1.
Lyndon B. Johnson
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A Democrat from Texas, he previously served as a United States Representative from 1937 to 1949 and then as a United States Senator from 1949 to 1961. He spent six years as Senate Majority Leader, two as Senate Minority Leader, and two more as Senate Majority Whip, Johnson ran for the Democratic nomination in the 1960 presidential election. Although unsuccessful, he was chosen by then-Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts to be his running mate and they went on to win a close election over Richard Nixon and Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Johnson was sworn in as Vice President on January 20,1961. Two years and ten months later, on November 22,1963 and he successfully ran for a full term in the 1964 election, winning by a landslide over Republican opponent Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona. He is one of four people who have served as President, Vice President, Senator. Johnson was renowned for his personality and the Johnson treatment. Assisted in part by an economy, the War on Poverty helped millions of Americans rise above the poverty line during his administration. With the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, Johnson escalated American involvement in the Vietnam War. In 1964, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which granted Johnson the power to use force in Southeast Asia without having to ask for an official declaration of war. The number of American military personnel in Vietnam increased dramatically, from 16,000 advisors in non-combat roles in 1963 to 550,000 in early 1968, American casualties soared and the peace process bogged down. Growing unease with the war stimulated a large, angry antiwar movement based especially on university campuses in the U. S. and abroad. Johnson faced further troubles when summer riots broke out in most major cities after 1965, while he began his presidency with widespread approval, support for Johnson declined as the public became upset with both the war and the growing violence at home. In 1968, the Democratic Party factionalized as antiwar elements denounced Johnson, Republican Richard Nixon was elected to succeed him, as the New Deal coalition that had dominated presidential politics for 36 years collapsed. After he left office in January 1969, Johnson returned to his Texas ranch, historians argue that Johnsons presidency marked the peak of modern liberalism in the United States after the New Deal era. Johnson is ranked favorably by some historians because of his policies and the passage of many major laws, affecting civil rights, gun control, wilderness preservation. Lyndon Baines Johnson was born on August 27,1908, near Stonewall, Texas, in a farmhouse on the Pedernales River. Johnson had one brother, Sam Houston Johnson, and three sisters, Rebekah, Josefa, and Lucia, the nearby small town of Johnson City, Texas, was named after LBJs cousin, James Polk Johnson, whose forebears had moved west from Oglethorpe County, Georgia. Johnson had English, German, and Ulster Scots ancestry and he was maternally descended from pioneer Baptist clergyman George Washington Baines, who pastored eight churches in Texas, as well as others in Arkansas and Louisiana
Lyndon B. Johnson
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Johnson in 1964
Lyndon B. Johnson
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Lyndon Johnson with his trademark cowboy hat—age seven
Lyndon B. Johnson
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Johnson's boss, U.S. Rep. Richard Kleberg
Lyndon B. Johnson
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LCDR Johnson, March 1942
2.
George Ball (diplomat)
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George Wildman Ball was an American diplomat and banker. He served in the management of the State Department from 1961 to 1966 and is remembered most as the only major dissenter against the escalation of the Vietnam War and he refused to publicize his doubts, which were based on calculations that South Vietnam was doomed. He also helped determine American policy regarding trade expansion, Congo, the Multilateral Force, de Gaulles France, Israel and the Middle East, Ball was born in Des Moines, Iowa. He lived in Evanston, Illinois and graduated from Evanston Township High School and Northwestern University with a B. S. Ball joined a Chicago law company in which Adlai Stevenson II was one of the partners, and became a protégé of Stevenson. During 1942, he became an official of the Lend Lease program, during 1944 and 1945, he was director of the Strategic Bombing Survey in London. During 1945, Ball began collaboration with Jean Monnet and the French government in its recovery in its negotiations regarding the Marshall Plan. During 1950 he helped draft the Schuman Plan and the European Coal, Ball had a major role in Stevensons presidential campaign during 1952. He was the liaison between Stevenson and President Truman and helped publicize Stevensons opinions in major magazine articles and he was also the executive director of the Volunteers For Stevenson, concerned mainly with enlisting independent and Republican voters. He was also a speechwriter in the Stevenson campaign, Ball likewise had a major role in Stevensons 1956 presidential campaign and unsuccessful 1960 bid to gain the Democratic nomination. Ball was the Under Secretary of State for Economic and Agricultural Affairs for the administrations of John F. Kennedy and he is known for his opposition to escalation of the Vietnam War. Within five years well have 300,000 men in the paddies and jungles, in response to this prediction, JFK laughed and replied, Well, George, youre supposed to be one of the smartest guys in town, but youre crazier than hell. Ball was one of the endorsers of the 1963 coup which resulted in the death of South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem, if the US continued in its course, Ball argued, US loyalty would not be questioned so much as US strategic judgement would. Ball also served as U. S. Ambassador to the United Nations from June 26 to September 25,1968, during August 1968 at the UN Security Council, he endorsed the Czechoslovakian struggle against the Soviet invasion and the right to live without dictatorship. During the Richard Nixon administration, Ball helped draft American policy proposals concerning the Persian Gulf, Ball was long a critic of Israeli policies toward its Arab neighbors. He called for the recalibration of America’s Israel policy in a much noted Foreign Affairs essay during 1977 and, during 1992, co-authored The Passionate Attachment with his son, the book argued that American aid to Israel has been morally, politically and financially costly. He often used the aphorism Nothing propinks like propinquity, later dubbed the Ball Rule of Power and it means that the more direct access one has to the president, the greater ones power regardless of title. Ball was an advocate of trade, multinational corporations and their theoretical ability to neutralize what he considered to be obsolete nation states. Until and after his ambassadorship, Ball was employed by the banking company Lehman Brothers Kuhn Loeb and he was a senior managing director at Lehman Brothers until his retirement during 1982
George Ball (diplomat)
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George Ball
3.
Elliot Richardson
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Elliot Lee Richardson was an American lawyer and politician who was a member of the cabinet of Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. As U. S. Attorney General, he was a prominent figure in the Watergate Scandal and that makes him one of only two individuals to have held four Cabinet positions within the United States government. Richardson was born in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of Clara Lee and Edward Peirson Richardson and he was a Boston Brahmin, descended from the earliest Puritan settlers in New England. In 1942, following Americas entry into World War II, Richardson became a medic in the U. S. 4th Infantry Division. He participated in the June 6,1944, Normandy Invasion as a platoon leader and he was among the first troops of the Big Ivy to come up Causeway No.2 from Utah Beach, which had been under fire from German artillery at Brécourt Manor. He was among the many who noticed the guns ceasing their firing after, after Stephen Ambroses book Band of Brothers was published, Richardson wrote to Winters and thanked him. He continued on in the war in Europe with the 4th Infantry Division and received the Bronze Star Medal and he was discharged in 1945 with the rank of first lieutenant. In 1947, he graduated from Harvard Law School, while at Harvard he became editor and president of the Harvard Law Review. Richardson then served as U. S. Attorney for Massachusetts from 1959 to 1961 and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1958. Richardsons older son, Henry S. Richardson, is a professor of philosophy at Georgetown University and he served three relatively uneventful years as the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare for a popular sitting President. In September 1970, Richardson was present at the funeral of Gamal Abdel Nasser and he secretly met with Anwar Sadat, Nassers successor to discuss a possible peace process with the United States. Richardson was appointed United States Secretary of Defense on January 30,1973, when President Nixon selected Richardson as Secretary, the press described him as an excellent manager and administrator, perhaps the best in the cabinet. In his confirmation hearing, Richardson expressed agreement with Nixons policies on issues as the adequacy of U. S. strategic forces, NATO and relationships with other allies. Although he promised to examine the budget carefully to identify areas for savings, similarly, he strongly supported continued military assistance at current levels. During his short tenure, Richardson spent much time testifying before congressional committees on the proposed FY1974 budget, Richardson would serve as Secretary of Defense for 4 months before becoming Nixons Attorney General, a move that would put him in the Watergate spotlight. In October 1973, after Richardson had served 5 months as Attorney General, Richardson had promised Congress he would not interfere with the Special Prosecutor, and, rather than disobey the President or break his promise, he resigned. President Nixon subsequently ordered Richardsons second-in-command, Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus and he too had promised not to interfere, and also tendered his resignation. Bork carried out the Presidents order, thus completing the events referred to as the Saturday Night Massacre
Elliot Richardson
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Elliot Richardson
Elliot Richardson
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Vice President
Elliot Richardson
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Secretary of State
4.
United States Attorney General
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The United States Attorney General is the head of the United States Department of Justice per 28 U. S. C. §503, concerned with affairs, and is the chief law enforcement officer. The 84th and current Attorney General is Jeff Sessions, who assumed the office on February 9,2017, the attorney general serves as a member of the Cabinet of the President of the United States and is the only cabinet officer who does not have the title Secretary of. The Attorney General is appointed by the President and takes office after confirmation by the United States Senate, the office of Attorney General was established by Congress by the Judiciary Act of 1789. In 1870, the Department of Justice was established to support the general in the discharge of their responsibilities. Parties No party Federalist Democratic-Republican Democratic Whig Republican Status As of April 2017, there are eleven, living former US Attorneys General, the most recent Attorney General to die was Janet Reno on November 7,2016. Barr served as acting general in their capacity as deputy attorney general. 2 Richard L. Thornburgh and Eric Holder served as acting general in their capacity as deputy attorney general. Both subsequently served as general, Thornburgh 1988–1991 and Holder 2009–2015. 4 Assistant Attorney General for the DOJ Civil Division Stuart M. Gerson was acting general from January 20,1993. Gerson was fourth in the line of succession at the Justice Department, during his time as Acting AG, Gerson supported the Brady bill and was in office in the beginnings of the Waco siege. Janet Reno, President Clintons nominee for attorney general, was confirmed on March 12, Acting Attorney General Gersons last day at the Justice Department was March 19. 5 On August 27,2007, President Bush named Solicitor General Paul Clement as the acting attorney general, to take office upon the resignation of Alberto Gonzales. According to administration officials, Clement took that office at 12,01 am September 17,2007, keisler served as acting attorney general until the nomination of Michael Mukasey on November 9,2007. 6 Deputy Attorney General Mark Filip was asked to assume the position of acting attorney general by then President-elect Obama, Filip led the Department while President Obamas nominee, then Attorney-General Designate Eric Holder, awaited confirmation by the United States Senate. Holder was confirmed on February 2,2009, and sworn in the next day, thus ending Filips tenure as the acting attorney general
United States Attorney General
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Incumbent
Loretta Lynch since April 27, 2015
United States Attorney General
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Seal of the Department of Justice
United States Attorney General
United States Attorney General
5.
Robert F. Kennedy
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Robert Francis Bobby Kennedy, commonly known by his initials RFK, was an American politician from Massachusetts. He served as the United States junior senator from New York from January 1965 until his assassination in June 1968. He was previously the 64th U. S. Attorney General from January 1961 to September 1964, serving under his older brother President John F. Kennedy and his successor, Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and is seen as an icon of modern American liberalism. After serving in the United States Naval Reserve as a Seaman Apprentice from 1944 to 1946, Kennedy graduated from Harvard University, prior to entering public office, he worked as a correspondent for The Boston Post and as an assistant counsel to the Senate committee chaired by Joe McCarthy. Kennedy was the manager for his brother John in the 1960 presidential election. He was appointed Attorney General after the election and served as the closest adviser to the president from 1961 to 1963. His tenure is best known for its advocacy for the Civil Rights Movement, the fight against organized crime and the Mafia, after his brothers assassination, he remained in office in the Johnson administration for a few months. He left to run for the United States Senate in New York in 1964, in 1968, Kennedy was a leading candidate for the Democratic nomination for the presidency, he appealed especially to poor, African-American, Hispanic, Catholic and young voters. Robert F. Kennedy was born on November 20,1925, in Brookline, Massachusetts and his older brothers were Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. and John F. Jack Kennedy, who was elected the 35th President of the United States in 1960. His younger brother was longtime United States Senator Edward M. Ted Kennedy, all four of his grandparents were children of Irish immigrants. His father was a businessman and a leading Irish Catholic figure in the Democratic Party. After he stepped down as ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1940, Joe Sr. focused his attention on his oldest son, Joseph Jr. expecting that he would enter politics and be elected president. He also urged the children to examine and discuss current events in order to propel them to public service. After Joseph Jr. was killed during World War II, the senior Kennedys hopes fell on his son, John. Joseph Sr. had the money and connections to play a role in the familys political ambitions. Kennedys older brother John was often bedridden by illness and, as a result, although he made little effort to get to know his younger brother during his childhood, John would take him for walks and regale him with the stories of heroes and adventures he had read. One of their favorite authors was John Buchan, who wrote The Thirty-Nine Steps, John sometimes referred to Robert as Black Robert due to his prudishness and disposition. He described his position in the hierarchy by saying, When you come from that far down
Robert F. Kennedy
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Kennedy appearing before the Platform Committee, 1964
Robert F. Kennedy
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The Kennedy family at
Hyannisport in 1931 with Robert on bottom left in jacket. Ted was born the following year.
Robert F. Kennedy
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Robert,
Ted, and
President John F. Kennedy outside the
Oval Office in 1963.
Robert F. Kennedy
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Kennedy speaking to a civil rights crowd in front of the
Justice Department on June 14, 1963.
6.
Ramsey Clark
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William Ramsey Clark is an American lawyer, activist and former federal government official. A progressive, New Frontier liberal, he occupied senior positions in the United States Department of Justice under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, notably serving as United States Attorney General from 1967 to 1969, previously he was Deputy Attorney General from 1965 to 1967 and Assistant Attorney General from 1961 to 1965. As Attorney General he was known for his vigorous opposition to the penalty, his aggressive support of civil liberties and civil rights. Clark supervised the drafting of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, Clark was born in Dallas, Texas on December 18,1927. His father, prominent jurist Tom C, Clark, was also a United States Attorney General and later became a Supreme Court Justice. His mother, Mary Jane, was the daughter of a prominent Texas judge and lawyer, while at the University of Texas, he was a member of the Delta Tau Delta International Fraternity. He was admitted to the Texas bar in 1950, and was admitted to practice before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1956, from 1951 to 1961, Clark practiced law as an associate and partner in the law firm of Clark, Reed and Clark. In 1967, President Lyndon B. Johnson nominated him to be Attorney General of the United States and he was confirmed by the Senate and took the oath of office on March 2. But there also was speculation that one of the reasons that contributed to Johnson making the appointment was the expectation that Clarks father, Clark, would resign from the Supreme Court to avoid a conflict of interest. Johnson wanted a vacancy to be created on the Court so he could appoint Thurgood Marshall, the elder Clark resigned from the Supreme Court on June 12,1967, creating the vacancy Johnson apparently desired. Clark served in the Attorney General until Johnsons term as President ended on January 20,1969, Clark played an important role in the history of the Civil Rights Movement. Supervised the drafting and executive role in passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and Civil Rights Act of 1968. As Attorney General during part of the Vietnam War, Clark oversaw the prosecution of the Boston Five for “conspiracy to aid and abet draft resistance. ”Four of the five were convicted, including pediatrician Dr. Benjamin Spock and Yale chaplain William Sloane Coffin Jr. In addition to his government work, during this period Clark was also director of the American Judicature Society, following his term as Attorney General Clark worked as a law professor and was active in the anti-Vietnam War movement. He visited North Vietnam in 1972 as a protest against the bombing of Hanoi and he was also associated with the New York law firm Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison before resigning to run for political office. In 1974, Clark was nominated in the Democratic primary for U. S, senator from New York defeating the partys designee Lee Alexander, but losing the election to the incumbent Jacob K. Javits. In 1976, Clark again sought the Democratic nomination for the U. S. Senate, more recently, Clark has been praised by progressives and criticized by conservatives in equal measure for his left-wing political views and publications
Ramsey Clark
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Ramsey Clark at the White House in February 1968.
Ramsey Clark
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Attorney General Clark & President
Lyndon B. Johnson in 1967.
Ramsey Clark
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Ramsey Clark visiting
Nandigram,
India. November 2007
Ramsey Clark
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Ramsey Clark speaks to the March 20, 2010, anti-war protest in
Washington, D.C.
7.
United States Deputy Attorney General
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The United States Deputy Attorney General is the second-highest-ranking official in the United States Department of Justice. The Deputy Attorney General is appointed by the President of the United States with the advice, the position was created in 1950. The position is presently being held by Dana Boente, following the firing of Sally Yates on January 30,2017 during her tenure as Acting Attorney General. On May 14,2007 Paul McNulty, then Deputy Attorney General, at the time, McNulty was considered the highest-ranking Bush administration casualty in the furor over the firing of U. S. attorneys. On July 18,2007 President Bush announced his appointment of Craig S. Morford as acting Deputy Attorney General. Morford had been serving as the U. S. attorney in Nashville, Tennessee, and was known for his successful prosecution of former Ohio Representative James Traficant on bribery charges
United States Deputy Attorney General
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Incumbent
Sally Yates since January 10, 2015
United States Deputy Attorney General
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Seal of the
Department of Justice
8.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade
John F. Kennedy
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John F. Kennedy
John F. Kennedy
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The Kennedy family at
Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in 1931 with Jack at top left in white shirt. Ted was born the following year.
John F. Kennedy
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Lieutenant (junior grade) John F. Kennedy (standing at right) with his PT-109 crew, 1943.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy on his navy patrol boat, the
PT-109, 1943.
9.
Byron White
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Byron Raymond Whizzer White won fame both as an American football halfback and as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Born and raised in Colorado, White played in the National Football League for three seasons and practiced law for 15 years before his Supreme Court appointment, White was the Colorado state chair of John F. Kennedys 1960 presidential campaign. White was appointed to the Supreme Court by Kennedy in 1962 and he viewed his own court decisions as based on the facts of each case rather than as representative of a specific legal philosophy. He retired in 1993 and is the twelfth longest-serving justice in Supreme Court history and he was the first Supreme Court Justice from the state of Colorado. Born in Fort Collins, Colorado, White was the son of Maude Elizabeth and Alpha Albert White. He was raised in the town of Wellington, where he obtained his high school diploma in 1934. He joined the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity and served as student body president his senior year. Graduating Phi Beta Kappa in 1938, he won a Rhodes Scholarship to the University of Oxford in England, after deferring it for a year to play pro football, he attended Hertford College, Oxford. During this time in England, he acquainted with Joe and John Kennedy. As a senior, White led Colorado to an undefeated 8–0 regular season in 1937 and he was the runner-up for the Heisman Trophy, behind Yale quarterback Clint Frank, and also played basketball and baseball at CU. The basketball team advanced to the finals of the inaugural National Invitation Tournament at Madison Square Garden in March 1938, White had originally planned to attend Oxford in 1938 and not play pro football. He was selected fourth overall in the 1938 NFL draft, held in December 1937, by the NFLs Pittsburgh Pirates, Oxford allowed White to delay his start to early 1939, so he accepted the Pittsburgh offer in August and played the 1938 season in the NFL. He led the league in rushing as a 21-year-old rookie and was its highest-paid player and he sailed to England in early 1939, with the intent of staying for three years. With the outbreak of World War II in late summer, White returned to the United States and he was admitted to Yale Law School in early October 1939, a week after classes began, and also played for the Detroit Lions in 1940 and 1941. In three NFL seasons, he played in 33 games and he led the league in rushing yards in 1938 and 1940, and he was one of the first big money NFL players, making US$15,000 per year. His NFL career was cut short when he entered the U. S. Navy in 1942, after the war and he was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 1954. During the war, White served as an officer in the U. S. Navy. He had originally wanted to join the Marines, but was out due to being colorblind
Byron White
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Byron White
Byron White
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Byron White (left) with Robert Kennedy in 1961
Byron White
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Byron White swearing in new Supreme Court Justice
Clarence Thomas, as wife
Virginia Lamp Thomas looks on.
Byron White
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White with other members of the Commission on Structural Alternatives for the Federal Courts of Appeals
10.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
Philadelphia
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From top left, the Philadelphia skyline, a
statue of Benjamin Franklin, the
Liberty Bell, the
Philadelphia Museum of Art,
Philadelphia City Hall, and
Independence Hall
Philadelphia
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An 18th century map of Philadelphia.
Philadelphia
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Penn's Treaty with the Indians by
Benjamin West
Philadelphia
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Benjamin Franklin, 1777
11.
Skillman, New Jersey
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Skillman is an unincorporated community and census-designated place located within Montgomery Township, in Somerset County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the CDPs population was 242, the area is served as United States Postal Service ZIP Code 08558. It is home to Johnson & Johnsons Consumer Products division and Bloomberg L. P, all of the public school buildings for Montgomery Township are located in Skillman. Skillman is named after the Skillman family, the first Skillmans were Dutch, but lived in England before moving to Brooklyn in 1664, according to family accounts. In 1729, Thomas Skillman ventured westward, buying some 500 acres of farmland on the Millstone River, near the village of Rocky Hill, for his sons, Jan and that purchase was the Skillman familys entry into Montgomery. The Skillman area got its name when the arrived in the 1870s. Joseph A. Skillman, was a teamster who owned wild Missouri mules, when railroad workers were trying to lay tracks, their horses got bogged down in thick, clay mud, and Joseph A. Skillman came to the rescue with his mules. Railroad officials also socialized at the home of another Skillman nearby, a post office opened in the station and a small village, with a hay press, feed store and hardware store, sprouted around it. It took the Skillman name, too, also in Skillman was the sprawling New Jersey State Village for Epileptics, a 250-acre complex opened around 1900 that had its own dairy, laundry, and movie theater. Skillman was a little country place. There were 1,637 residents in Montgomery in 1910, compared with more than 23,000 now, the community now has more traffic, fewer farms and more houses. In 2011, Montgomery Township sold what remained of the North Princeton Developmental Center to Somerset County in order for the village to be demolished. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP had an area of 1.476 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 242 people,87 households, the population density was 165.0 per square mile. There were 99 housing units at a density of 67.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 91. 32% White,0. 41% Black or African American,0. 41% Native American,2. 48% Asian,0. 00% Pacific Islander,2. 89% from other races, and 2. 48% from two or more races. [[Hispanic |Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6. 20% of the population,12. 6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.78 and the family size was 3.06
Skillman, New Jersey
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Skillman as seen from the intersection of Camp Meeting Avenue and Fairview Road
12.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
Democratic Party (United States)
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Andrew Jackson was the first Democratic
President of the United States
Democratic Party (United States)
Democratic Party (United States)
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The three leaders of the Democratic party during the first half of the 20th century: President
Woodrow Wilson (nominated in 1912 and '16) Sec. of State
William J. Bryan (nominated in 1896, 1900 and 1908),
Josephus Daniels,
Breckinridge Long,
William Phillips, and
Franklin D. Roosevelt (nominated for VP in 1920 and for president in 1932, 36,'40 and 44)
Democratic Party (United States)
–
John F. Kennedy,
35th President of the United States (1961–1963)
13.
John Katzenbach
–
John Katzenbach is a United States author of popular fiction. He is married to Madeleine Blais and they live in western Massachusetts and he left the newspaper industry to write psychological thrillers. Two more of his books were made into films in the United States, 1995s Just Cause with Sean Connery, a fourth book, The Wrong Man, was made in 2011 as the French TV film Faux Coupable. Der Reporter The Mean Season Just Cause Harts War Official site
John Katzenbach
–
John Katzenbach in the
Buenos Aires International Book Fair
14.
Phillips Exeter Academy
–
Phillips Exeter Academy is a coeducational independent school for boarding and day students between the 9th and 12th grade. It is located in Exeter, New Hampshire, and is one of the oldest secondary schools in the United States and it is particularly noted for its innovation and application of Harkness education, a system based on a conference format of student interaction with minimal teacher involvement. It bears similarities to the Socratic method of learning through asking questions, Phillips Exeter Academy students and alumni are called Exonians, and students, faculty and staff often refer to the school as Exeter or PEA. The school has the largest endowment of any New England boarding school, in 2015–2016, over 45% of students received financial aid from grants totalling over $19M. Phillips Exeter Academy had a rate of 11% for the 2014–2015 school year. The schools day-to-day operation are headed by a Principal, while management of the financial and physical resources are overseen by the Trustees. Trustees are drawn from former Exonians and appoint the Principal, the faculty of the school are responsible for governing matters relating to student life, both in and out of the classroom. Students are housed in 26 single-sex dormitories, each headed by a dormitory head, nearly a third of graduates go into the Ivy League. The schools first enrolled class counted 56 boys, in 1970, present-day enrollment stands at over 1,000 of a roughly equal ratio from both sexes. It is a member of the Ten Schools Admissions Organization, Phillips Exeter Academy was established in 1781 by John Phillips. As a result of family relationship, the two schools share a rivalry. The school that Phillips founded at Exeter was to educate students under a Calvinist religious framework, however, like his nephew who founded Andover, Phillips stipulated in the schools founding charter that it would ever be equally open to youth of requisite qualifications from every quarter. Phillips had previously married to Sarah Gilman, wealthy widow of Phillipss cousin, merchant Nathaniel Gilman, whose large fortune, bequeathed to Phillips. In 1814, Nicholas Gilman, signer of the U. S. Constitution, the academys first schoolhouse, the First Academy Building, was built on a site on Tan Lane in 1783, and today stands not far from its original location. The building was dedicated on February 20,1783, the day that the schools first Preceptor. This would be a revolution in methods. The result was Harkness teaching, in which a teacher and a group of work together, exchanging ideas and information. In November 1930, Harkness gave Exeter $5.8 million to support this initiative, since then, the Academys principal mode of instruction has been by discussion, seminar style, around an oval table known as the Harkness table
Phillips Exeter Academy
–
John Phillips, the founder of Phillips Exeter Academy
Phillips Exeter Academy
–
Non Sibi (Not for Oneself) Finis Origine Pendet (The End Depends Upon the Beginning) Χάριτι Θεοῦ (By the Grace of God)
Phillips Exeter Academy
–
First Academy Building c. 1910, where the school opened in 1783
Phillips Exeter Academy
–
Edward S. Harkness, benefactor
15.
Princeton University
–
Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
Princeton University
–
A commemorative 3-cent stamp from 1953 celebrating the bicentennial of
Nassau Hall
Princeton University
–
Seal of Princeton University
Princeton University
–
John Witherspoon, President of the College (1768-94), signer of the
Declaration of Independence
Princeton University
–
A Birds-eye view of campus in 1906
16.
Yale Law School
–
Yale Law School is the law school of Yale University, located in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. The schools small size and prestige make its admissions process the most selective of any law school in the United States, Yale has the lowest acceptance rate among all law schools. Roughly 8 in 10 admits ultimately matriculate, which marks the best yield rate among the top U. S. law schools, established in 1824, Yale Law offers the J. D. LL. M. M. S. L. and Ph. D. degrees in law, Yale Law has been ranked the number one law school in the country by U. S. News and World Report every year since the magazine began publishing law school rankings, through 2017. Yale Law School is widely considered to be the preeminent law school in the nation and is one of the most prestigious law schools in the world, Yale Law has produced a significant number of luminaries in law and politics, including United States presidents Gerald Ford and Bill Clinton. Former president William Howard Taft was a professor of law at Yale Law School from 1913 until he resigned to become chief justice of the United States in 1921. Each class in Yale Laws three-year J. D. program enrolls approximately 200 students, Yales flagship law review is the Yale Law Journal. Another feature of Yale Laws culture since the 1930s, among both faculty and student graduates, has been an emphasis on the importance of spending at least a few years in government service, a similar emphasis has long been placed on service as a judicial law clerk upon graduation. Its 7.6,1 student-to-faculty ratio is the third lowest among U. S. law schools, Yale Law does not have a traditional grading system, a consequence of student unrest in the late 1960s. Instead, it grades first-semester first-year students on a simple Credit/No Credit system, for their remaining two-and-a-half years, students are graded on an Honors/Pass/Low Pass/Fail system. Similarly, the school does not rank its students and it is also notable for having only a single semester of required classes, instead of the full year most U. S. schools require. Students publish nine law journals that, unlike those at most other schools, although the Journal identifies a target maximum number of members to accept each year, it is not a firm number. Other leading student-edited publications include the Yale Law and Policy Review, the Yale Journal on Regulation, the Yale Journal of Law and Technology, and the Yale Journal of International Law. In November 2013, it was announced that a $25 million donation would bring student dormitory living back onto campus, with renovations to begin in 2018. Yale Law has been ranked the number one law school in the country by U. S. News and it is currently ranked as the second best law school in U. S and fourth in the world by the 2016 QS Rankings. Additionally, a 2010 survey of scholarly impact, measured by per capita citations to faculty scholarship, the School began in the New Haven law office of Seth P. Staples in the 1800s, who began training lawyers, by 1810 he was operating a law school. He took on a student, Samuel J. Hitchcock as a law partner
Yale Law School
–
Yale Law School is housed in the
Sterling Law Building, erected in 1931. Modeled after the English
Inns of Court, the law building is located at the heart of Yale's campus and contains a law library, a dining hall, and a courtyard.
Yale Law School
–
Yale Law School
Yale Law School
–
Sculptural ornamentation on the
Sterling Law Building
Yale Law School
–
Yale Law School Class of 1883
17.
Balliol College, Oxford
–
Balliol College /ˈbeɪliəl/, founded in 1263, is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. Among the colleges alumni are three former ministers, five Nobel laureates, and numerous literary and philosophical figures, including Adam Smith, Gerard Manley Hopkins. In 2012 Balliol had an endowment of £62. 5m, Balliol College was founded in about 1263 by John I de Balliol under the guidance of the Bishop of Durham. Under a statute of 1881, New Inn Hall was merged into Balliol College in 1887, Balliol acquired New Inn Halls admissions and other records for 1831–1887 as well as the library of New Inn Hall, which largely contained 18th-century law books. Along with many of the ancient colleges, Balliol has evolved its own traditions and customs over the centuries, the patron saint of the College is Saint Catherine of Alexandria. On her feast day, a dinner is held for all final year students within Balliol. This festival was established by 1550. Another important feast is the Snell Dinner and this dinner is held in memory of John Snell, whose benefaction established exhibitions for students from the University of Glasgow to study at Balliol one of whom was Adam Smith. The feast is attended by fellows of Balliol College, the current Snell Exhibitioners, by far the most eccentric event is The Nepotists carol-singing event organised by the Colleges Arnold and Brackenbury Society. This event happens on the last Friday of Michaelmas term each year, on this occasion, Balliol students congregate in the college hall to enjoy mulled wine and the singing of carols. The evening historically ended with a rendition of The Gordouli on Broad Street, outside the gates of Trinity College, verses of this form are now known as Balliol rhymes. The best known of these rhymes is the one on Benjamin Jowett and this has been widely quoted and reprinted in virtually every book about Jowett and about Balliol ever since. This and 18 others are attributed to Henry Charles Beeching, the other quatrains are much less well known. For many years, there has been a traditional and fierce rivalry shown between the students of Balliol and those of its neighbour to the east, Trinity College. It has manifested itself on the field and the river, in the form of songs sung over the dividing walls. The rivalry reflects that which exists between Trinity College, Cambridge and Balliols sister college, St Johns College, Cambridge. In college folklore, the rivalry back to the late 17th century. In fact, in its form, the rivalry appears to date from the late 1890s
Balliol College, Oxford
–
Colleges and
halls of the
University of Oxford Balliol College
Balliol College, Oxford
–
The front of the college in
Broad Street.
Balliol College, Oxford
–
Balliol College Garden
Balliol College, Oxford
–
The whole of the front of Balliol College as seen from
Broad Street, looking west.
18.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
19.
United States Army Air Forces
–
Each of these forces had a commanding general who reported directly to the Army Chief of Staff. S. Army to control its own installations and support personnel, the peak size of the AAF during the Second World War was over 2.4 million men and women in service and nearly 80,000 aircraft by 1944, and 783 domestic bases in December 1943. By V-E Day, the Army Air Forces had 1.25 million men stationed overseas, in its expansion and conduct of the war, the AAF became more than just an arm of the greater organization. By the end of World War II, the Army Air Forces had become virtually an independent service and this contrast between theory and fact is. fundamental to an understanding of the AAF. Gen. Billy Mitchell that led to his later court-martial, a strategy stressing precision bombing of industrial targets by heavily armed, long-range bombers emerged, formulated by the men who would become its leaders. Since 1920, control of units had resided with commanders of the corps areas. Both were created in 1933 when a conflict with Cuba seemed possible following a coup détat. Activation of GHQ Air Force represented a compromise between strategic airpower advocates and ground force commanders who demanded that the Air Corps mission remain tied to that of the land forces. GHQ Air Force organized combat groups administratively into a force of three wings deployed to the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts but was small in comparison to European air forces. Corps area commanders continued to control over airfields and administration of personnel. The expected activation of Army General Headquarters prompted Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall to request a study from Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold resulting on 5 October 1940 in a proposal for creation of an air staff, unification of the air arm under one commander, and equality with the ground and supply forces. Marshall implemented a compromise that the Air Corps found entirely inadequate, naming Arnold as acting Deputy Chief of Staff for Air but rejecting all organizational points of his proposal. GHQ Air Force instead was assigned to the control of Army General Headquarters, although the latter was a training and not an operational component, when it was activated in November 1940. A division of the GHQ Air Force into four air defense districts on 19 October 1940 was concurrent with the creation of air forces to defend Hawaii. The air districts were converted in March 1941 into numbered air forces with an organization of 54 groups. Marshall had come to the view that the air forces needed a simpler system, Arnold and Marshall agreed that the AAF would enjoy a general autonomy within the War Department until the end of the war, while its commanders would cease lobbying for independence. Marshall, a proponent of airpower, left understood that the Air Force would likely achieve its independence following the war
United States Army Air Forces
–
General of the Army
Henry H. ("Hap") Arnold
United States Army Air Forces
–
Army Air Forces
shoulder sleeve insignia
United States Army Air Forces
–
USAAF
recruitment poster.
United States Army Air Forces
–
March 29, 1943 Reorganization of the United States Army Air Forces.
20.
Eighth Air Force
–
The Eighth Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force Global Strike Command. It is headquartered at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, the command serves as Air Forces Strategic – Global Strike, one of the air components of United States Strategic Command. The Eighth Air Force includes the heart of Americas heavy bomber force, the B-2 Spirit stealth bomber, the B-1 Lancer supersonic bomber, and it was the largest of the deployed combat Army Air Forces in numbers of personnel, aircraft, and equipment. Elements of 8 AF engaged in operations during the Korean War, Vietnam War. Eighth Air Force is one of two active duty numbered air forces in Air Force Global Strike Command, Eighth Air Force, with headquarters at Barksdale AFB, in the Bossier City – Shreveport, Louisiana, metro area, supports U. S. Joint Forces Command, and is designated as U. S. Strategic Commands Task Force 204, providing on-alert, the mission of The Mighty Eighth is to safeguard Americas interests through strategic deterrence and global combat power. Eighth Air Force controls long-range nuclear-capable bomber assets throughout the United States and its flexible, conventional and nuclear deterrence mission provides the capability to deploy forces and engage enemy threats from home station or forward positioned, anywhere, any time. The 8th Air Force motto is Peace Through Strength and this air power includes the heart of Americas heavy bomber force, the B-2 Spirit and the B-52 Stratofortress. The B-2 force consists of 20 bombers assigned to the 509th Bomb Wing at Whiteman AFB, for additional history and lineage, see United States Air Forces in Europe The history of Eighth Air Force begins on 2 January 1942 with its activation at Savannah Air Base, Georgia. In quick order, on 5 January, Major General Carl Spaatz assumed command of HQ Eighth Air Force at Bolling Field, Washington, on 8 January the order activating the U. S. Air Forces in the British Isles was announced. On 12 May, the first contingent of USAAF personnel arrived in England to join the Eighth Air Force, on 15 June, Spaatz arrived in England to establish the Headquarters of Eighth Air Force at Bushy Park,15 miles WSW of London. Eighth Air Force was the command and control organization over its operational components, VIII Bomber Command Strategic bombardment using heavy, VIII Fighter Command Provide fighter escort of heavy bombers VIII Air Support Command Provide reconnaissance, troop transport, and tactical bombardment using twin-engine medium bombers. VIII Air Service Command Service and logistical support, VIII Bomber Command was activated at Langley Field, Virginia, It was reassigned to Savannah Air Base, Georgia on 10 February 1942. The first combat group of VIII Bomber Command to arrive in the United Kingdom was the ground echelon of the 97th Bombardment Group, during World War II, the offensive air forces of the United States Army Air Forces came to be classified as strategic or tactical. In Europe, Eighth Air Force was the first USAAF strategic air force, Eighth Air Force carried out strategic daytime strategic bombing operations in Western Europe from airfields in eastern England. On 4 January 1944, the B-24s and B-17s based in England flew their last mission as a part of VIII Bomber Command. On 22 February 1944, a reorganization of American airpower took place in Europe. VIII Bomber Command was redesignated as Eighth Air Force, with VIII Fighter and this is from where the present-day Eighth Air Forces history, lineage and honors derive
Eighth Air Force
–
B-2A Spirit, 82-1069, "Spirit of Indiana", 509th Bomb Wing B-52H Stratofortress, 2d Bomb Wing
Eighth Air Force
Eighth Air Force
–
World War II European-African-Middle Eastern Theater
Eighth Air Force
–
Air Force Outstanding Unit Award with Combat "V" Device
21.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
22.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
–
In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
–
From top left, the Philadelphia skyline, a
statue of Benjamin Franklin, the
Liberty Bell, the
Philadelphia Museum of Art,
Philadelphia City Hall, and
Independence Hall
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
–
An 18th century map of Philadelphia.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
–
Penn's Treaty with the Indians by
Benjamin West
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
–
Benjamin Franklin, 1777
23.
Trenton, New Jersey
–
Trenton is the capital city of the U. S. state of New Jersey and the county seat of Mercer County. It was briefly the capital of the United States, as of the 2010 United States Census, Trenton had a population of 84,913, making it the states 10th-largest municipality. The Census Bureau estimated that the population was 84,034 in 2014. Trenton dates back at least to June 3,1719, when mention was made of a constable being appointed for Trenton, while the area was still part of Hunterdon County. Boundaries were recorded for Trenton Township as of March 2,1720, a courthouse and jail were constructed in Trenton around 1720, Trenton became New Jerseys capital as of November 25,1790, and the City of Trenton was formed within Trenton Township on November 13,1792. Trenton Township was incorporated as one of New Jerseys initial group of 104 townships by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on February 21,1798, on February 22,1834, portions of Trenton Township were taken to form Ewing Township. The remaining portion of Trenton Township was absorbed by the City of Trenton on April 10,1837, portions of Ewing Township and Hamilton Township were annexed to Trenton on March 23,1900. The first settlement which would become Trenton was established by Quakers in 1679, in the then called the Falls of the Delaware, led by Mahlon Stacy from Handsworth, Sheffield. Quakers were being persecuted in England at this time and North America provided an opportunity to exercise their religious freedom, by 1719, the town adopted the name Trent-towne, after William Trent, one of its leading landholders who purchased much of the surrounding land from Stacys family. This name later was shortened to Trenton, during the American Revolutionary War, the city was the site of the Battle of Trenton, George Washingtons first military victory. On December 26,1776, Washington and his army, after crossing the icy Delaware River to Trenton, after the war, the Confederation Congress briefly met in Trenton in November and December 1784. Trenton became the capital in 1790, but prior to that year the New Jersey Legislature often met here. The city was incorporated in 1792, during the War of 1812, the United States Armys primary hospital was at a site on Broad Street. Throughout the 19th century, Trenton grew steadily, as European immigrants came to work in its pottery, in 1837, with the population now too large for government by council, a new mayoral government was adopted, with by-laws that remain in operation to this day. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had an area of 8.155 square miles. Trenton is located near the geographic center of the state. However, Mercer County constitutes its own metropolitan area, formally known as the Trenton-Ewing MSA. Locals consider Trenton to be a part of an area called Central Jersey
Trenton, New Jersey
–
Governor's office
Trenton, New Jersey
–
Location of Trenton inside of Mercer County. Inset: Location of Mercer County highlighted in the State of New Jersey.
Trenton, New Jersey
–
The surrender of the Hessians at Trenton, 1776
Trenton, New Jersey
–
The Old Barracks in Trenton, New Jersey
24.
Attorney General of New Jersey
–
The attorney general of New Jersey is a member of the executive cabinet of the state and oversees the Department of Law and Public Safety. The office is appointed by the Governor of New Jersey, confirmed by the New Jersey Senate, under the provisions of the New Jersey State Constitution, the Attorney General serves a concurrent four-year term to the governor. The conventional wisdom is that the Attorney General cannot be removed from office except for cause by the Governor or by way of legislative impeachment. It is fifth in the line of succession after the Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey, President of the New Jersey Senate, the Attorney General cannot also serve as the Lieutenant Governor. 2006, Zulima Farber 2006–2007, Stuart Rabner 2007–2010, Anne Milgram 2010–2011, dow 2012–2013, Jeffrey S. Chiesa. Justia. com U. S
Attorney General of New Jersey
–
State of New Jersey Office of the Attorney General
25.
New Jersey
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New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania, New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state but the 11th-most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States. New Jersey lies entirely within the statistical areas of New York City. New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years, in the early 17th century, the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements. New Jersey was the site of decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century. In the 19th century, factories in cities such as Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains, around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as rivers, swamps. New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact, scheyichbi is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape society was divided into clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign, Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf and they first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade. The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey, the Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of ownership was not recognized by the Lenape. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen, peter Minuits purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and it was from the Royal Square in St. Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York, the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony. James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton, the area was named the Province of New Jersey. Since the states inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic, New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants
New Jersey
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The New Jersey Botanical Garden at Skylands in
Ringwood State Park,
Passaic and
Bergen Counties
New Jersey
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Flag
New Jersey
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Washington Crossing the Delaware during the
New York and New Jersey campaign, winter 1777
New Jersey
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George Washington rallying his troops at the
Battle of Princeton
26.
New Jersey Supreme Court
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The Supreme Court of New Jersey is the highest court in the U. S. state of New Jersey. One of its members, William J. Brennan, Jr. became an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. It has existed in three different forms under the three different state constitutions since the independence of the state in 1776, until the Constitution of 1947, the Supreme Court was an intermediate court. As currently constituted, the replaced the prior New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals. Now, the Supreme Court hears appeals from the Appellate Division and, on occasions, directly by order of the Court from other cases within the judicial. Under the two previous New Jersey state constitutions, the phrase Supreme Court referred to a lower court, both the supreme court and the actual highest court were composed in a radically different manner from that of the current supreme court or its inferior courts. A separate Supreme Court was also mentioned, but no indication of its duties was given, under the current constitution, the highest court in the state is the Supreme Court. It does not have jurisdiction, hearing appeals, regulating the states court system. Normally, an appeal from one of the divisions of the New Jersey Superior Court goes to the Appellate Division of that court. If the commission reports to the court that it is evenly divided, the court appoints the one deemed more qualified, who will then break the tie. In the case of the Apportionment Commission for state legislative districts, the court also acts as final arbiter of the inability or absence of the Governor or Lieutenant Governor, following a declaration by the Legislature. As in federal impeachment trials, in case of impeachment of the Governor, the Governor nominates all Justices to the Court but may choose only among those admitted to the New Jersey bar for at least ten years. Following seven days of notice, nominees are put before the Senate for advice. Once confirmed, justices serve for a term of seven years. The Court consists of seven justices, one of whom serves as the Chief Justice, the Chief Justice may select judges from the Superior Court, senior in service, to serve temporarily on the Supreme Court when he determines it necessary to fill a vacancy. The salary of the Chief Justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court is $192,795 while the salary of each Associate Justice is $185,482, once in office, the salary of judges may not be decreased. While sitting on the bench, judges are not permitted to practice law or earn money from any other source, a majority of the General Assembly may pass articles of impeachment against a Justice, which the Senate will then try. Only a two-thirds majority will convict, and the Senate may punish a convicted Justice with only removal from office, after a Justice has been impeached by the General Assembly—but before the Senate renders a verdict on the charges—the Justice may not exercise any official function
New Jersey Supreme Court
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Richard J. Hughes Justice Complex, seat of the court.
New Jersey Supreme Court
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Seal of the Supreme Court
New Jersey Supreme Court
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David Brearly, author of the precedent setting Holmes v. Walton
27.
Physician
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Both the role of the physician and the meaning of the word itself vary around the world. Degrees and other qualifications vary widely, but there are common elements, such as medical ethics requiring that physicians show consideration, compassion. Around the world the term refers to a specialist in internal medicine or one of its many sub-specialties. This meaning of physician conveys a sense of expertise in treatment by drugs or medications and this term is at least nine hundred years old in English, physicians and surgeons were once members of separate professions, and traditionally were rivals. Henry VIII granted a charter to the London Royal College of Physicians in 1518 and it was not until 1540 that he granted the Company of Barber/Surgeons its separate charter. In the same year, the English monarch established the Regius Professorship of Physic at the University of Cambridge, newer universities would probably describe such an academic as a professor of internal medicine. Hence, in the 16th century, physic meant roughly what internal medicine does now, currently, a specialist physician in the United States may be described as an internist. Another term, hospitalist, was introduced in 1996, to describe US specialists in internal medicine who work largely or exclusively in hospitals, such hospitalists now make up about 19% of all US general internists, who are often called general physicians in Commonwealth countries. In such places, the more general English terms doctor or medical practitioner are prevalent, in Commonwealth countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described as specialist physicians who have sub-specialized by age of patient rather than by organ system. Around the world, the term physician and surgeon is used to describe either a general practitioner or any medical practitioner irrespective of specialty. This usage still shows the meaning of physician and preserves the old difference between a physician, as a practitioner of physic, and a surgeon. The term may be used by state medical boards in the United States of America, in modern English, the term physician is used in two main ways, with relatively broad and narrow meanings respectively. This is the result of history and is often confusing and these meanings and variations are explained below. In the United States and Canada, the term physician describes all medical practitioners holding a professional medical degree, the American Medical Association, established in 1847, as well as the American Osteopathic Association, founded in 1897, both currently use the term physician to describe members. However, the American College of Physicians, established in 1915, does not, its title uses physician in its original sense. A physician trained in the United States has either a Doctor of Medicine degree, all boards of certification now require that physicians demonstrate, by examination, continuing mastery of the core knowledge and skills for a chosen specialty. Recertification varies by particular specialty between every seven and every ten years, graduates of osteopathic medical schools in the United States should not be confused with osteopaths, who are trained in the European and Commonwealth nations. Their training is similar to physical therapy and they are not licensed to prescribe medications or perform surgeries, also in the United States, the American Podiatric Medical Association defines podiatrists as physicians and surgeons that fall under the department of surgery in hospitals
Physician
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"The Doctor" by
Luke Fildes (detail).
Physician
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The
Italian Francesco Redi, considered to be the founder of experimental biology, he was the first to recognize and correctly describe details of many important
parasites.
Physician
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Elizabeth Blackwell, the first female physician to receive a medical degree in the United States
28.
Pearl Harbor
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Pearl Harbor is a lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. Much of the harbor and surrounding lands is a United States Navy deep-water naval base and it is also the headquarters of the United States Pacific Fleet. The U. S. government first obtained exclusive use of the inlet, the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan on December 7,1941, was the immediate cause of the United States entry into World War II. Pearl Harbor was originally a shallow embayment called Wai Momi or Puʻuloa by the Hawaiians. Puʻuloa was regarded as the home of the goddess, Kaʻahupahau. Making due allowance for legendary amplification, the estuary already had an outlet for its waters where the present gap is, during the early 19th century, Pearl Harbor was not used for large ships due to its shallow entrance. The interest of United States in the Hawaiian Islands grew as a result of its whaling, shipping and trading activity in the Pacific. As early as 1820, an Agent of the United States for Commerce and these commercial ties to the American continent were accompanied by the work of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. American missionaries and their families became a part of the Hawaiian political body. Throughout the 1820s and 1830s, many American warships visited Honolulu, in most cases, the commanding officers carried letters from the U. S. Government giving advice on governmental affairs and of the relations of the island nation with foreign powers. In 1841, the newspaper Polynesian, printed in Honolulu, advocated that the U. S. establish a base in Hawaii for protection of American citizens engaged in the whaling industry. The British Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs Robert Crichton Wyllie, remarked in 1840 that and my opinion is that the tide of events rushes on to annexation to the United States. In 1865, the North Pacific Squadron was formed to embrace the western coast, lackawanna in the following year was assigned to cruise among the islands, a locality of great and increasing interest and importance. This vessel surveyed the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands toward Japan, as a result, the United States claimed Midway Island. The Secretary of the Navy was able to write in his report of 1868. This increased activity caused the permanent assignment of at least one warship to Hawaiian waters and it also praised Midway Island as possessing a harbor surpassing Honolulus. In the following year, Congress approved an appropriation of $50,000 on March 1,1869, after 1868, when the Commander of the Pacific Fleet visited the islands to look after American interests, naval officers played an important role in internal affairs. They served as arbitrators in disputes, negotiators of trade agreements and defenders of law
Pearl Harbor
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Aerial view of Pearl Harbor,
Ford Island in center. The
Arizona memorial is the small white dot on the left side above Ford Island
Pearl Harbor
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Pearl Harbor in the 1880s.
Pearl Harbor
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Astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor from October 2009
29.
United States Army Air Corps
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The United States Army Air Corps was the military aviation arm of the United States of America between 1926 and 1941. The USAAC was renamed from the earlier United States Army Air Service on 2 July 1926, the Air Corps became the United States Army Air Forces on 20 June 1941, giving it greater autonomy from the Armys middle-level command structure. The separation of the Air Corps from control of its combat units caused problems of unity of command that became more acute as the Air Corps enlarged in preparation for World War II. This was resolved by the creation of the Army Air Forces, the U. S. Army Air Service had a brief but turbulent history. In early 1926 the Military Affairs Committee of the Congress rejected all bills set forth before it on both sides of the issue. They fashioned a compromise in which the findings of the Morrow Board were enacted as law, while providing the air arm a five-year plan for expansion and development. The legislation changed the name of the Air Service to the Air Corps, thereby strengthening the conception of military aviation as an offensive, the Air Corps Act became law on 2 July 1926. Two additional brigadier generals would serve as assistant chiefs of the Air Corps, previous provisions of the National Defense Act of 1920 that all flying units be commanded only by rated personnel and that flight pay be awarded were continued. The Air Corps also retained the Prop and Wings as its branch insignia through its disestablishment in 1947, patrick became Chief of the Air Corps and Brig. Gen. James E. Fechet continued as his first assistant chief. The Air Corps Act of 2 July 1926 effected no fundamental innovation, the change in designation meant no change in status, the Air Corps was still a combatant branch of the Army with less prestige than the Infantry. The Air Corps Act gave authorization to carry out an expansion program. However, a lack of appropriations caused the beginning of the program to be delayed until 1 July 1927. The act authorized expansion to 1,800 airplanes,1,650 officers, none of the goals were reached by July 1932. Organizationally the Air Corps doubled from seven to fifteen groups, but the expansion was meaningless because all were seriously understrength in aircraft and pilots. Air Corps groups added 1927–1937 ¹Inactivated on 20 May 1937 ²Redesignated 17th Attack Group, 17th Bomb Group As units of the Air Corps increased in number, so did higher command echelons. The 1st Bomb Wing was activated in 1931, followed by the 3rd Attack Wing in 1932 to protect the Mexican border, the three wings became the foundation of General Headquarters Air Force upon its activation in 1935. In 1927 the Air Corps adopted a new scheme for painting its aircraft. The wings and tails of aircraft were painted yellow, with the words U. S
United States Army Air Corps
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United States Army Air Corps Recruiting Poster
United States Army Air Corps
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United States Army Air Corps
United States Army Air Corps
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Formations of
Keystone LB-7s (lower) and
Boeing P-12s (upper) on aerial maneuvers over Burbank, California, 1930
United States Army Air Corps
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O-46A at Wright Field
30.
Navigator
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A navigator is the person on board a ship or aircraft responsible for its navigation. The navigators primary responsibility is to be aware of ship or aircraft position at all times, responsibilities include planning the journey, advising the ships captain or aircraft commander of estimated timing to destinations while en route, and ensuring hazards are avoided. U. S. Coast Guard officers that are shipboard navigators are normally cutter qualified at an analogous to the USN officers previously mentioned. Quartermasters are the navigators enlisted assistants and perform most of the technical navigation duties, aboard ships in the Merchant Marine and Merchant Navy, the second mate is generally the navigator. Navigators are sometimes called air navigators or flight navigators. Modern electronic navigation systems made the civil aviation navigators redundant by the early 1980s, in military aviation, navigators are still actively trained and licensed in some present day air forces, as electronic navigation aids cannot be assumed to be operational during wartime. In the worlds air forces, modern navigators are frequently tasked with weapon systems employment and co-pilot type duties depending on the type, model, a naval ships navigator is responsible for buying and maintaining its nautical charts. A nautical chart, or simply chart, is a representation of a maritime or flight region. Nautical charts are essential tools for marine navigation, many countries require vessels, especially commercial ships, Nautical charting may take the form of charts printed on paper or computerised electronic navigational charts. The nature of a waterway depicted by a chart changes regularly, every producer of navigational charts also provides a system to inform mariners and aviators of changes that affect the chart. Radio broadcasts give advance notice of urgent corrections, a convenient way to keep track of corrections is with a chart and publication correction record card system. When the time comes to use the chart, he pulls the chart and charts card and this system ensures that every chart is properly corrected prior to use. British merchant vessels receive weekly Notices to Mariners issued by the Admiralty, when corrections are received all charts are corrected in the ships folio and recorded in NP133A. This system ensures that all charts are corrected and up to date, in a deep sea vessel with a folio of over three thousand charts this can be a laborious and time-consuming task for the. Various and diverse methods exist for the correction of electronic navigational charts, the nature of waterways described by any given nautical publication changes regularly, and a mariner navigating by use of an old or uncorrected publication is courting disaster. Every producer of nautical publications also provides a system to inform mariners of changes that affect the chart, radio broadcasts give advance notice of urgent corrections. For ensuring that all publications are fully up-to-date, similar methods are employed as for nautical charts, various and diverse methods exist for the correction of electronic nautical publications. The navigator focuses on creating the ships passage plans, before each voyage begins, the navigator should develop a detailed mental model of how the entire voyage will proceed
Navigator
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This page from a
Sailing Directions assists the navigator by providing pictures and descriptions of a harbor approach.
Navigator
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A 1976 United States
NOAA chart of part of
Puerto Rico
Navigator
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Modern navigators often enter passage plans on
electronic systems.
United States
U.S. Army Air Forces
