1.
Oratory of Jesus
–
They are known as Bérullians or Oratorians. The French Oratory had a determinant influence on the French school of spirituality throughout the 17th century and it is separate and distinct from the Oratory of Saint Philip Neri, which served as its inspiration. The aim of the Society is to spiritual life on the human aspect of Jesus. Unlike the Italian Oratory, whose communities are all autonomous, the French Oratory operates under the authority of a Superior General. In France, Bérulle, ordained a priest in 1599, felt that the clergy of the country had lost their spirit, taking the example of the Oratory of Saint Philip Neri in Rome, he envisioned secular clergy living together in community. The Oratory received letters patent from King Louis XIII of France that same year, pope Paul V authorized them on 10 May 1613. At the time of the death in 1629, the Oratory numbered about 400 priests. The church which the Oratorians built on the Rue Saint-Honoré in 1750 became the church of the royal court. Although not an order, it was the first to organize seminaries in France according to the ordinances of the Council of Trent. The Oratorians also became leading figures in the field of education in France and founded their own schools and colleges, in their schools, they taught in French, rather than in Latin, used in the Jesuit schools. They had a curriculum which taught contemporary literature and the sciences and their students learned modern foreign languages as opposed to the classical languages. The Society of Priests of Saint Sulpice was founded in 1641 with the purpose of the education of priests, by Jean-Jacques Olier, john Eudes was a member of the Oratory before leaving to establish the Congregation of Jesus and Mary. When the French Revolution broke out in 1789, initially the Fathers of the Oratory were very supportive of the ideals of liberty that it espoused, which fit into their corporate ethos. Despite this support, the Legislative Assembly of the new Republic dissolved all secular congregations in August 1792 and their communities, some of the lay teachers in their schools, such as Jacques Nicolas Billaud-Varenne, became greatly involved with the Revolution. Of the 288 members of the Oratory at that time,51 chose to accept the Civil Constitution of the Clergy and they made up about one-fifth of the French clergy who did so. Of the rest of the Congregation,15 were arrested and died either in prison or on the guillotine, the rest went into hiding or fled the country. Several attempts were made to re-establish the Congregation after the Catholic Church was allowed to function again in the nation and they were successful only in 1852, under the leadership of the Abbé Joseph Gratry, together with the Abbés Pierre Pététot and Hyacinthe de Valroger. Gratry was a brilliant academic, holding doctorates in both the humanities and theology and he was named the Almoner of the École Normale Supérieure in 1846, which placed him at the center of intellectual life of the period
Oratory of Jesus
–
Cardinal Pierre de Bérulle, founder of the French Oratory
Oratory of Jesus
–
The Oratorian college in
Vendôme, to which the author
Balzac was sent at the age of eight
2.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
3.
Kingdom of France
–
The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
Kingdom of France
–
The Kingdom of France in 1789.
Ancien Régime provinces in
1789.
Kingdom of France
–
Royal Standarda
Kingdom of France
–
Henry IV, by
Frans Pourbus the younger, 1610.
Kingdom of France
–
Louis XIII, by
Philippe de Champaigne, 1647.
4.
University of Paris
–
The University of Paris, metonymically known as the Sorbonne, was a university in Paris, France. Emerging around 1150 as an associated with the cathedral school of Notre Dame de Paris. Vast numbers of popes, royalties, scientists and intellectuals were educated at the University of Paris, following the turbulence of the French Revolution, education was suspended in 1793 whereafter its faculties were partly reorganised by Napoleon as the University of France. In 1896, it was renamed again to the University of Paris, in 1970, following the May 1968 events, the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities. Others, like Panthéon-Sorbonne University, chose to be multidisciplinary, in 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the Notre-Dame cathedral school. The university had four faculties, Arts, Medicine, Law, the Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin, France, Normandy, Picardy, the last came to be known as the Alemannian nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply, the faculty and nation system of the University of Paris became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure, students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the kings laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, students were often very young, entering the school at age 13 or 14 and staying for 6 to 12 years. Three schools were especially famous in Paris, the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, the decline of royalty brought about the decline of the first. The other two were ancient but did not have much visibility in the early centuries, the glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning, the first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres, Drogo of Paris, Manegold of Germany. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abélard, humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and it was completed by the study of Canon law. The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève and it was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor
University of Paris
University of Paris
–
University of Paris
University of Paris
University of Paris
–
The Sorbonne covered by snow.
5.
17th-century philosophy
–
17th-century philosophy in the Western world is generally regarded as being the start of modern philosophy, and a departure from the medieval approach, especially Scholasticism. Early 17th-century philosophy is called the Age of Reason or Age of Rationalism and is considered to succeed the Renaissance philosophy era. In the West, 17th-century philosophy is taken to start with the work of René Descartes. The three main rationalists are normally taken to have been René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried Leibniz, building upon their English predecessor Francis Bacon, the two main empiricists of the 17th-century were Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Thus the rationalists took mathematics as their model for knowledge, and this emphasis on epistemology is at the root of Kants distinction, looking at the various philosophers in terms of their metaphysical, moral, or linguistic theories, they divide up very differently. This period also saw the birth of some of the classics of political thought, especially Thomas Hobbes Leviathan, and John Lockes Two Treatises of Government
17th-century philosophy
–
History of
Western philosophy
6.
Metaphysics
–
Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy exploring the fundamental nature of reality. In this vein, metaphysics seeks to answer two questions, Ultimately, what is there. Topics of metaphysical investigation include existence, objects and their properties, space and time, cause and effect, a central branch of metaphysics is ontology, the investigation into the basic categories of being and how they relate to one another. Another branch is metaphysical cosmology, which seeks to understand the origin, there are two broad conceptions about what world is studied by metaphysics. The strong, classical view assumes that the objects studied by metaphysics exist independently of any observer, the weaker, more modern view assumes that the objects studied by metaphysics exist inside the mind of an observer, so the subject becomes a form of introspection and conceptual analysis. Some philosophers, notably Kant, discuss both of these worlds and what can be inferred about each one, some philosophers and scientists, such as the logical positivists, reject the entire subject of metaphysics as meaningless, while others disagree and think that it is legitimate. Ontology deals with the determination whether categories of being are fundamental and it is the inquiry into being in so much as it is being, or into beings insofar as they exist—and not insofar as particular facts may be obtained about them or particular properties belong to them. Most ontologies assume or assert the existence of categories including objects, properties, space, immediate questions arising from this include the nature of objects. Only properties can be observed directly, so what does it mean for an object to exist, how can we be sure that such objects exist at all. The word is has two uses in English, separated out in ontology. It can denote existence as in there is an elephant in the room, some philosophers also include sub-classing as a third form of is-ness or being, as in the elephant is a mammal. Some philosophers, notably of the Platonic school, contend that all refer to existent entities. Other philosophers contend that nouns do not always name entities, between these poles of realism and nominalism, stand a variety of other positions. An ontology may give an account of which refer to entities, which do not, why. Other controversial categories of objects and properties which may be argued to exist or not include aesthetic and moral properties, stances about the status of such things may form the foundation for other branches of philosophy such as aesthetics, ethics and political philosophy. Identity is a fundamental metaphysical issue, metaphysicians investigating identity are tasked with the question of what, exactly, it means for something to be identical to itself. Other issues of identity arise in the context of time, what does it mean for something to be itself across two moments in time, how do we account for this. Another question of identity arises when we ask what our criteria ought to be for determining identity, and how does the reality of identity interface with linguistic expressions
Metaphysics
–
Plato –
Kant –
Nietzsche
7.
Epistemology
–
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge. Epistemology studies the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief, the term Epistemology was first used by Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in 1854. However, according to Brett Warren, King James VI of Scotland had previously personified this philosophical concept as the character Epistemon in 1591 and this philosophical approach signified a Philomath seeking to obtain greater knowledge through epistemology with the use of theology. The dialogue was used by King James to educate society on various concepts including the history, the word epistemology is derived from the ancient Greek epistēmē meaning knowledge and the suffix -logy, meaning a logical discourse to. J. F. Ferrier coined epistemology on the model of ontology, to designate that branch of philosophy which aims to discover the meaning of knowledge, and called it the true beginning of philosophy. The word is equivalent to the concept Wissenschaftslehre, which was used by German philosophers Johann Fichte, French philosophers then gave the term épistémologie a narrower meaning as theory of knowledge. Émile Meyerson opened his Identity and Reality, written in 1908, in mathematics, it is known that 2 +2 =4, but there is also knowing how to add two numbers, and knowing a person, place, thing, or activity. Some philosophers think there is an important distinction between knowing that, knowing how, and acquaintance-knowledge, with epistemology being primarily concerned with the first of these, while these distinctions are not explicit in English, they are defined explicitly in other languages. In French, Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch to know is translated using connaître, conhecer, conocer, modern Greek has the verbs γνωρίζω and ξέρω. Italian has the verbs conoscere and sapere and the nouns for knowledge are conoscenza and sapienza, German has the verbs wissen and kennen. The verb itself implies a process, you have to go from one state to another and this verb seems to be the most appropriate in terms of describing the episteme in one of the modern European languages, hence the German name Erkenntnistheorie. The theoretical interpretation and significance of linguistic issues remains controversial. In his paper On Denoting and his later book Problems of Philosophy Bertrand Russell stressed the distinction between knowledge by description and knowledge by acquaintance, gilbert Ryle is also credited with stressing the distinction between knowing how and knowing that in The Concept of Mind. This position is essentially Ryles, who argued that a failure to acknowledge the distinction between knowledge that and knowledge how leads to infinite regress and this includes the truth, and everything else we accept as true for ourselves from a cognitive point of view. Whether someones belief is true is not a prerequisite for belief, on the other hand, if something is actually known, then it categorically cannot be false. It would not be accurate to say that he knew that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. By contrast, if the bridge actually supported his weight, then he might say that he had believed that the bridge was safe, whereas now, after proving it to himself, epistemologists argue over whether belief is the proper truth-bearer. Some would rather describe knowledge as a system of justified true propositions, plato, in his Gorgias, argues that belief is the most commonly invoked truth-bearer
Epistemology
–
Plato –
Kant –
Nietzsche
8.
St. Augustine
–
Augustine of Hippo was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. He was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia, Augustine is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are The City of God and Confessions, according to his contemporary, Jerome, Augustine established anew the ancient Faith. In his early years, he was influenced by Manichaeism. After his baptism and conversion to Christianity in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives. Believing that the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin, when the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept of the Church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City. His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview, the segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the Trinity as defined by the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople closely identified with Augustines On the Trinity. Augustine is recognized as a saint in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Christian Church, and he is also the patron of the Augustinians. His memorial is celebrated on 28 August, the day of his death, Augustine is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, the alleviation of sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses. Many Protestants, especially Calvinists and Lutherans, consider him to be one of the fathers of the Protestant Reformation due to his teachings on salvation. Lutherans, and Martin Luther in particular, have held Augustine in preeminence, Luther himself was a member of the Order of the Augustinian Eremites. In the East, some of his teachings are disputed and have in the 20th century in particular come under attack by such theologians as John Romanides, but other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant appropriation of his writings, chiefly Georges Florovsky. The most controversial doctrine surrounding his name is the filioque, which has been rejected by the Orthodox Church, other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and predestination. Nevertheless, though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is considered a saint. In the Orthodox Church his feast day is celebrated on 28 August and he was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. Augustine was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia and he is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are The City of God and Confessions, Augustine was born in the year 354 AD in the municipium of Thagaste in Roman Africa. His mother, Monica or Monnica, was a devout Christian, in his writings, Augustine leaves some information as to the consciousness of his African heritage
St. Augustine
–
Saint Augustine from a 19th-century engraving
St. Augustine
–
The Saint Augustine Taken to School by Saint Monica. by
Niccolò di Pietro 1413-15
St. Augustine
–
The earliest known portrait of Saint Augustine in a 6th-century fresco, Lateran, Rome.
St. Augustine
–
Angelico, Fra. "The Conversion of St. Augustine" (painting).
9.
Descartes
–
René Descartes was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. Dubbed the father of western philosophy, much of subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings. A native of the Kingdom of France, he spent about 20 years of his life in the Dutch Republic, descartess Meditations on First Philosophy continues to be a standard text at most university philosophy departments. He is credited as the father of geometry, the bridge between algebra and geometry, used in the discovery of infinitesimal calculus and analysis. Descartes was also one of the key figures in the scientific revolution, Descartes refused to accept the authority of previous philosophers. He frequently set his views apart from those of his predecessors and his best known philosophical statement is Cogito ergo sum, found in part IV of Discourse on the Method and §7 of part I of Principles of Philosophy. Many elements of his philosophy have precedents in late Aristotelianism, the revived Stoicism of the 16th century, in his theology, he insists on the absolute freedom of Gods act of creation. Leibniz, Spinoza and Descartes were all well-versed in mathematics as well as philosophy, Descartes was born in La Haye en Touraine, France, on 31 March 1596. When he was one old, his mother Jeanne Brochard died after trying to give birth to another child who also died. His father Joachim was a member of the Parlement of Brittany at Rennes, rené lived with his grandmother and with his great-uncle. Although the Descartes family was Roman Catholic, the Poitou region was controlled by the Protestant Huguenots, in 1607, late because of his fragile health, he entered the Jesuit Collège Royal Henry-Le-Grand at La Flèche where he was introduced to mathematics and physics, including Galileos work. From there he moved to Paris, in his book Discourse on the Method, Descartes recalls, I entirely abandoned the study of letters. Descartes, therefore, received encouragement in Breda to advance his knowledge of mathematics. In this way, he acquainted with Isaac Beeckman, principal of a Dordrecht school. Together they worked on free fall, catenary, conic section, both believed that it was necessary to create a method that thoroughly linked mathematics and physics. While in the service of Duke Maximilian of Bavaria since 1619, Descartes was present at the Battle of the White Mountain outside Prague and he visited the labs of Tycho Brahe in Prague and Johannes Kepler in Regensburg. According to Adrien Baillet, on the night of 10–11 November 1619, while stationed in Neuburg an der Donau, while within, he had three visions and believed that a divine spirit revealed to him a new philosophy. Upon exiting, he had formulated analytical geometry and the idea of applying the method to philosophy
Descartes
–
Portrait after
Frans Hals, 1648
Descartes
–
The house where he was born in
La Haye en Touraine
Descartes
–
Graduation registry for Descartes at the
Collège Royal Henry-Le-Grand,
La Flèche, 1616
10.
Theodicy
–
Theodicy, in its most common form, is an attempt to answer the question of why a good God permits the manifestation of evil. Unlike a defense, which tries to demonstrate that Gods existence is possible in the light of evil. The German mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibniz coined the term theodicy in 1710 in his work Théodicée, Irenaeus German philosopher Max Weber saw theodicy as a social problem, based on the human need to explain puzzling aspects of the world. Sociologist Peter L. Berger argued that religion arose out of a need for order. Following the Holocaust, a number of Jewish theologians developed a new response to the problem of evil, sometimes called anti-theodicy, which maintains that God cannot be meaningfully justified. As an alternative to theodicy, a defense has been proposed by the American philosopher Alvin Plantinga, similar to a theodicy, a cosmodicy attempts to justify the fundamental goodness of the universe, and an anthropodicy attempts to justify the goodness of humanity. As defined by Alvin Plantinga, theodicy is the answer to the question of why God permits evil, the word theodicy derives from the Greek words Θεός Τheos and δίκη dikē. Theos is translated God and dikē can be translated as either trial or judgement, thus, theodicy literally means justifying God. In the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Nick Trakakis proposed an additional three requirements which must be contained within a theodicy, Common sense views of the world, widely held historical and scientific opinion. As a response to the problem of evil, a theodicy is distinct from a defence, a defence attempts to demonstrate that the occurrence of evil does not contradict Gods existence, but it does not propose that rational beings are able to understand why God permits evil. A theodicy seeks to show that it is reasonable to believe in God despite evidence of evil in the world, defenses propose solutions to the logical problem of evil, while theodicies attempt to answer the evident problem. German philosopher Max Weber interpreted theodicy as a problem. Weber framed the problem of evil as the dilemma that the good can suffer and the evil can prosper and he identified two purposes of theodicy, to explain why good people suffer, and why people prosper. Sociologist Peter L. Berger characterised religion as the attempt to build order out of a chaotic world. He believed that humans could not accept that anything in the world was meaningless and saw theodicy as an assertion that the cosmos has meaning and order, despite evidence to the contrary. Berger presented an argument similar to that of Weber, but suggested that the need for theodicy arose primarily out of the situation of human society and he believed that theodicies existed to allow individuals to transcend themselves, denying the individual in favour of the social order. The term theodicy was coined by German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz in his 1710 work, written in French, Essais de Théodicée sur la bonté de Dieu, bayle argued that, because the Bible asserts the coexistence of God and evil, this state of affairs must simply be accepted. Voltaire also includes the theme in his novel, Candide
Theodicy
–
Gottfried Leibniz coined the term "theodicy" in an attempt to justify God's existence in light of the apparent imperfections of the world.
11.
Nicolas Malebranche
–
Nicolas Malebranche, Oratory of Jesus, was a French Oratorian priest and rationalist philosopher. In his works, he sought to synthesize the thought of St. Augustine and Descartes, Malebranche is best known for his doctrines of Vision in God, Occasionalism and Ontologism. Malebranche was born in Paris in 1638, the youngest child of Nicolas Malebranche, secretary to King Louis XIII of France, and Catherine de Lauzon, sister of Jean de Lauson, because of a malformed spine, Malebranche received his elementary education from a private tutor. He eventually left the Sorbonne, having rejected scholasticism, and entered the Oratory in 1660, there, he devoted himself to ecclesiastical history, linguistics, the Bible, and the works of Saint Augustine. Malebranche was ordained a priest in 1664, in 1664, Malebranche first read Descartes Treatise on Man, an account of the physiology of the human body. Malebranche’s biographer, Father Yves André reported that Malebranche was influenced by Descartes’ book because it allowed him to view the world without Aristotelian scholasticism. Malebranche spent the next decade studying the Cartesian system, in 1674–75, Malebranche published the two volumes of his first and most extensive philosophical work. Entitled Concerning the Search after Truth, in which is treated the nature of the human mind and the use that must be made of it to avoid error in the sciences, the book laid the foundation for Malebranche’s philosophical reputation and ideas. It dealt with the causes of error and on how to avoid such mistakes. Most importantly, in the book, which discussed pure understanding. Malebranches first critic was the Abbé Simon Foucher, who attacked the Search even before its second volume had been published and these responded to further criticisms, but they also expanded on the original arguments, and developed them in new ways. Malebranche expanded on this last point in 1680 when he published Treatise on Nature, over the next few years, the two men wrote enough polemics against one other to fill four volumes of Malebranches collected works and three of Arnaulds. Arnaulds supporters managed to persuade the Roman Catholic Church to place Nature and Grace on its Index of Prohibited Books in 1690, other critics with whom Malebranche entered into significant discussion include another fellow Cartesian, Pierre Sylvain Regis, as well as Dortous de Mairan. De Mairan was sympathetic to the views of Baruch Spinoza,1638 - Born in Paris to Nicolas Malebranche and Catherine de Lauzon. 1654 - Enters the Collège de la Marche and later the Sorbonne to study philosophy,1660 - Ordained as a member of the French Oratory. 1664 - First reads Descartes Treatise on Man and spends the next ten years studying philosophy, 1674–75 - Publishes The Search After Truth. 1678 - Adds Elucidations to new edition of the Search,1680 - Publishes Treatise Of Nature And Grace. 1683 - Publishes Christian and Metaphysical Meditations, arnauld publishes On True And False Ideas, the opening salvo in their dispute
Nicolas Malebranche
–
Nicolas Malebranche,
Cong. Orat.
12.
Augustine of Hippo
–
Augustine of Hippo was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. He was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia, Augustine is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are The City of God and Confessions, according to his contemporary, Jerome, Augustine established anew the ancient Faith. In his early years, he was influenced by Manichaeism. After his baptism and conversion to Christianity in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives. Believing that the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin, when the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept of the Church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City. His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview, the segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the Trinity as defined by the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople closely identified with Augustines On the Trinity. Augustine is recognized as a saint in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Christian Church, and he is also the patron of the Augustinians. His memorial is celebrated on 28 August, the day of his death, Augustine is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, the alleviation of sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses. Many Protestants, especially Calvinists and Lutherans, consider him to be one of the fathers of the Protestant Reformation due to his teachings on salvation. Lutherans, and Martin Luther in particular, have held Augustine in preeminence, Luther himself was a member of the Order of the Augustinian Eremites. In the East, some of his teachings are disputed and have in the 20th century in particular come under attack by such theologians as John Romanides, but other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant appropriation of his writings, chiefly Georges Florovsky. The most controversial doctrine surrounding his name is the filioque, which has been rejected by the Orthodox Church, other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and predestination. Nevertheless, though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is considered a saint. In the Orthodox Church his feast day is celebrated on 28 August and he was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. Augustine was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia and he is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are The City of God and Confessions, Augustine was born in the year 354 AD in the municipium of Thagaste in Roman Africa. His mother, Monica or Monnica, was a devout Christian, in his writings, Augustine leaves some information as to the consciousness of his African heritage
Augustine of Hippo
–
Saint Augustine from a 19th-century engraving
Augustine of Hippo
–
The Saint Augustine Taken to School by Saint Monica. by
Niccolò di Pietro 1413-15
Augustine of Hippo
–
The earliest known portrait of Saint Augustine in a 6th-century fresco, Lateran, Rome.
Augustine of Hippo
–
Angelico, Fra. "The Conversion of St. Augustine" (painting).
13.
David Hume
–
David Hume was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, who is best known today for his highly influential system of radical philosophical empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism. Humes empiricist approach to philosophy places him with John Locke, Francis Bacon, beginning with his A Treatise of Human Nature, Hume strove to create a total naturalistic science of man that examined the psychological basis of human nature. Humes compatibilist theory of free will takes causal determinism as fully compatible with human freedom, Kant himself credited Hume as the spur to his philosophical thought who had awakened him from his dogmatic slumbers. Arthur Schopenhauer once declared there is more to be learned from each page of David Hume than from the collected philosophical works of Hegel, Herbart. Hume is thus regarded as a pivotal figure in the history of philosophical thought. David Hume was the second of two born to Joseph Home of Ninewells, an advocate, and his wife The Hon. Katherine. He was born on 26 April 1711 in a tenement on the side of the Lawnmarket in Edinburgh. Humes father died when Hume was a child, just after his birthday, and he was raised by his mother. He changed the spelling of his name in 1734, because of the fact that his surname Home, throughout his life Hume, who never married, spent time occasionally at his family home at Ninewells in Berwickshire, which had belonged to his family since the sixteenth century. His finances as a man were very slender. His family was not rich and, as a younger son and he was therefore forced to make a living somehow. Hume attended the University of Edinburgh at the early age of twelve at a time when fourteen was normal. He had little respect for the professors of his time, telling a friend in 1735 that there is nothing to be learnt from a Professor, which is not to be met with in Books. Aged around 18, he made a discovery that opened up to him a new Scene of Thought. He did not recount what this scene was, and commentators have offered a variety of speculations, due to this inspiration, Hume set out to spend a minimum of ten years reading and writing. He soon came to the verge of a breakdown, suffering from what a doctor diagnosed as the Disease of the Learned. Hume wrote that it started with a coldness, which he attributed to a Laziness of Temper, later, some scurvy spots broke out on his fingers. This was what persuaded Humes physician to make his diagnosis, Hume wrote that he went under a Course of Bitters and Anti-Hysteric Pills, taken along with a pint of claret every day
David Hume
–
David Hume
David Hume
–
An engraving of Hume from the first volume of his The History of England, 1754
David Hume
–
David Hume's mausoleum by
Robert Adam
David Hume
–
Statue of Hume by
Alexander Stoddart on the
Royal Mile in Edinburgh
14.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
–
Leibnizs notation has been widely used ever since it was published. It was only in the 20th century that his Law of Continuity and he became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators. He also refined the number system, which is the foundation of virtually all digital computers. Leibniz, along with René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, was one of the three great 17th-century advocates of rationalism and he wrote works on philosophy, politics, law, ethics, theology, history, and philology. Leibnizs contributions to this vast array of subjects were scattered in various learned journals, in tens of thousands of letters and he wrote in several languages, but primarily in Latin, French, and German. There is no complete gathering of the writings of Leibniz in English, Gottfried Leibniz was born on July 1,1646, toward the end of the Thirty Years War, in Leipzig, Saxony, to Friedrich Leibniz and Catharina Schmuck. Friedrich noted in his journal,21. Juny am Sontag 1646 Ist mein Sohn Gottfried Wilhelm, post sextam vespertinam 1/4 uff 7 uhr abents zur welt gebohren, in English, On Sunday 21 June 1646, my son Gottfried Wilhelm is born into the world a quarter after six in the evening, in Aquarius. Leibniz was baptized on July 3 of that year at St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig and his father died when he was six and a half years old, and from that point on he was raised by his mother. Her teachings influenced Leibnizs philosophical thoughts in his later life, Leibnizs father had been a Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Leipzig, and the boy later inherited his fathers personal library. He was given access to it from the age of seven. Access to his fathers library, largely written in Latin, also led to his proficiency in the Latin language and he also composed 300 hexameters of Latin verse, in a single morning, for a special event at school at the age of 13. In April 1661 he enrolled in his fathers former university at age 15 and he defended his Disputatio Metaphysica de Principio Individui, which addressed the principle of individuation, on June 9,1663. Leibniz earned his masters degree in Philosophy on February 7,1664, after one year of legal studies, he was awarded his bachelors degree in Law on September 28,1665. His dissertation was titled De conditionibus, in early 1666, at age 19, Leibniz wrote his first book, De Arte Combinatoria, the first part of which was also his habilitation thesis in Philosophy, which he defended in March 1666. His next goal was to earn his license and Doctorate in Law, in 1666, the University of Leipzig turned down Leibnizs doctoral application and refused to grant him a Doctorate in Law, most likely due to his relative youth. Leibniz then enrolled in the University of Altdorf and quickly submitted a thesis, the title of his thesis was Disputatio Inauguralis de Casibus Perplexis in Jure. Leibniz earned his license to practice law and his Doctorate in Law in November 1666 and he next declined the offer of an academic appointment at Altdorf, saying that my thoughts were turned in an entirely different direction
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
–
Portrait by
Christoph Bernhard Francke
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
–
Engraving of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
–
Stepped Reckoner
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
–
Leibniz's correspondence, papers and notes from 1669-1704,
National Library of Poland.
15.
George Berkeley
–
George Berkeley — known as Bishop Berkeley — was an Irish philosopher whose primary achievement was the advancement of a theory he called immaterialism. Berkeley is also known for his critique of abstraction, an important premise in his argument for immaterialism, in this book, Berkeleys views were represented by Philonous, while Hylas embodies the Irish thinkers opponents, in particular John Locke. Berkeley argued against Sir Isaac Newtons doctrine of space, time and motion in De Motu. His arguments were a precursor to the views of Mach and Einstein and his last major philosophical work, Siris, begins by advocating the medicinal use of tar water and then continues to discuss a wide range of topics, including science, philosophy, and theology. Berkeley was born at his home, Dysart Castle, near Thomastown, County Kilkenny, Ireland, the eldest son of William Berkeley. He was educated at Kilkenny College and attended Trinity College, Dublin, earning a degree in 1704. He remained at Trinity College after completion of his degree as a tutor and his earliest publication was on mathematics, but the first that brought him notice was his An Essay towards a New Theory of Vision, first published in 1709. In the essay, Berkeley examines visual distance, magnitude, position and problems of sight, while this work raised much controversy at the time, its conclusions are now accepted as an established part of the theory of optics. For this theory, the Principles gives the exposition and the Dialogues the defence, one of his main objectives was to combat the prevailing materialism of his time. Shortly afterwards, Berkeley visited England and was received into the circle of Addison, Pope and Steele. In 1721, he took Holy Orders in the Church of Ireland, earning his doctorate in divinity, in 1721/2 he was made Dean of Dromore and, in 1724, Dean of Derry. Swift said generously that he did not grudge Berkeley his inheritance, a story that Berkeley and Marshall disregarded a condition of the inheritance that they must publish the correspondence between Swift and Vanessa is probably untrue. In 1725, he began the project of founding a college in Bermuda for training ministers and missionaries in the colony, in 1728, he married Anne Forster, daughter of John Forster, Chief Justice of the Irish Common Pleas. He then went to America on a salary of £100 per annum and he landed near Newport, Rhode Island, where he bought a plantation at Middletown – the famous Whitehall. It has been claimed that he introduced Palladianism into America by borrowing a design from Kents Designs of Inigo Jones for the door-case of his house in Rhode Island, Whitehall. He also brought to New England John Smibert, the British artist he discovered in Italy, meanwhile, he drew up plans for the ideal city he planned to build on Bermuda. He lived at the plantation while he waited for funds for his college to arrive, the funds, however, were not forthcoming, and in 1732 he left America and returned to London. While living in Londons Saville Street, he took part in efforts to create a home for the abandoned children
George Berkeley
–
Portrait of Berkeley by
John Smybert, 1727
16.
Giambattista Vico
–
Giambattista Vico was an Italian political philosopher and rhetorician, historian, and jurist, recognized as a great intellectual of the Age of Enlightenment. He criticized the expansion and development of rationalism and was an apologist for Classical Antiquity, Vico is best known for his magnum opus. Although not an historicist, interest in Vico usually has been driven by historicists, such as Isaiah Berlin, moreover, Giambattista Vico also is known for the Latin aphorism Verum esse ipsum factum, which proposition is an early instance of constructivist epistemology. Evidence from his work points to the likelihood Vico was mostly self-taught. According to Costelloe, this was due to his fathers influence on him during an absence from school caused by a fall at the age of seven. Vico received his higher education at the University of Naples from which he graduated in 1694 as Doctor of Civil. After a bout of typhus in 1686, he accepted a position in Vatolla, south of Salerno. In 1699, he married a friend, Teresa Caterina Destito. Throughout his career, Vico would aspire to, but never attain, in 1734, however, he was appointed historiographer royal by Charles III, king of Naples, and was offered a salary far surpassing that of his professorship. Vico retained the chair of rhetoric until ill-health forced him to retire in 1741, the New Science is his major work and has been highly influential in the philosophy of history, and for historicists like Isaiah Berlin and Hayden White. Vico is best known for his verum factum principle, first formulated in 1710 as part of his De antiquissima Italorum sapientia, ex linguae latinae originibus eruenda. The principle states that truth is verified through creation or invention and not, as per Descartes, through observation, “The criterion, accordingly, our clear and distinct idea of the mind cannot be a criterion of the mind itself, still less of other truths. For while the mind itself, it does not make itself. ”This criterion for truth would later shape the history of civilization in Vico’s opus. Vicos version of rhetoric is often seen as the result of both his humanist and pedagogic concerns, as Royal Professor of Latin Eloquence, it was Vico’s task to prepare students for higher studies in law and jurisprudence. His lessons thus dealt with the aspects of the rhetorical canon, including arrangement. Yet as the above oration also makes clear, Vico chose to emphasize the Aristotelian connection of rhetoric with dialectic or logic, Vicos objection to modern rhetoric is that it cuts itself off from common sense, as the sense common to all men. Probability and circumstance retain their proportionate importance, and discovery – reliant upon topics or loci – supersedes axioms derived through reflective abstraction. In the tradition of classical Roman rhetoric, Vico sets out to educate the orator as the deliverer of the oratio, in the tradition of Socrates and Cicero, Vicos real orator or rhetorician will serve as midwife in the birth of the true out of the certain
Giambattista Vico
–
Giambattista Vico
17.
Montesquieu
–
He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, which is implemented in many constitutions throughout the world. He is also known for doing more than any author to secure the place of the word despotism in the political lexicon. Montesquieu was born at the Château de la Brède in southwest France,25 kilometres south of Bordeaux and his father, Jacques de Secondat, was a soldier with a long noble ancestry. His mother, Marie Françoise de Pesnel, who died when Charles was seven, was an heiress who brought the title of Barony of La Brède to the Secondat family. After the death of his mother he was sent to the Catholic College of Juilly, a prominent school for the children of French nobility and his father died in 1713 and he became a ward of his uncle, the Baron de Montesquieu. He became a counselor of the Bordeaux Parliament in 1714, in 1715 he married Jeanne de Lartigue, a Protestant, who eventually bore him three children. The Baron died in 1716, leaving him his fortune as well as his title, Montesquieus early life occurred at a time of significant governmental change. England had declared itself a constitutional monarchy in the wake of its Glorious Revolution, in France the long-reigning Louis XIV died in 1715 and was succeeded by the five-year-old Louis XV. These national transformations had a impact on Montesquieu, he would refer to them repeatedly in his work. Montesquieu withdrew from the practice of law to himself to study. De lEsprit des Lois was originally published anonymously in 1748, the book quickly rose to influence political thought profoundly in Europe and America. In France, the met with an unfriendly reception from both supporters and opponents of the regime. The Catholic Church banned lEsprit – along with many of Montesquieus other works – in 1751 and it received the highest praise from the rest of Europe, especially Britain. Montesquieu was also regarded in the British colonies in North America as a champion of liberty. Following the American revolution, Montesquieus work remained an influence on many of the American founders, most notably James Madison of Virginia. He was buried in the Église Saint-Sulpice, Paris, Montesquieus philosophy of history minimized the role of individual persons and events. Ask the Romans, who had a sequence of successes when they were guided by a certain plan. There are general causes, moral and physical, which act in every monarchy, elevating it, maintaining it, all accidents are controlled by these causes
Montesquieu
–
Château de la Brède
Montesquieu
–
A painting of Montesquieu
Montesquieu
–
The title page of the first volume of Montesquieu's
De l'Esprit des loix (1st ed., 1748)
18.
J.-J. Rousseau
–
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Francophone Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of the 18th century. His political philosophy influenced the Enlightenment in France and across Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolution, Rousseaus novel Emile, or On Education is a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. His sentimental novel Julie, or the New Heloise was of importance to the development of pre-romanticism and romanticism in fiction and his Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract are cornerstones in modern political and social thought. During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most popular of the philosophes among members of the Jacobin Club and he was interred as a national hero in the Panthéon in Paris, in 1794,16 years after his death. Rousseau was born in Geneva, which was at the time a city-state, since 1536, Geneva had been a Huguenot republic and the seat of Calvinism. Rousseau was proud that his family, of the order, had voting rights in the city. Throughout his life, he signed his books Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Geneva, in theory, was governed democratically by its male voting citizens, the citizens were a minority of the population when compared to the immigrants, referred to as inhabitants, whose descendants were called natives and continued to lack suffrage. There was much debate within Geneva, extending down to the tradespeople. Much discussion was over the idea of the sovereignty of the people, in 1707, a democratic reformer named Pierre Fatio protested this situation, saying a sovereign that never performs an act of sovereignty is an imaginary being. He was shot by order of the Little Council, Jean-Jacques Rousseaus father, Isaac, was not in the city at this time, but Jean-Jacquess grandfather supported Fatio and was penalized for it. The trade of watchmaking had become a tradition by the time of Rousseaus father. Isaac followed his grandfather, father and brothers into the business, Isaac, notwithstanding his artisan status, was well educated and a lover of music. A Genevan watchmaker, Rousseau wrote, is a man who can be introduced anywhere, in 1699, Isaac ran into political difficulty by entering a quarrel with visiting English officers, who in response drew their swords and threatened him. After local officials stepped in, it was Isaac who was punished, Rousseaus mother, Suzanne Bernard Rousseau, was from an upper-class family. She was raised by her uncle Samuel Bernard, a Calvinist preacher and he cared for Suzanne after her father Jacques died in his early thirties. In 1695, Suzanne had to answer charges that she had attended a street theater disguised as a peasant woman so she could gaze upon M. Vincent Sarrasin, after a hearing, she was ordered by the Genevan Consistory to never interact with him again. She married Rousseaus father at the age of 31, isaacs sister had married Suzannes brother eight years earlier, after she had become pregnant and they had been chastised by the Consistory
J.-J. Rousseau
–
Rousseau in 1753, by
Maurice Quentin de La Tour
J.-J. Rousseau
–
The house where Rousseau was born at number 40, Grand-Rue.
J.-J. Rousseau
–
Les Charmettes, where Rousseau lived with
Mme. de Warens in 1735–6, now a museum dedicated to Rousseau.
J.-J. Rousseau
–
Palazzo belonging to Tommaso Querini at 968 Cannaregio
Venice that served as the French Embassy during Rousseau's period as Secretary to the Ambassador
19.
Joseph de Maistre
–
Joseph-Marie, comte de Maistre was a Savoyard philosopher, writer, lawyer, and diplomat. He defended hierarchical societies and a monarchical State in the immediately following the French Revolution. Maistre was a subject of the King of Piedmont-Sardinia, whom he served as member of the Savoy Senate, ambassador to Russia and he called for the restoration of the House of Bourbon to the throne of France and argued that the Pope should have ultimate authority in temporal matters. Maistre also claimed that it was the rationalist rejection of Christianity which was responsible for the disorder. Maistre was born in 1753 at Chambéry, in the Duchy of Savoy and his family was of French and Italian origin. His mothers family, whose surname was Desmotz, were from Rumilly, josephs younger brother, Xavier, who became an army officer, was a popular writer of fiction. Joseph was probably educated by the Jesuits, after the Revolution, he became an ardent defender of their Order, increasingly associating the spirit of the Revolution with the Jesuits traditional enemies, the Jansenists. After completing his training in the law at the University of Turin in 1774, as a landowner in France, Maistre was eligible to join that body, and there is some evidence that he contemplated that possibility. He was alarmed, however, by the decision of the States-General to combine clergy, aristocracy, and commoners into a legislative body. After the passing of the August Decrees on 4 August 1789 he decisively turned against the course of events in France. Maistre fled Chambéry when it was taken by a French revolutionary army in 1792, deciding that he could not support the French-controlled regime, he departed again, this time for Lausanne, in Switzerland. From Lausanne, Maistre went to Venice, and then to Cagliari, where the King of Piedmont-Sardinia held the court, Maistres relations with the court at Cagliari were not always easy and in 1802 he was sent to Saint Petersburg in Russia, as ambassador to Tsar Alexander I. Maistres observations on Russian life, contained in his memoirs and in his personal correspondence, were among Tolstoys sources for his novel War. He died on 26 February 1821 and is buried in the Jesuit Church of the Holy Martyrs, in Considérations sur la France, Maistre claimed that France has a divine mission as the principal instrument of good and evil on Earth. He claimed that the crimes of the Reign of Terror were the consequence of Enlightened thought. Maistre therefore argued that the legitimacy of government must be based on compelling but non-rational grounds, Maistre went on to argue that authority in politics should therefore derive from religion, and that in Europe this religious authority must ultimately lie with the Pope. In his own words, which he addressed to a group of aristocratic French émigrés, before, this was an instinct, but today it is a science. You must love the sovereign as you love order, with all the forces of intelligence, Maistres analysis of the problem of authority and its legitimacy foreshadows some of the concerns of early sociologists such as Comte and Saint-Simon
Joseph de Maistre
–
Portrait of de Maistre by
von Vogelstein, c. 1810.
Joseph de Maistre
–
Lithograph of Maistre, from a painting by
Pierre Bouillon. He is shown wearing the insignia of the
Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus.
Joseph de Maistre
–
Portrait by Swiss painter
Félix Vallotton, from La Revue blanche, 1er semestre, 1895.
20.
Louis Gabriel Ambroise de Bonald
–
Louis de Bonald, properly Louis Gabriel Ambroise, Vicomte de Bonald, was a French counter-revolutionary philosopher and politician. Mainly, he is remembered for developing a set of theories that exercised a powerful influence in shaping the ontological framework from which French sociology would emerge. Bonald came from an ancient noble family of Provence and he was educated at the Oratorian college at Juilly, and after serving with the Artillery, he held a post in the local administration of his native province. Elected to the States General of 1789 as a deputy for Aveyron, he opposed the new legislation on the civil status of the clergy. There he joined the army of the Prince of Condé, soon settling in Heidelberg, upon returning to France, he found himself an object of suspicion and at first lived in retirement. In 1806, he, along with Chateaubriand and Joseph Fiévée, two years later, he was appointed counsellor of the Imperial University, which he had often attacked previously. After the Bourbon Restoration he was a member of the council of public instruction, from 1815 to 1822, de Bonald served as a deputy in the French National Assembly. His speeches were extremely conservative and he advocated literary censorship, in 1825, he argued strongly in favor of the Anti-Sacrilege Act, including its prescription of the death penalty under certain conditions. In 1822, de Bonald was made Minister of State, in the following year, he was made a peer, a dignity which he had lost by refusing to take the required oath in 1803. In 1816, he was appointed to the French Academy, in 1830, he retired from public life and spent the remainder of his days on his estate at Le Monna. De Bonald had four sons, two of whom, Victor and Louis, led lives of some note, Bonald was one of the leading writers of the theocratic or traditionalist school, which included de Maistre, Lamennais, Ballanche and baron Ferdinand dEckstein. His writings are mainly on social and political philosophy, and are based ultimately on one great principle, in his own words, Lhomme pense sa parole avant de parler sa pensée, the first language contained the essence of all truth. From this he deduces the existence of God, the origin and consequent supreme authority of the Holy Scriptures. While this thought lies at the root of all his speculations, all relations may be stated as the triad of cause, means and effect, which he sees repeated throughout nature. These three terms bear specific relations to one another, the first is to the second as the second to the third, thus, in the great triad of the religious world—God, the Mediator, and Man—God is to the God-Man as the God-Man is to Man. On this basis, he constructed a system of political absolutism, monarchy considers man in his ties with society, a republic considers man independently of his relations to society. Man thinks his word before he speaks his thought, or, in other words, the deist is a man who in his short existence has not had time to become an atheist. 1796, Théorie du Pouvoir Politique et Religieux,1800, Essai Analytique sur les Lois Naturelles de l’Ordre Social
Louis Gabriel Ambroise de Bonald
–
Louis de Bonald, by
Julien-Léopold Boilly.
21.
Louis Lavelle
–
Louis Lavelle was a French philosopher. His magnum opus, La Dialectique de léternel présent, is a metaphysical work. Lavelles other principal works include De lÊtre, De lActe, Du Temps et de lEternité, and De lÂme Humaine. From the inside dust jacket cover of his book Evil and Suffering, Louis Lavelle was born in France in 1883 and died there in 1951, one of the most prominent Christian Philosophers of our time. He was Professor at the College de France, at the Sorbonne, in 1947 he was recognized for his many philosophical and religious writings, and named to the Académie des sciences morales et politiques. Evil and Suffering is the first of his works to be published in this country. It is presented in full on the website of the Association Louis Lavelle under « Traductions », analyses and critiques in English James Collins published the article Louis Lavelle on Human Participation in The Philosophical Review vol 56, no. Walter J. Colin Smith devotes a chapter to discussing Lavelles work in Contemporary French Philosophy, A Study in Norms, marvin Farber includes an essay by Lavelle in the collection Philosophic Thought in France and the United States, Essays Representing Major Trends in Contemporary French and American Philosophy. Analyses and critiques in French Bechara Sargi, La Participation à lêtre dans la philosophie de Louis Lavelle, Éditions Beauchesne, Paris,1957
Louis Lavelle
–
Louis Lavelle
22.
Jacob Bernoulli
–
Jacob Bernoulli was one of the many prominent mathematicians in the Bernoulli family. He was a proponent of Leibnizian calculus and had sided with Leibniz during the Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy. He is known for his numerous contributions to calculus, and along with his brother Johann, was one of the founders of the calculus of variations and he also discovered the fundamental mathematical constant e. However, his most important contribution was in the field of probability, Jacob Bernoulli was born in Basel, Switzerland. Following his fathers wish, he studied theology and entered the ministry, but contrary to the desires of his parents, he also studied mathematics and astronomy. He traveled throughout Europe from 1676 to 1682, learning about the latest discoveries in mathematics and this included the work of Johannes Hudde, Robert Boyle, and Robert Hooke. During this time he produced an incorrect theory of comets. Bernoulli returned to Switzerland and began teaching mechanics at the University in Basel from 1683, in 1684 he married Judith Stupanus, and they had two children. During this decade, he began a fertile research career. His travels allowed him to establish correspondence with many leading mathematicians and scientists of his era, during this time, he studied the new discoveries in mathematics, including Christiaan Huygenss De ratiociniis in aleae ludo, Descartes Geometrie and Frans van Schootens supplements of it. He also studied Isaac Barrow and John Wallis, leading to his interest in infinitesimal geometry, apart from these, it was between 1684 and 1689 that many of the results that were to make up Ars Conjectandi were discovered. He was appointed professor of mathematics at the University of Basel in 1687, by that time, he had begun tutoring his brother Johann Bernoulli on mathematical topics. The two brothers began to study the calculus as presented by Leibniz in his 1684 paper on the calculus in Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis published in Acta Eruditorum. They also studied the publications of von Tschirnhaus and it must be understood that Leibnizs publications on the calculus were very obscure to mathematicians of that time and the Bernoullis were the first to try to understand and apply Leibnizs theories. Jacob collaborated with his brother on various applications of calculus, by 1697, the relationship had completely broken down. His grave is in Basel Munster or Cathedral where the gravestone shown below is located, the lunar crater Bernoulli is also named after him jointly with his brother Johann. Jacob Bernoullis first important contributions were a pamphlet on the parallels of logic and algebra published in 1685, work on probability in 1685 and his geometry result gave a construction to divide any triangle into four equal parts with two perpendicular lines. By 1689 he had published important work on series and published his law of large numbers in probability theory
Jacob Bernoulli
–
Jakob Bernoulli
Jacob Bernoulli
–
Jacob Bernoulli's grave.
23.
French people
–
The French are an ethnic group and nation who are identified with the country of France. This connection may be legal, historical, or cultural, modern French society can be considered a melting pot. To be French, according to the first article of the French Constitution, is to be a citizen of France, regardless of origin, race. The debate concerning the integration of this view with the underlying the European Community remains open. A large number of foreigners have traditionally been permitted to live in France, indeed, the country has long valued its openness, tolerance and the quality of services available. Application for French citizenship is often interpreted as a renunciation of previous state allegiance unless a dual citizenship agreement exists between the two countries, the European treaties have formally permitted movement and European citizens enjoy formal rights to employment in the state sector. Seeing itself as a nation with universal values, France has always valued. However, the success of such assimilation has recently called into question. There is increasing dissatisfaction with, and within, growing ethno-cultural enclaves, the 2005 French riots in some troubled and impoverished suburbs were an example of such tensions. However they should not be interpreted as ethnic conflicts but as social conflicts born out of socioeconomic problems endangering proper integration, the name France etymologically derives from the word Francia, the territory of the Franks. The Franks were a Germanic tribe that overran Roman Gaul at the end of the Roman Empire, in the pre-Roman era, all of Gaul was inhabited by a variety of peoples who were known collectively as the Gaulish tribes. Gaul was militarily conquered in 58-51 BCE by the Roman legions under the command of General Julius Caesar, the area then became part of the Roman Empire. Over the next five centuries the two cultures intermingled, creating a hybridized Gallo-Roman culture, the Gaulish vernacular language disappeared step by step to be replaced everywhere by Vulgar Latin, which would later develop under Frankish influence into the French language in the North of France. With the decline of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, a federation of Germanic peoples entered the picture, the Franks were Germanic pagans who began to settle in northern Gaul as laeti, already during the Roman era. They continued to filter across the Rhine River from present-day Netherlands, at the beginning, they served in the Roman army and reached high commands. Their language is spoken as a kind of Dutch in northern France. Another Germanic people immigrated massively to Alsace, the Alamans, which explains the Alemannic German spoken there and they were competitors of the Franks, thats why it became at the Renaissance time the word for German in French, Allemand. By the early 6th century the Franks, led by the Merovingian king Clovis I and his sons, had consolidated their hold on much of modern-day France, the Vikings eventually intermarried with the local people, converting to Christianity in the process
French people
–
Louis XIV of France "The Sun-King"
French people
–
Row 1:
Joan of Arc
French people
–
Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix
French people
–
French people in Paris, August 1944
24.
Congregation of the Oratory of Saint Philip Neri
–
They are commonly referred to as Oratorians. This Congregation of the Oratory should not be confused with the French Oratory, a distinct congregation, founded in Rome in 1575 by St. Philip Neri, today it has spread around the world, with over 70 Oratories and some 500 priests. The post-nominal initials commonly used to identify members of the society are C. O, normally an oratory must have a minimum of four members, two being ordained, in order to be founded. The Congregation of the Oratory was founded by St. Philip Neri in the city of Rome, the first Oratory received papal recognition in 1575. The new community was to be a congregation of priests living under obedience. Like Jesus, he was able to enter into the human misery present in the noble palaces. The core of St. Philips spirituality focused on a return to the lifestyle of the first Disciples of Christ. The object of the institute is threefold, prayer, preaching, up to 1800 the Oratory continued to spread through Italy, Sicily, Spain, Portugal, Poland, and other European countries, in South America, Brazil, India, and Ceylon. Under Napoleon I the Oratory was in various places despoiled and suppressed, a few houses were founded in Munich and Vienna. There are eighty six Congregations of the Oratory throughout the world, each Community is autonomous, but there is a Confederation which facilitates contact with the Holy See. As such, the Congregation of the Oratory functions more like a federation than like a religious institute. The second is the Particular Statutes, which outline how an individual Oratory is to be conducted, the third document is the Constitutions, which establish general norms, and outline the relationship between the Congregation and the Holy See. As the Oratory is a confederation, there is no central authority such as is found within the Dominicans, Franciscans, the definitive foundation of an Oratorian Congregation is actually done by the Roman Pontiff directly, which makes a Congregation what is called a “Pontifical Right” foundation. This person, known as Procurator General, resides in Rome at the Procura General, an Oratorian resides in an Oratory community of his choosing and is permanently stable, i. e. he is not subject to transfer to other Oratories or communities. Oratorians have what is called stability, which means they are committed as members of the community of a particular Oratory, though a member may move if there is a serious enough reason. Oratorians normally have a set each day for praying together in silent meditation. Some oratories are specifically connected with parishes and thus its members serve as clergy of the parish, as Oratorians are secular clergy, they wear roughly the same dress as parish priests. However, the cassock is fastened with a set of buttons curved from the top to the righthand side
Congregation of the Oratory of Saint Philip Neri
–
St. Philip Neri
Congregation of the Oratory of Saint Philip Neri
–
Emblem of the Congregation of the Oratory of St. Philip Neri
Congregation of the Oratory of Saint Philip Neri
–
John Henry Newman and the Oratorian collar
25.
Catholic priest
–
The ministerial orders of the Roman Catholic Church are those of bishop, presbyter, and deacon. The ordained priesthood and the priesthood are different in function. The Catholic Church teaches that when a man participates in priesthood, unlike usage in English, the Latin words sacerdos and sacerdotium are used to refer in general to the ministerial priesthood shared by bishops and presbyters. The words presbyter, presbyterium and presbyteratus refer to priests in the English use of the word or presbyters. According to the Annuario Pontificio 2016, as of December 31,2014, there were 415,792 Catholic priests worldwide, a priest of the regular clergy is commonly addressed with the title Father. The state of consecrated life or monasticism is a separate, third distinct vocational state from the clergy, as an overview, there are the members of the laity- who are married or unmarried, and the clergy- the bishops, priests, and deacons. Members of institutes of consecrated life, or monks, can be either clergy or non-ordained members of the religious order. Those ordained priests or deacons who are not members of some sort of religious order most often serve as clergy to a church or in an office of a specific diocese or in Rome. The priest was understood as a mediator between God and human beings who offers sacrifices and intercedes for the people, the Catholic priesthood is a participation in this priesthood of Christ, and therefore traces its origins to Jesus Christ himself. Thus, the New Testament says that as high priest, Jesus has made the Church a kingdom of priests for his God and Father. All who are baptized are given a share in the priesthood of Christ, the whole community of believers is, as such, priestly. The ministerial priesthood of Catholic priests and bishops — what most people think of as the Catholic priesthood — has a distinct history. It is understood to have begun at the Last Supper, when Jesus Christ instituted the Eucharist in the presence of the Twelve Apostles, the Catholic priesthood, therefore, is a share in the priesthood of Christ and traces its historical origins to the Twelve Apostles appointed by Christ. Those apostles in turn selected other men to succeed them as the bishops of the Christian communities, with whom were associated presbyters and deacons. As communities multiplied and grew in size, the bishops appointed more and more presbyters to preside at the Eucharist in place of the bishop in the communities in each region. The diaconate evolved as the assistants of the bishop and his delegate for the administration of Church funds. In the decade of the 2010s, catholic priests as a group garnered public attention due to the cases of sexual abuse of children by catholic clergy being revealed. The theology of the Catholic priesthood is rooted in the priesthood of Christ, a priest is one who presides over a sacrifice and offers that sacrifice and prayers to God on behalf of believers
Catholic priest
–
Saint Peter
Catholic priest
–
Ordination to the priesthood (
Latin rite). Devotional card, 1925.
Catholic priest
–
During the rite of ordination, after the bishop the priest present lay their hands on the ordinands
Catholic priest
–
A
Ukrainian Catholic priest at a
St. Joseph the Betrothed Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church (His wedding ring appears on his right hand as per
Byzantine tradition).
26.
Philosophy
–
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The term was coined by Pythagoras. Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument and systematic presentation, classic philosophical questions include, Is it possible to know anything and to prove it. However, philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete questions such as, is it better to be just or unjust. Historically, philosophy encompassed any body of knowledge, from the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century, natural philosophy encompassed astronomy, medicine and physics. For example, Newtons 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics, in the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize. In the modern era, some investigations that were part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines, including psychology, sociology. Other investigations closely related to art, science, politics, or other pursuits remained part of philosophy, for example, is beauty objective or subjective. Are there many scientific methods or just one, is political utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy. Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, logic, philosophy of science, since the 20th century, professional philosophers contribute to society primarily as professors, researchers and writers. Traditionally, the term referred to any body of knowledge. In this sense, philosophy is related to religion, mathematics, natural science, education. This division is not obsolete but has changed, Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and cosmology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, but still includes value theory, metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathematics and philosophy of science, but still includes epistemology, cosmology and others. Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today, colin McGinn and others claim that no philosophical progress has occurred during that interval. Chalmers and others, by contrast, see progress in philosophy similar to that in science, in one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture and a search for knowledge. In that sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions such as how are we to live, a broad and impartial conception of philosophy then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality and life in all world civilizations. Socrates was an influential philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no wisdom but was a pursuer of wisdom
Philosophy
–
René Descartes
Philosophy
–
Thomas Aquinas
Philosophy
–
Jeremy Bentham
Philosophy
–
Thomas Hobbes
27.
God
–
In monotheism, God is conceived of as the Supreme Being and principal object of faith. The concept of God as described by most theologians includes the attributes of omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, divine simplicity, many theologians also describe God as being omnibenevolent and all loving. Furthermore, some religions attribute only a purely grammatical gender to God, incorporeity and corporeity of God are related to conceptions of transcendence and immanence of God, with positions of synthesis such as the immanent transcendence of Chinese theology. God has been conceived as personal or impersonal. In theism, God is the creator and sustainer of the universe, while in deism, God is the creator, in pantheism, God is the universe itself. In atheism, God is not believed to exist, while God is deemed unknown or unknowable within the context of agnosticism, God has also been conceived as the source of all moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable existent. Many notable philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence of God, there are many names for God, and different names are attached to different cultural ideas about Gods identity and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era of Atenism, possibly the earliest recorded monotheistic religion, this deity was called Aten, premised on being the one true Supreme Being and creator of the universe. In the Hebrew Bible and Judaism, He Who Is, I Am that I Am, in the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, God, consubstantial in three persons, is called the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In Judaism, it is common to refer to God by the titular names Elohim or Adonai, in Islam, the name Allah is used, while Muslims also have a multitude of titular names for God. In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered a concept of God. In Chinese religion, God is conceived as the progenitor of the universe, intrinsic to it, other religions have names for God, for instance, Baha in the Baháí Faith, Waheguru in Sikhism, and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism. The earliest written form of the Germanic word God comes from the 6th-century Christian Codex Argenteus, the English word itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic * ǥuđan. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * ǵhu-tó-m was likely based on the root * ǵhau-, in the English language, the capitalized form of God continues to represent a distinction between monotheistic God and gods in polytheism. The same holds for Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given a proper name, in many translations of the Bible, when the word LORD is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the tetragrammaton. Allāh is the Arabic term with no plural used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning The God, Ahura Mazda is the name for God used in Zoroastrianism. Mazda, or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå and it is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit, and like its Sanskrit cognate medhā, means intelligence or wisdom. Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdhā-, from Proto-Indo-European mn̩sdʰeh1, literally meaning placing ones mind, Waheguru is a term most often used in Sikhism to refer to God
God
–
"God the Father", a representation of the theistic version of God, by
Ludovico Mazzolino (1480 –
c. 1528)
God
–
Detail of
Sistine Chapel fresco Creation of the Sun and Moon by
Michelangelo (c. 1512), a well-known example of the depiction of
God the Father in Western art
God
–
Depiction of God in the Catholic Church, Latin America
God
–
St. Thomas Aquinas summarized
five arguments which he believed were proof for the existence of God
28.
Louis XIII of France
–
Louis XIII was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1610 to 1643 and King of Navarre from 1610 to 1620, when the crown of Navarre was merged with the French crown. Shortly before his birthday, Louis became king of France. His mother, Marie de Medici, acted as regent during his minority, Louis XIII, taciturn and suspicious, relied heavily on his chief ministers, first Charles dAlbert, duc de Luynes then Cardinal Richelieu, to govern the kingdom of France. King and cardinal are remembered for establishing the Académie française, the reign of Louis the Just was also marked by the struggles against Huguenots and Habsburg Spain. This battle marked the end of Spains military ascendancy in Europe and foreshadowed French dominance in Europe under Louis XIV, his son, born at the Château de Fontainebleau, Louis XIII was the oldest child of King Henry IV of France and his second wife Marie de Medici. As son of the king, he was a Fils de France and his father Henry IV was the first French king of the House of Bourbon, having succeeded his ninth cousin, Henry III of France, in application of Salic law. Louis XIIIs paternal grandparents were Antoine de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme and his maternal grandparents were Francesco I de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Joanna of Austria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany. Eleonora de Medici, his aunt, was his godmother. His mother Marie de Medici acted as Regent until 1617, although Louis XIII became of age at thirteen, his mother did not give up her position as Regent until 1617. Marie maintained most of her husbands ministers, with the exception of Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully and she mainly relied on Nicolas de Neufville, seigneur de Villeroy, Noël Brûlart de Sillery, and Pierre Jeannin for political advice. Marie pursued a policy, confirming the Edict of Nantes. She was not, however, able to prevent rebellion by nobles such as Henri, Prince of Condé second in line to the throne after Maries second surviving son Gaston, Duke of Orléans. Condé squabbled with Marie in 1614, and briefly raised an army, but he found support in the country. Nevertheless, Marie agreed to call an Estates General assembly to address Condés grievances, the assembly of this Estates General was delayed until Louis XIII formally came of age on his thirteenth birthday. Although Louiss coming-of-age formally ended Maries Regency, she remained the de facto ruler of France, the Estates General accomplished little, spending its time discussing the relationship of France to the Papacy and the venality of offices, but reaching no resolutions. Beginning in 1615, Marie came to rely increasingly on the Italian Concino Concini, Concini was widely unpopular because he was a foreigner. This further antagonised Condé, who launched another rebellion in 1616, Huguenot leaders supported Condés rebellion, which led the young Louis XIII to conclude that they would never be loyal subjects. Eventually, Condé and Queen Marie made peace via the Treaty of Loudun, which allowed Condé great power in government, but did not remove Concini
Louis XIII of France
–
Louis XIII
Louis XIII of France
–
Half Louis d'Or (1643) depicting Louis XIII
Louis XIII of France
–
Louis XIII in 1611 by
Frans Pourbus the Younger (
Palazzo Pitti)
Louis XIII of France
–
Louis XIII, young King, by
Frans Pourbus the younger, 1620
29.
Jean de Lauson
–
Jean de Lauzon or de Lauson was the Governor of New France from 1651 to 1657, one of the most challenging times for the new colony. A prominent lawyer in France, in 1613 Lauzon was appointed a counsellor in the Parliament and he served in several government positions, including president of the Grand Conseil, intendant of Provence, then of Guyenne, and of Dauphiné. He had been developing interests in the colony of New France and he was a founding member and became the director of the Compagnie des Cent-Associés. Lauzon used his influence within the company to land for himself. By 1640, the Lauzons had become the biggest landowners in the colony and their properties included the Island of Montreal and Île dOrléans. Lauzon was appointed as Governor in 1651 and he moved with his three sons — including François, the eldest, who was a member of Parliament for Bordeaux — to the colony. His wife had earlier died in France. All three sons married into other founding families of the colony after having set up with various lands. The establishment of Lauzons family in the colony was intended to inspire confidence amongst the settlers. He was the first governor to pursue this type of policy, in 1653, Lauzon negotiated a peace treaty with the Mohawk, an Iroquois nation based in what is now New York. It ended their attacks on French settlers and reduced the threat to the colony for some years, afterward, he accorded to himself the monopoly on the fur trade, settlers sought to open the trade by petitioning King Louis XIV. The king responded by ordering the fur trade to be reopened to all colonists, Lauzon returned to France, where he continued his business and political career. He died in 1666 at the age of 83, in Paris, one of his descendents, Marie-Catherine-Antoinette de Lauson, married Roland-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière, who also served as Governor of Canada. Lauzon, Quebec was named in his honour in 1867
Jean de Lauson
–
Jean de Lauzon
30.
Theology
–
Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as a discipline, typically in universities, seminaries. Augustine of Hippo defined the Latin equivalent, theologia, as reasoning or discussion concerning the Deity, the term can, however, be used for a variety of different disciplines or fields of study. Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument to help understand, explain, test, critique, the English equivalent theology had evolved by 1362. Greek theologia was used with the discourse on god in the fourth century BC by Plato in The Republic, Book ii. Drawing on Greek Stoic sources, the Latin writer Varro distinguished three forms of discourse, mythical, rational and civil. Theologos, closely related to theologia, appears once in some manuscripts, in the heading to the book of Revelation, apokalypsis ioannoy toy theologoy. The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of study, dealing with the motionless. Boethius definition influenced medieval Latin usage, Theology can also now be used in a derived sense to mean a system of theoretical principles, an ideology. They suggest the term is appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently. Kalam. does not hold the place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for theology in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use of theology is appropriate, can only do so, he says, I take theology not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God, within Hindu philosophy, there is a solid and ancient tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God and of the Atman. The Sanskrit word for the schools of Hindu philosophy is Darshana. Nevertheless, Jewish theology historically has been active and highly significant for Christian. It is sometimes claimed, however, that the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be Rabbinical discussion of Jewish law, the history of the study of theology in institutions of higher education is as old as the history of such institutions themselves. Modern Western universities evolved from the institutions and cathedral schools of Western Europe during the High Middle Ages
Theology
–
Augustine of Hippo (354–430),
Latin theologian. His writing on
free will and
original sin remains influential in Western Christendom.
Theology
–
Albert the Great (1193/1206–1280),
patron saint of
Roman Catholic theologians
Theology
–
Tommaso D'aquino was the greatest Western theologist of the Middle Ages.
Theology
–
Allamah Sayyid Abul A'la Maududi was the most influential Islamic theologist of the 20th century.
Works related to Nicolas Malebranche at Wikisource
Quotations related to Nicolas Malebranche at Wikiquote
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Nicolas Malebranche". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "
