoresist is hardened where it receives sufficient exposure to light, but some photoresists are initially hard and are then softened by exposure. A solvent is used to wash away the parts, laying bare the underlying material. The remaining photoresist is removed after the operation is complete. In the graphic arts, photoengraving is used to printing plates for various printing processes, reproducing a wide variety of graphics such as lettering, line drawings. The same procedure is used to make printed circuit boards, foil-stamping dies and it is also used to make nameplates, commemorative plaques and other decorative engravings. It can be used to make flat springs, levers, gears, a very high degree of precision is possible. In these applications, it is properly called photochemical machining, but the terms photochemical milling, a similar process called photolithography is used to make integrated circuits. One method of photoengraving produces a depression in the metal. This is used for printing plates or for decorative purposes. It is also the method used for printed circuit boards. The engraving is usually made in copper or brass, the process can be done in open trays but is much more effective if the etchant is sprayed onto the metal. When ferric chloride is used as the etchant, no metal parts other than titanium can be used in the etching equipment, decorative engraving is often filled by spray-painting then sanding to remove the paint from the raised parts of the engraving. Another method produces a deep engraving with sloped shoulders, in this method, the metal is held face down and a mixture of nitric acid and a soap-like oil is splashed onto it. As the acid etches the surface, the oil adheres to the edges of the exposed area and this progressively reduces the area being etched, resulting in a sloped edge, a single dot will end up as a cone-shaped mound protruding from the etched area
Photoengraving
–
Oldest known print made from a photoengraved plate, by
Nicéphore Niépce, 1825. It reproduces a 17th-century Flemish engraving. Niépce called the process "
Heliography ".
6.
Camera obscura
–
The surroundings of the projected image have to be relatively dark for the image to be clear, so many historical camera obscura experiments were performed in dark rooms. The term camera obscura also refers to constructions or devices that use of the principle within a box. Camerae obscurae with a lens in the opening have been used since the second half of the 16th century, before the term camera obscura was first used in 1604, many other expressions were used including cubiculum obscurum, cubiculum tenebricosum, conclave obscurum and locus obscurus. Rays of light travel in straight lines and change when they are reflected and partly absorbed by an object, retaining information about the color, lit objects reflect rays of light in all directions. The human eye itself works much like a camera obscura with an opening, a biconvex lens, a camera obscura device consists of a box, tent or room with a small hole in one side. Light from a scene passes through the hole and strikes a surface inside, where the scene is reproduced, inverted and reversed. The image can be projected onto paper, and can then be traced to produce an accurate representation. In order to produce a reasonably clear projected image, the aperture has to be about 1/100th the distance to the screen, many camerae obscurae use a lens rather than a pinhole because it allows a larger aperture, giving a usable brightness while maintaining focus. As the pinhole is made smaller, the image gets sharper, with too small a pinhole, however, the sharpness worsens, due to diffraction. Using mirrors, as in an 18th-century overhead version, it is possible to project a right-side-up image, another more portable type is a box with an angled mirror projecting onto tracing paper placed on the glass top, the image being upright as viewed from the back. There are theories that occurrences of camera obscura effects inspired paleolithic cave paintings and it is also suggested that camera obscura projections could have played a role in Neolithic structures. Perforated gnomons projecting an image of the sun were described in the Chinese Zhoubi Suanjing writings. The location of the circle can be measured to tell the time of day. In Arab and European cultures its invention was later attributed to Egyptian astronomer. Some ancient sightings of gods and spirits, especially in worship, are thought to possibly have been conjured up by means of camera obscura projections. In these writings it is explained how the image in a collecting-point or treasure house is inverted by an intersecting point that collected the light. Light coming from the foot of a person would partly be hidden below. Rays from the head would partly be hidden above and partly form the part of the image
Camera obscura
–
A drawing of a camera obscura
Camera obscura
–
Camerae obscurae for
Daguerreotype called "Grand Photographe" produced by Charles Chevalier (
Musée des Arts et Métiers)
Camera obscura
–
An image of the New Royal Palace at
Prague Castle projected onto an attic wall by a hole in the tile roofing
Camera obscura
–
Camera obscura in
Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers
7.
View from the Window at Le Gras
–
View from the Window at Le Gras is a heliographic image and the oldest surviving camera photograph. It was created by Nicéphore Niépce in 1826 or 1827 at Saint-Loup-de-Varennes, France, Niépce captured the scene with a camera obscura focused onto a 16.2 cm ×20.2 cm pewter plate thinly coated with Bitumen of Judea, a naturally occurring asphalt. The bitumen hardened in the brightly lit areas, but in the dimly lit areas it remained soluble and could be washed away with a mixture of oil of lavender, a very long exposure in the camera was required. Sunlight strikes the buildings on opposite sides, suggesting an exposure that lasted eight hours. A researcher who studied Niépces notes and recreated his processes found that the exposure must have continued for several days, in late 1827, Niépce visited England. He showed this and several specimens of his work to botanical illustrator Francis Bauer. View from the Window at Le Gras was the example of a camera photograph. Bauer encouraged him to present his heliography process to the Royal Society, before returning to France, Niépce gave his paper and the specimens to Bauer. Niépce died suddenly in 1833, due to a stroke, on March 9,1839, the specimens were finally exhibited at the Royal Society. After Bauers death in 1840 they passed through several hands and were exhibited as historical curiosities. View from the Window at Le Gras was last seen in 1905, historian Helmut Gernsheim tracked down the photograph in 1952 and brought it to prominence, reinforcing the claim that Niépce is the inventor of photography. Gernsheim heavily retouched one of the prints to clean it up and make the scene more comprehensible. During the 1950s and early 1960s, Gernsheim lent the photograph to several exhibitions in continental Europe, in 1963, Harry Ransom purchased most of Gernsheims photography collection for the University of Texas at Austin. The Niépce heliograph was not included in the sale, but shortly afterward Gernsheim donated it, although it has rarely traveled since then, in 2012–13 it visited Mannheim, Germany, as part of an exhibition entitled The Birth of Photography—Highlights of the Helmut Gernsheim Collection. It is normally on display in the lobby of the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center in Austin. They confirmed that the image consists of bitumen and that the plate is pewter. The Institute also designed and built the elaborate display case system that now houses the artifact in a continuously monitored, stabilized, in 2007, scientists from the Louvre Museum published an analysis of the photograph using ion beam analysis, with data taken on their 2 MV electrostatic accelerator. This showed the details of the process that was corroding the image
View from the Window at Le Gras
–
View from the Window at Le Gras, 1826–27 (manually enhanced version)
View from the Window at Le Gras
–
The original plate on display at the Ransom Center in 2004. The visibility of the image depends on the viewing angle, which is far from optimal here, but with the enhanced version as a guide the major elements of the scene can just be discerned.
8.
Internal combustion engine
–
An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
Internal combustion engine
–
Diagram of a cylinder as found in 4-stroke gasoline engines.: C –
crankshaft. E – exhaust
camshaft. I – inlet
camshaft. P –
piston. R –
connecting rod. S –
spark plug. V –
valves. red: exhaust, blue: intake. W –
cooling water jacket. gray structure –
engine block.
Internal combustion engine
–
Reciprocating engine as found inside a car
Internal combustion engine
–
Big Diesel generator used for backup power
Internal combustion engine
–
Combined cycle power plant
9.
French Revolution
–
Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
French Revolution
–
The
August Insurrection in 1792 precipitated the last days of the monarchy.
French Revolution
–
The French government faced a fiscal crisis in the 1780s, and King Louis XVI was blamed for mishandling these affairs.
French Revolution
–
Caricature of the Third Estate carrying the First Estate (clergy) and the Second Estate (nobility) on its back.
French Revolution
–
The meeting of the Estates General on 5 May 1789 at Versailles.
10.
Nikephoros I of Constantinople
–
St. Nikephoros I or Nicephorus I, was a Christian Byzantine writer and Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from April 12,806, to March 13,815. He was born in Constantinople as the son of Theodore and Eudokia, of an orthodox family. Nevertheless, he entered the service of the Empire, became cabinet secretary and he then withdrew to one of the cloisters that he had founded on the eastern shore of the Bosporus, until he was appointed director of the largest home for the destitute in Constantinople c. After the death of the Patriarch Tarasios, although still a layman, after vain theological disputes, in December 814, there followed personal insults. From there he carried on a literary polemic for the cause of the iconodules against the synod of 815, on the occasion of the change of emperors, in 820, he was put forward as a candidate for the patriarchate and at least obtained the promise of toleration. He died at the monastery of Saint Theodore, revered as a confessor and his feast is celebrated on this day both in the Greek and Roman Churches, the Greeks also observe 2 June as the day of his death. He was mild in his ecclesiastical and monastical rules and non-partisan in his treatment of the period from 602 to 769. He used the chronicle of Traianus Patricius, the Chronography offered a universal history from the time of Adam and Eve to his own time. To it he appended a canon catalog, the catalog of the accepted books of the Old and New Testaments is followed by the antilegomena and the apocrypha. Next to each book is the count of its lines, his stichometry, to which we can compare our accepted texts and this is especially useful for apocrypha for which only fragmentary texts have survived. Nikephoros follows in the path of John of Damascus, list of Catholic saints The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press,1991. Paul J. Alexander, The Patriarch Nicephorus of Constantinople, Oxford University Press,1958, development of the Canon of the New Testament, the Stichometry of Nicephorus St. Nicephorus
Nikephoros I of Constantinople
–
Nikephoros I of Constantinople trampling on
John VII of Constantinople. Miniature from
Chludov Psalter.
11.
Patriarch of Constantinople
–
The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history. The ecumenical patriarchs in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity, in the Middle Ages they played a major role in the affairs of the Eastern Orthodox Church, as well as in the politics of the Orthodox world, and in spreading Christianity among the Slavs. Within the five sees of the Pentarchy, the Ecumenical Patriarch is regarded as the successor of Andrew the Apostle. The current holder of the office is Bartholomew I, the 270th holder of the title, in his role as head of the Orthodox Church of Constantinople, he also holds the title Archbishop of Constantinople, New Rome. The see of Byzantium, whose foundation was ascribed to Andrew the Apostle, was originally a common bishopric. It gained importance when Emperor Constantine elevated Byzantium to a second capital alongside Rome, the sees ecclesiastical status as the second of five Patriarchates were developed by the Ecumenical Councils of Constantinople in 381 and Chalcedon in 451. The Turkish government recognizes him as the leader of the Greek minority in Turkey. The Patriarch was subject to the authority of the Ottoman Empire after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, today, according to Turkish law, he is subject to the authority of the state of Turkey and is required to be a citizen of Turkey to be Patriarch. The Patriarch of Constantinople has been dubbed the Ecumenical Patriarch since the 6th century, the monastic communities of Mount Athos are stauropegic and are directly under the jurisdiction of Ecumenical Patriarch, who is the only bishop with jurisdiction thereover. The Ecumenical Patriarch has a role among Orthodox bishops, though it is not without its controversy. He is primus inter pares, as he is senior among all Orthodox bishops and this primacy, expressed in canonical literature as presbeia, grants to the Ecumenical Patriarch the right to preside at pan-Orthodox synods. Additionally, the literature of the Orthodox Church grants to the Ecumenical Patriarch the right to hear appeals in cases of dispute between bishops. Historically, the Ecumenical Patriarch has heard such appeals and sometimes was invited to intervene in other disputes and difficulties. Even as early as the 4th century, Constantinople was instrumental in the deposition of multiple bishops outside its traditional jurisdiction. This still occurs today, as when in 2006 the patriarchate was invited to assist in declaring the archbishop of the Church of Cyprus incompetent due to his having Alzheimers disease. Additionally, in 2005, the Ecumenical Patriarchate convoked a synod to express the Orthodox worlds confirmation of the deposition of Patriarch Irenaios of Jerusalem. That is, his role is one of promoting and sustaining Church unity. Such a title is acceptable if it refers to this unique role, the five patriarchs of the ancient Pentarchy are to be given seniority of honour, but have no actual power over other bishops other than the power of the synod they are chairing
Patriarch of Constantinople
Patriarch of Constantinople
–
Ecumenical Patriarch of
Constantinople
Patriarch of Constantinople
–
Emblem found atop the front entrance of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.
Patriarch of Constantinople
–
Throne room inside the Patriarchate of Constantinople. The
Gospel is enthroned on the
dais; the Patriarch sits on the lower throne in front.
12.
Oratory of Jesus
–
They are known as Bérullians or Oratorians. The French Oratory had a determinant influence on the French school of spirituality throughout the 17th century and it is separate and distinct from the Oratory of Saint Philip Neri, which served as its inspiration. The aim of the Society is to spiritual life on the human aspect of Jesus. Unlike the Italian Oratory, whose communities are all autonomous, the French Oratory operates under the authority of a Superior General. In France, Bérulle, ordained a priest in 1599, felt that the clergy of the country had lost their spirit, taking the example of the Oratory of Saint Philip Neri in Rome, he envisioned secular clergy living together in community. The Oratory received letters patent from King Louis XIII of France that same year, pope Paul V authorized them on 10 May 1613. At the time of the death in 1629, the Oratory numbered about 400 priests. The church which the Oratorians built on the Rue Saint-Honoré in 1750 became the church of the royal court. Although not an order, it was the first to organize seminaries in France according to the ordinances of the Council of Trent. The Oratorians also became leading figures in the field of education in France and founded their own schools and colleges, in their schools, they taught in French, rather than in Latin, used in the Jesuit schools. They had a curriculum which taught contemporary literature and the sciences and their students learned modern foreign languages as opposed to the classical languages. The Society of Priests of Saint Sulpice was founded in 1641 with the purpose of the education of priests, by Jean-Jacques Olier, john Eudes was a member of the Oratory before leaving to establish the Congregation of Jesus and Mary. When the French Revolution broke out in 1789, initially the Fathers of the Oratory were very supportive of the ideals of liberty that it espoused, which fit into their corporate ethos. Despite this support, the Legislative Assembly of the new Republic dissolved all secular congregations in August 1792 and their communities, some of the lay teachers in their schools, such as Jacques Nicolas Billaud-Varenne, became greatly involved with the Revolution. Of the 288 members of the Oratory at that time,51 chose to accept the Civil Constitution of the Clergy and they made up about one-fifth of the French clergy who did so. Of the rest of the Congregation,15 were arrested and died either in prison or on the guillotine, the rest went into hiding or fled the country. Several attempts were made to re-establish the Congregation after the Catholic Church was allowed to function again in the nation and they were successful only in 1852, under the leadership of the Abbé Joseph Gratry, together with the Abbés Pierre Pététot and Hyacinthe de Valroger. Gratry was a brilliant academic, holding doctorates in both the humanities and theology and he was named the Almoner of the École Normale Supérieure in 1846, which placed him at the center of intellectual life of the period
Oratory of Jesus
–
Cardinal Pierre de Bérulle, founder of the French Oratory
Oratory of Jesus
–
The Oratorian college in
Vendôme, to which the author
Balzac was sent at the age of eight
13.
Angers
–
Angers is a city in western France, about 300 km southwest of Paris. It is chef-lieu of the Maine-et-Loire department and was, before the French Revolution, the inhabitants of both the city and the province are called Angevins. The commune of Angers proper, without the area, is the third most populous in northwestern France after Nantes and Rennes. Angers is the capital of Anjou and was for centuries an important stronghold in northwestern France. It is the cradle of the Plantagenet dynasty and was during the reign of René of Anjou one of the centers of Europe. Angers developed at the confluence of three rivers, the Mayenne, the Sarthe, and the Loir, all coming from the north and their confluence, just north of Angers, creates the Maine, a short but wide river that flows into the Loire several kilometers south. The Angers metropolitan area is an economic center in western France, particularly active in the industrial sector, horticulture. Angers proper covers 42.70 square kilometers and has a population of 147,305 inhabitants, the Angers Loire Métropole is made up of 33 communes covering 540 square kilometers with 287,000 inhabitants. Angers enjoys a cultural life, made possible by its universities. The old medieval center is dominated by the massive château of the Plantagenêts, home of the Apocalypse Tapestry. Angers is also both at the edge of the Val de Loire, a World Heritage Site, and the Loire-Anjou-Touraine regional natural park, the city is first mentioned by Ptolemy around AD150 in his Geography. It was then known as Juliomagus, a name by which it appears in the Tabula Peutingeriana. The name is a compound of the Latin name Julius and the Celtic magos, similar town dedications were common in Roman Gaul, and toponyms often kept a Gallic element. When the location needed to be distinguished from other Juliomagi, it was known as Juliomagus Andecavorum, in reference to the principal Gallic tribe in, around AD400, the city came to be referred to as the civitas Andecavorum. This was a change in Gaul, also seen in the names of Paris, Tours. During the Middle Ages, the late Latin name gradually developed into the modern one and it is successively mentioned as Andecava civitas, Andecavis, Andegavis, Angieus and Angeus. The form Angiers appeared during the 12th century and was corrupted to Angers. The Latin Andecavum gave also Anjou its name and this double formation is quite common in France and is also seen in Poitiers & Poitou and Bourges & Berry
Angers
–
Top to bottom, left to right:
Château d'Angers, Maison d'Adam; vehicle of Anger tramway, Verdun Bridge at night; view of
Maine River, Verdun Bridge and downtown area from Angers Castle
Angers
–
The
Maine, the
castle, and the spires of the
cathedral
Angers
–
The town is called Andegavum Angers on this 1657 engraving
Angers
–
The
confluence of the Maine and the Loire some 4 miles (6.4 km) south south of Angers
14.
Experimental method
–
An experiment is a procedure carried out to support, refute, or validate a hypothesis. Experiments provide insight into cause-and-effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated, experiments vary greatly in goal and scale, but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. There also exists natural experimental studies, a child may carry out basic experiments to understand gravity, while teams of scientists may take years of systematic investigation to advance their understanding of a phenomenon. Experiments and other types of activities are very important to student learning in the science classroom. Experiments can raise test scores and help a student become more engaged and interested in the material they are learning, experiments can vary from personal and informal natural comparisons, to highly controlled. Uses of experiments vary considerably between the natural and human sciences, experiments typically include controls, which are designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the single independent variable. This increases the reliability of the results, often through a comparison between control measurements and the other measurements, scientific controls are a part of the scientific method. Ideally, all variables in an experiment are controlled and none are uncontrolled, in such an experiment, if all controls work as expected, it is possible to conclude that the experiment works as intended, and that results are due to the effect of the tested variable. In the scientific method, an experiment is a procedure that arbitrates between competing models or hypotheses. Researchers also use experimentation to test existing theories or new hypotheses to support or disprove them, an experiment usually tests a hypothesis, which is an expectation about how a particular process or phenomenon works. However, an experiment may also aim to answer a question, without a specific expectation about what the experiment reveals. If an experiment is conducted, the results usually either support or disprove the hypothesis. According to some philosophies of science, an experiment can never prove a hypothesis, on the other hand, an experiment that provides a counterexample can disprove a theory or hypothesis. An experiment must also control the possible confounding factors—any factors that would mar the accuracy or repeatability of the experiment or the ability to interpret the results, confounding is commonly eliminated through scientific controls and/or, in randomized experiments, through random assignment. In engineering and the sciences, experiments are a primary component of the scientific method. They are used to test theories and hypotheses about how physical processes work under particular conditions, typically, experiments in these fields focus on replication of identical procedures in hopes of producing identical results in each replication. In medicine and the sciences, the prevalence of experimental research varies widely across disciplines. In contrast to norms in the sciences, the focus is typically on the average treatment effect or another test statistic produced by the experiment
Experimental method
–
Even very young children perform rudimentary experiments to learn about the world and how things work.
Experimental method
–
Original map by
John Snow showing the
clusters of cholera cases in the London epidemic of 1854
15.
Nice
–
Nice is the fifth most populous city in France and the capital of the Alpes-Maritimes département. The urban area of Nice extends beyond the city limits. Nice is about 13 kilometres from the principality of Monaco, the city is nicknamed Nice la Belle, which means Nice the Beautiful, which is also the title of the unofficial anthem of Nice, written by Menica Rondelly in 1912. The area of todays Nice contains Terra Amata, a site which displays evidence of a very early use of fire. Around 350 BC, Greeks of Marseille founded a permanent settlement and called it Nikaia, after Nike, through the ages, the town has changed hands many times. Its strategic location and port significantly contributed to its maritime strength, for centuries it was a dominion of Savoy, and was then part of France between 1792 and 1815, when it was returned to Piedmont-Sardinia until its re-annexation by France in 1860. The citys main seaside promenade, the Promenade des Anglais owes its name to visitors to the resort, for decades now, the picturesque Nicean surroundings have attracted not only those in search of relaxation, but also those seeking inspiration. The clear air and soft light have particularly appealed to some of Western cultures most outstanding painters, such as Marc Chagall, Henri Matisse, Niki de Saint Phalle and Arman. Their work is commemorated in many of the museums, including Musée Marc Chagall, Musée Matisse. Nice has the second largest hotel capacity in the country and it is one of its most visited cities and it also has the third busiest airport in France, after the two main Parisian ones. It is the capital city of the County of Nice. Nice was probably founded around 350 BC by the Greeks of Massalia, the ruins of Cemenelum are in Cimiez, now a district of Nice. In the 7th century, Nice joined the Genoese League formed by the towns of Liguria. In 729 the city repulsed the Saracens, but in 859 and again in 880 the Saracens pillaged and burned it, during the Middle Ages, Nice participated in the wars and history of Italy. As an ally of Pisa it was the enemy of Genoa, during the 13th and 14th centuries the city fell more than once into the hands of the Counts of Provence, but it regained its independence even though related to Genoa. The medieval city walls surrounded the Old Town, the landward side was protected by the River Paillon, which was later covered over and is now the tram route towards the Acropolis. The east side of the town was protected by fortifications on Castle Hill, another river flowed into the port on the east side of Castle Hill. Engravings suggest that the area was also defended by walls
Nice
–
Nice Port
Nice
–
Nice in the time of the
Roman Empire.
Nice
–
The Tower of Saint François
Nice
–
Nice in 1624
16.
Kew
–
Kew is the location of the Royal Botanic Gardens, now a World Heritage Site, which includes Kew Palace. Kew is also the home of important historical documents such as Domesday Book, successive Tudor, Stuart and Georgian monarchs maintained links with Kew. During the French Revolution, many established themselves there and it was the home of several artists in the 18th and 19th centuries. Since 1965 Kew has incorporated the area of North Sheen which includes St Philip and All Saints. It is now in a combined Church of England ecclesiastical parish with St Lukes Church, today, Kew is an expensive residential area because of its suburban hallmarks. Among these are open spaces, schools, transport links, architecture, restaurants, no high rise buildings, modest road sizes, trees. Most of Kew developed in the late 19th century, following the arrival of the District line of the Underground. The earliest written reference to Kew is thought to be contained in Julius Caesars Gallic Wars, the name Kew is a combination of two words, the Old French kai and Old English hoh. The land spur is formed by the bend in the Thames, the name was recorded in 1327 as Cayho. Kew forms part of the Richmond Park UK Parliament constituency, the current Member of Parliament is Sarah Olney. For elections to the European Parliament it is part of the London constituency, for elections to the London Assembly it is part of the South West London Assembly constituency. Kew was added in 1892 to the Municipal Borough of Richmond which had formed two years earlier, and which was in the county of Surrey. In 1965, under the London Government Act 1963, the boundaries of Greater London were expanded to include Kew which, with Richmond, the fashion clothing retailer Jigsaws headquarters are in Mortlake Road, Kew. A former industry in Kew was that of manufacturing, by the Caxton Name Plate Manufacturing Company. The company was founded in 1964 and folded in 1997, another former industry in Kew was car and lorry manufacturing. From the 1920s until 1967 Dodge and later Chrysler both made cars and lorries here, and one of Chryslers vehicles was called the Kew, Kew Retail Park stands on the site of the former factory. Henry V developed a Carthusian monastery to the south west of where Kew Observatory now stands, Charles Somerset, 1st Earl of Worcester was granted lands at Kew in 1517. When he died in 1526 he left his Kew estates to his wife, Eleanor
Kew
–
The Parish Church of St Anne, Kew
Kew
–
Temperate House in
Kew Gardens
Kew
–
West Hall, Kew
Kew
–
"Sarah Kirby (née Bull) and
Joshua Kirby ", by
Thomas Gainsborough
17.
Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor
–
Claude Félix Abel Niépce de Saint-Victor was a French photographic inventor. At his laboratory near Paris, Niépce de Saint-Victor worked on the fixation of natural photographic colour as well as the perfection of his cousins heliographic process for photomechanical printing and his method of photomechanical printing, called heliogravure, was published in 1856 in Traité pratique de gravure héliographique. In the 1850s he also published frequently in La Lumière, in 1804 the German chemist Adolph Ferdinand Gehlen had noticed that when a solution of uranium chloride in ether was exposed to sunlight, it quickly changed color and precipitated. In the 1850s, Niépce de Saint-Victor was trying to color photography. He soon realized that uranium salts were responsible for this anomalous phenomenon, Edmond Becquerel, il est donc plus probable que cest un rayonnement invisible à nos yeux, comme le croit M. Léon Foucault, …. Note especially that Niépce mentions Edmond Becquerel, the father of Henri Becquerel, media related to Claude Félix Abel Niépce de Saint-Victor at Wikimedia Commons
Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor
–
Claude Félix Abel Niépce de Saint-Victor (1805-1870)
18.
Printmaking
–
Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing, normally on paper. Printmaking normally covers only the process of creating prints that have an element of originality, except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each print produced is not considered a copy but rather is considered an original, a print may be known as an impression. Printmaking is not chosen only for its ability to multiple impressions. Prints are created by transferring ink from a matrix or through a screen to a sheet of paper or other material. Screens made of silk or synthetic fabrics are used for the screenprinting process, other types of matrix substrates and related processes are discussed below. Multiple impressions printed from the matrix form an edition. Prints may also be printed in book form, such as illustrated books or artists books, Printmaking techniques are generally divided into the following basic categories, Relief, where ink is applied to the original surface of the matrix. Relief techniques include woodcut or woodblock as the Asian forms are known, wood engraving. Intaglio, where ink is applied beneath the surface of the matrix. Intaglio techniques include engraving, etching, mezzotint, aquatint, planographic, where the matrix retains its original surface, but is specially prepared and/or inked to allow for the transfer of the image. Planographic techniques include lithography, monotyping, and digital techniques, stencil, where ink or paint is pressed through a prepared screen, including screenprinting and pochoir. Other types of printmaking techniques outside these groups include collagraphy and viscosity printing, collagraphy is a printmaking technique in which textured material is adhered to the printing matrix. This texture is transferred to the paper during the printing process, Contemporary printmaking may include digital printing, photographic mediums, or a combination of digital, photographic, and traditional processes. Many of these techniques can also be combined, especially within the same family, for example, Rembrandts prints are usually referred to as etchings for convenience, but very often include work in engraving and drypoint as well, and sometimes have no etching at all. Woodcut, a type of print, is the earliest printmaking technique. It was probably first developed as a means of printing patterns on cloth, woodcuts of images on paper developed around 1400 in Japan, and slightly later in Europe. These are the two areas where woodcut has been most extensively used purely as a process for making images without text, the artist draws a design on a plank of wood, or on paper which is transferred to the wood
Printmaking
–
Rembrandt,
Self-portrait,
etching, c.1630.
Printmaking
–
Mount Fuji, from the
Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji, color
woodcut by
Katsushika Hokusai
Printmaking
–
Francisco Goya, There is No One To Help Them,
Disasters of War series,
aquatint c.1810.
Printmaking
–
External video
19.
Thomas Wedgwood (photographer)
–
Thomas Wedgwood, son of Josiah Wedgwood, the potter, is most widely known as an early experimenter in the field of photography. He is the first person known to have thought of creating permanent pictures by capturing camera images on material coated with a light-sensitive chemical, thomas Wedgwood was born in Etruria, Staffordshire, now part of the city of Stoke-on-Trent in England. Wedgwood was born into a line of pottery manufacturers, grew up and was educated at Etruria and was instilled from his youth with a love for art. He also spent much of his short life associating with painters, sculptors, as a young adult, Wedgwood became interested in the best method of educating children, and spent time studying infants. From his observations, he concluded that most of the information that young brains absorbed came through the eyes, Wedgwood never married and had no children. In imperfect health as a child and a chronic invalid as an adult, the date of his first experiments in photography is unknown, but he is believed to have indirectly advised James Watt on the practical details prior to 1800. In his many experiments, possibly with advice on chemistry from his tutor Alexander Chisholm and members of the Lunar Society, Wedgwood used paper, the leather proved to be more light-sensitive. His primary objective had been to capture real-world scenes with a camera obscura, in both cases, the sunlit areas rapidly darkened while the areas in shadow did not. Wedgwood met a young chemist named Humphry Davy at the Pneumatic Clinic in Bristol, the paper was published and detailed Wedgwood’s procedures and accomplishments, as well as Davys own variations of them. the Journal did not live beyond a first volume. David Brewster, later a friend of photography pioneer Henry Fox Talbot. The paper was translated into French, and also printed in Germany in 1811, reades work in 1839 was directly influenced by reading of Wedgwoods more rapid results when using leather. Reade tried treating paper with an agent used in making leather. Reades discovery was communicated to Talbot by a friend, as was proven in a court case over patents. Wedgwood was unable to fix his pictures to make them immune to the effects of light. Unless kept in darkness, they would slowly but surely darken all over. As Davy put it in his paper of 1802, the picture, immediately after being taken, must be kept in some obscure place. It may indeed be examined in the shade, but in case the exposure should be only for a few minutes, by the light of candles and lamps, as commonly employed. In 1839, John Herschel pointed out his earlier published discovery that hyposulphite of soda dissolved silver halides and this allowed the remaining light-sensitive silver salts to be completely washed away, truly fixing the photograph
Thomas Wedgwood (photographer)
–
Thomas Wedgwood
20.
Henry Fox Talbot
–
His work in the 1840s on photomechanical reproduction led to the creation of the photoglyphic engraving process, the precursor to photogravure. He was the holder of a patent which affected the early development of commercial photography in Britain. He was also a photographer who contributed to the development of photography as an artistic medium. He published The Pencil of Nature, which was illustrated with original salted paper prints from his calotype negatives, and made important early photographs of Oxford, Paris, Reading. Talbot was the child of William Davenport Talbot, of Lacock Abbey, near Chippenham, Wiltshire. Talbot was educated at Rottingdean, Harrow School and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was awarded the Porson Prize in Classics in 1820, from 1822 to 1872, he communicated papers to the Royal Society, many of them on mathematical subjects. At an early period, he began optical researches, which bore fruit in connection with photography. At a meeting of the Royal Institution on 25 January 1839, within a fortnight, he communicated the general nature of his process to the Royal Society, followed by more complete details a few weeks later. Daguerre did not publicly reveal any details until mid-August, although by the spring it had become clear that his process. In the case of images, that could require an exposure of an hour or two if something more than a silhouette of objects against a bright sky was wanted. This reduced the exposure time in the camera to only a minute or two for subjects in bright sunlight. The simpler salted paper process was used when making prints from calotype negatives. Talbot announced his calotype process in 1841, and in August he licensed Henry Collen, the most celebrated practitioners of the process were Hill & Adamson. Another notable calotypist was Levett Landon Boscawen Ibbetson, in 1842, Talbot received the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society for his photographic discoveries. In 1852, Talbot discovered that gelatine treated with potassium dichromate and this later provided the basis for the important carbon printing process and related technologies. Dichromated gelatine is still used for some laser holography, Talbots later photographic work was concentrated on photomechanical reproduction methods. Talbot created the engraving process, later perfected by others as the photogravure process. Daguerres work on his process had commenced at about the time as Talbots earliest work on his salted paper process
Henry Fox Talbot
–
William Henry Fox Talbot, by John Moffat, 1864.
Henry Fox Talbot
–
Latticed window at
Lacock Abbey, August 1835. A positive from what may be the oldest existing camera negative.
Henry Fox Talbot
–
Miss Horatia Feilding, half-sister of Talbot, playing the harp, c. 1842
Henry Fox Talbot
–
Talbot (far right) at the commercial establishment in Reading, 1846
21.
Silver chloride
–
Silver chloride is a chemical compound with the chemical formula AgCl. This white crystalline solid is known for its low solubility in water. Upon illumination or heating, silver chloride converts to silver, which is signaled by greyish or purplish coloration to some samples, AgCl occurs naturally as a mineral chlorargyrite. Silver chloride is synthesized by combining aqueous solutions of silver nitrate. AgNO3 + NaCl ⟶ AgCl ↓ + NaNO3 The solid adopts the fcc NaCl structure, however, the crystallography depends on the condition of crystallization, primarily free silver ion concentration, as is shown on the pictures left. AgCl dissolves in solutions containing ligands such as chloride, cyanide, triphenylphosphine, thiosulfate, thiocyanate, most complexes derived from AgCl are two-, three-, and, in rare cases, four-coordinate, adopting linear, trigonal planar, and tetrahedral coordination geometries, respectively. Due to its conspicuousness it is used in titration, which gives the typical case of argentometry. The solubility product, Ksp, for AgCl in water is 1. 77×10−10 at room temperature, ions that interfere with this test are bromide and iodide, as well as a variety of ligands. For AgBr and AgI, the Ksp values are 5.2 x 10−13 and 8.3 x 10−17, silver bromide and silver iodide are also significantly more photosensitive than is AgCl. AgCl quickly darkens on exposure to light by disintegrating into elemental chlorine and this reaction is used in photography and film. The silver chloride electrode is a reference electrode in electrochemistry. Silver chlorides low solubility makes it an addition to pottery glazes for the production of Inglaze lustre. Silver chloride has been used as an antidote for poisoning, assisting in the elimination of mercury
Silver chloride
–
Silver Chloride Crystals
Silver chloride
Silver chloride
–
Pyramidal Crystals of AgCl
Silver chloride
–
Silver chloride decomposes over time with exposure to UV light
22.
Negative (photography)
–
In the case of color negatives, the colors are also reversed into their respective complementary colors. Typical color negatives have a dull orange tint due to an automatic color-masking feature that ultimately results in improved color reproduction. Negatives are normally used to make prints on photographic paper by projecting the negative onto the paper with a photographic enlarger or making a contact print. The paper is also darkened in proportion to its exposure to light, so a second reversal results which restores light, negatives were once commonly made on a thin sheet of glass rather than a plastic film, and some of the earliest negatives were made on paper. It is incorrect to call an image a negative solely because it is on a transparent material, transparent prints can be made by printing a negative onto special positive film, as is done to make traditional motion picture film prints for use in theaters. Some films used in cameras are designed to be developed by reversal processing, positives on film or glass are known as transparencies or diapositives, and if mounted in small frames designed for use in a slide projector or magnifying viewer they are commonly called slides. A positive image is a normal image, a negative image is a total inversion, in which light areas appear dark and vice versa. A negative color image is additionally color-reversed, with red areas appearing cyan, greens appearing magenta and blues appearing yellow, film negatives usually have less contrast, but a wider dynamic range, than the final printed positive images. The contrast typically increases when they are printed onto photographic paper, when negative film images are brought into the digital realm, their contrast may be adjusted at the time of scanning or, more usually, during subsequent post-processing. Film for cameras that use the 35 mm still format is sold as a strip of emulsion-coated and perforated plastic spooled in a light-tight cassette. Before each exposure, a mechanism inside the camera is used to pull an unexposed area of the out of the cassette. When all exposures have been made the strip is rewound into the cassette, after the film is chemically developed, the strip shows a series of small negative images. It is usually cut into sections for easier handling. Each of these images may be referred to as a negative. They are the images, from which all positive prints will derive. However, when an image is created from a negative image a positive image results. This makes most chemical-based photography a two-step process, which uses negative film, special films and development processes have been devised so that positive images can be created directly on the film, these are called positive, or slide, or reversal films and reversal processing. Scanning film negatives at the Wayback Machine NegaTIV -. -
Negative (photography)
–
Color positive picture (A) and negative (B), monochrome positive picture (C) and negative (D)
23.
Lavender oil
–
Lavender oil is an essential oil obtained by distillation from the flower spikes of certain species of lavender. Like all essential oils, it is not a compound, it is a complex mixture of naturally occurring phytochemicals, including linalool. Kashmir Lavender oil is famous for being produced from lavender at the foothills of the Himalayas, as of 2011, the biggest lavender oil producer in the world is Bulgaria. Lavender oil has long used in the production of perfume. Oil of spike lavender was used as a solvent in oil painting, Lavender oil appears to be an endocrine disruptor, exhibiting anti-androgenic activity in vitro. The exact composition of lavender essential oil varies from species to species, of these linalool and linalyl acetate dominate, with moderate levels of lavandulyl acetate, terpinen-4-ol and lavandulol. 1, 8-cineole and camphor are also present in low to moderate qualities, in all lavender oil typically contains many more than 100 compounds, although a great many of these are present at very low concentrations. The composition of lavender essential oil as obtained by chromatography, Lavender Essential oil
Lavender oil
–
A glass vial of pure essential oil of lavender
24.
Varnish
–
Varnish is a transparent, hard, protective finish or film that is primarily used in wood finishing but also for other materials. Varnish is traditionally a combination of a oil, a resin. Varnish finishes are usually glossy but may be designed to produce satin or semi-gloss sheens by the addition of flatting agents. Varnish has little or no color, is transparent, and has no added pigment, as opposed to paints or wood stains, varnishes are also applied over wood stains as a final step to achieve a film for gloss and protection. Some products are marketed as a stain and varnish. Resin varnishes dry by evaporation of the solvent and harden almost immediately upon drying, acrylic and waterborne varnishes dry upon evaporation of the water but will experience an extended curing period. Environmental factors such as heat and humidity play a large role in the drying and curing times of varnishes. In classic varnish the cure rate depends on the type of oil used and, to some extent, the drying and curing time of all varnishes may be sped up by exposure to an energy source such as sunlight, ultraviolet light, or heat. Many varnishes contain plant-derived oils, synthetic oils or resins as their binder in combination with organic solvents and these are highly flammable in their liquid state. A highly important note, that is often over looked, all drying oils, certain alkyds, thus, oil-soaked rags and paper can smolder and ignite into flames, even several hours after use if proper precautions are not taken. Varnishing was a well known in ancient Egypt. Varnishing is also recorded in the history of Asia, in India, China and Japan, where the practice of lacquer work, varnishing was likely popular in India & China before it spread to Japan and Korea. Varnish and lacquer work are, however, generally treated in the arts as separate, berenice comes from the Greek words phero + nike. There are many different types of drying oils, including linseed oil, tung oil and these contain high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Resins that are used in varnishes include amber, kauri gum, dammar, copal, rosin, sandarac, balsam, elemi, mastic, in the 1900s in Canada, resins from local trees were used to finish pianos. As a result, these now antique pianos are considered difficult to refinish, however, shellac can be used over the existing resins provided sufficient time is allowed for thin coats to cure. Thus the original finish can be returned to its original lustre while preserving the color, violin varnishing is a multi-step process involving some or all of the following, primer, sealer, ground, color coats, and clear topcoat. Some systems use an oil varnish as described below, while others use spirit varnish
Varnish
–
Varnish on wood stairs
Varnish
–
Animal products
25.
Pope Pius VII
–
Pope Pius VII, born Barnaba Niccolò Maria Luigi Chiaramonti, reigned as Pope from 14 March 1800 to his death in 1823. Chiaramonti was also a monk of the Order of Saint Benedict in addition to being a well known theologian, Chiaramonti was made Bishop of Tivoli in 1782, and resigned that position upon his appointment as Bishop of Imola in 1785. That same year, he was made a cardinal, in 1789, the French Revolution took place, and as a result a series of anti-clerical governments came into power in the country. In 1796, during the French Revolutionary Wars, French troops under Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Rome and he was taken as prisoner to France, where he died in 1799. The following year, after a sede vecante period lasting six months, Chiaramonti was elected to the papacy. Pius at first attempted to take an approach in dealing with Napoleon. In 1809, however, during the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon once again invaded the Papal States, Pius VII was taken prisoner and transported to France. He remained there until 1814 when, after the French were defeated, he was permitted to return to Rome, Pius lived the remainder of his life in relative peace. His papacy saw a significant growth of the Catholic Church in the United States, Pius VII died in 1823 at age 81. In 2007, Pope Benedict XVI began the process towards canonizing him as a saint, Barnaba Chiaramonti was born in Cesena in 1742, the youngest son of Count Scipione Chiaramonti (30 April 1698 -13 September 1750. His mother, Giovanna Coronata, was the daughter of the Marquess Ghini, through her, though his family was of noble status, they were not wealthy but rather, were of middle-class stock. His maternal grandparents were Barnaba Eufrasio Ghini and Isabella de conti Aguselli and his paternal grandparents were Giacinto Chiaramonti and Ottavia Maria Altini, his paternal great-grandparents were Scipione Chiaramonti and Ottavia Maria Aldini. His paternal great-great grandparents were Chiaramonte Chiaramonti and Polissena Marescalchi and his siblings were Giacinto Ignazio, Tommaso and Ottavia. Two years after this on 20 August 1758, he became a professed member and he taught at Benedictine colleges in Parma and Rome, and was ordained a priest on 21 September 1765. A series of promotions resulted after his relative, Giovanni Angelo Braschi was elected Pope Pius VI, a few years before this election occurred, in 1773, Chiaramonti became the personal confessor to Braschi. In 1776, Pius VI appointed the 34-year-old Dom Gregory, who had been teaching at the Monastery of SantAnselmo in Rome, as honorary abbot in commendam of his monastery. Although this was an ancient practice, it drew complaints from the monks of the community, in December 1782, the pope appointed Dom Gregory as the Bishop of Tivoli, near Rome. Pius VI soon named him, in February 1785, the Cardinal-Priest of San Callisto, and as the Bishop of Imola, when the French Revolutionary Army invaded Italy in 1797, Cardinal Chiaramonti counseled temperance and submission to the newly created Cisalpine Republic
Pope Pius VII
–
Portrait by
Thomas Lawrence (1819)
Pope Pius VII
–
The birthplace of Pius VII.
Pope Pius VII
–
Site of the papal conclave that elected Pius VII.
Pope Pius VII
–
Pius VII receives
extreme unction while Napoleon's prisoner in 1812.
26.
Spinning wheel
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A spinning wheel is a device for spinning thread or yarn from natural or synthetic fibres. Spinning wheels were first used in India, between 500 and 1000 C. E, Spinning machinery, such as the spinning jenny and spinning frame, displaced the spinning wheel during the Industrial Revolution. The Spinning Wheel was invented in India, between 500 and 1000 C. E, in France the spindle and distaff were not displaced until the mid 18th century. The Spinning Wheel replaced the earlier method of hand spinning with a spindle, the first stage in mechanizing the process was mounting the spindle horizontally so it could be rotated by a cord encircling a large, hand-driven wheel. The great wheel is an example of type, where the fibre is held in the left hand. Holding the fibre at an angle to the spindle produced the necessary twist. The spun yarn was then wound onto the spindle by moving it so as to form an angle with the spindle. This type of wheel, while known in Europe by the 14th century, was not in use until later. The construction of the Great Wheel made it very good at creating long drawn soft fuzzy wools, Spinning wheels ultimately did not develop the capability to spin a variety of yarns until the beginning of the 19th century and the mechanization of spinning. In general, the technology was known for a long time before being adopted by the majority of people. In 1533, a citizen of Brunswick is said to have added a treadle, leonardo da Vinci drew a picture of the flyer, which twists the yarn before winding it onto the spindle. During the 16th century a treadle wheel with flyer was in use, and gained such names as the Saxony wheel. It sped up production, as one neednt stop spinning to wind up the yarn, on the eve of the Industrial revolution it took at least five spinners to supply one weaver. Lewis Paul and John Wyatt first worked on the problem in 1738, patenting the Roller Spinning machine, using two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds, yarn could be twisted and spun quickly and efficiently. However, they did not have financial success. In 1771, Richard Arkwright used waterwheels to power looms for the production of cotton cloth, newer technologies that offer even faster yarn production include friction spinning, an open-end system, and air jets. Until the acceptance of rotor spinning wheel, all yarns were produced by aligning fibres through drawing techniques, with rotor spinning, the fibers in the roving are separated, thus opened, and then wrapped and twisted as the yarn is drawn out of the rotor cup. The tabletop or floor charkha is one of the oldest known forms of the spinning wheel, the charkha works similarly to the great wheel, with a drive wheel being turned by hand, while the yarn is spun off the tip of the spindle
Spinning wheel
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Irish spinning wheel - around 1900
Library of Congress collection
Spinning wheel
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Detail of The Spinning Wheel, by
Chinese artist Wang Juzheng,
Northern Song Dynasty (960–1279)
Spinning wheel
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Scene from
Al-Maqamat, painted by
al-Wasiti 1237
Spinning wheel
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Woman spinning with a wheel, from the
Elizabethan era, early 17th century
27.
Photocopier
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A photocopier is a machine that makes paper copies of documents and other visual images quickly and cheaply. Heat, pressure or a combination of both is used to fuse the toner onto the paper. Earlier versions included the Gestetner stencil duplicator, invented by David Gestetner in 1881, xerographic office photocopying was introduced by Xerox in 1959, and it gradually replaced copies made by Verifax, Photostat, carbon paper, mimeograph machines, and other duplicating machines. Photocopying is widely used in the business, education, and government sectors, in the 2010s, there is a convergence in some high-end machines between the roles of a photocopier, a fax machine, a scanner, and a computer network-connected printer into a multi-function printer. As of 2015, some machines can copy and print in color. Chester Carlson, the inventor of photocopying, was originally a patent attorney, as well as a part-time researcher and his job at the patent office in New York required him to make a large number of copies of important papers. Carlson, who was arthritic, found this to be a painful and this motivated him to conduct experiments with photo conductivity. Carlson used his kitchen for his experiments, and, in 1938. He made the first photocopy using a plate covered with sulfur. The words 10-22-38 Astoria were written on a slide, which was placed on top of more sulfur. After the slide was removed, an image of the words remained. Carlson tried to sell his invention to some companies, but failed because the process was still underdeveloped, between 1939 and 1944, Carlson was turned down by over 20 companies, including IBM and General Electric—neither of which believed there was a significant market for copiers. In 1944, the Battelle Memorial Institute, a organization in Columbus, Ohio. Over the next five years, the institute conducted experiments to improve the process of electrophotography, in 1947, Haloid Corporation approached Battelle to obtain a license to develop and market a copying machine based on this technology. Haloid felt that the word electrophotography was too complicated and did not have good recall value, Haloid called the new copier machines Xerox Machines and, in 1948, the word Xerox was trademarked. Haloid eventually changed its name to Xerox Corporation, in 1949, Xerox Corporation introduced the first xerographic copier called the Model A. Xerox became so successful that, in North America, photocopying came to be known as xeroxing. Xerox has actively fought to prevent Xerox from becoming a genericized trademark, some languages include hybrid terms, such as the widely used Polish term kserokopia, even though relatively few photocopiers are of the Xerox brand
Photocopier
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A
Xerox photocopier in 2010
Photocopier
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DADF or Duplex Automatic Document feeder - Canon IR6000
