1.
Inner Niger Delta
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The Inner Niger Delta, also known as the Macina or Masina, is a large area of lakes and floodplains in the semi-arid Sahel area of central Mali, just south of the Sahara desert. The delta consists of the course of the Niger River. The Niger is the longest river in West Africa, towns such as the river-port of Mopti, Sévaré and Djenné, with its mud-brick Great Mosque lie in the 400 km-long region. The Fulani and Dogon inhabit the Macina region and the surrounding area, most of the year the area has a hot and dry climate, with hot winds from the nearby Sahara raising the temperature up to 40°C. During the wet season, which lasts from July to September but lasts longer the further one goes. When the dry season comes, the Macina turns into a network of lakes, cattle, pearl millet, and rice are its important agricultural products. The Macina inland delta also provides water and fish for the Malians living there, due to its proximity to the widening Sahel, there have been concerns that the Macina may be getting less rain every year. In the early 19th century, Seku Amadu founded a Massina Empire in the region, the Massina fell to El Hadj Umar Talls Toucouleur Empire in 1862, who in turn fell to the French army. The region became a part of the country of Mali on its independence in 1960, the Niger inland Delta lies in the Sahelian zone, and has an ecosystem that is largely dependent on the amount of flooding it receives. Precipitation in the basins of the upper course of the Bani. The rising water floods varying parts of the delta area. This in turn, is influenced by the movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone. A delay exists between the amount of precipitation and the maximum water level in the inland delta area. While the wet season lasts three months from July till September, the western and southern edges of the area are not flooded until early to mid-October. The consequence is that parts of the delta are flooded while the dry season is well under way, note that only the lowest patches are flooded annually, higher elevations receive flooding in more intermittent periods due to the changing degrees of waterlevel rises. This division in three zones, makes for patches that vary in their nature according to their proximity to a main body water. The Inland Delta forms a green oasis in its semi-arid surroundings and its vegetation growth is limited by the availability of water, thus giving patches more often or longer subject to flooding a denser and more tree-like vegetation cover. As said, flooding cycles follow the precipitation cycle, when classifying vegetation in a grass, shrub and tree layer, up to 80% of vegetation cover in the Sahel exists of grass
2.
Abia State
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Abia is a state in the south eastern part of Nigeria. The capital is Umuahia and the commercial city is Aba. The commercial hub, Aba was formerly a British colonial government outpost in the region, Abia state was created in 1991 from part of Imo State. It is one of the constituent states of the Niger Delta region, Abia State, which occupies about 6,320 square kilometres, is bounded on the north and northeast by the states of Anambra, Enugu, and Ebonyi. To the west of Abia is Imo State, to the east and southeast are Cross River State and Akwa Ibom State, the southern part of the State lies within the riverine part of Nigeria. It is low-lying tropical rain forest with some oil-palm brush, the southern portion gets heavy rainfall of about 2,400 millimetres per year especially intense between the months of April through October. The rest of the State is moderately high plain and wooded savanna, the most important rivers in Abia State are the Imo and Aba Rivers which flow into the Atlantic Ocean through Akwa Ibom State. Crude oil and gas production is a prominent activity, as it contributes over 39% of the States GDP, the manufacturing sector only accounts for 2% of the GDP. The industrial centre of the state is in Aba, with manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, soap, plastics, cement, footwear. In addition to the above, Abia State Government have just built a 9000 capacity multi purpose International Conference Centre in Umuahia. This edifice of international standard was built by Governor T. A Orji to enhance tourism as well as boost the State economy through hosting of major International and Local events. Representing 27% of the GDP, agriculture, which employs 70% of the workforce, is the second economic sector of Abia. With its adequate seasonal rainfall, Abia has much arable land that produces yams, maize, potatoes, rice, cashews, plantains, taro, Oil palm is the most important cash crop. There are over 100 oil wells and 3 installed flow stations in Abia State, there is also an associated gas plant, Abia/NNPC gas plant. As of 2012, boundary Commission said it returned 42 oil wells from neighbouring Rivers State to Abia and this would have meant Abia being fourth largest oil producing state in the county. Oil giant, Shell, holds most of the licenses for the wells in the State and has concentrated on the estimated 50 wells that are considered high-yield. The State produced 36,000 barrels of oil per day, Imoturu produces 23,000 barrels per day. Then four oil wells in Izaku go to Obigo flow station, about 30 oil wells from my village go to Umuri and about eight oil wells from Umurie go to Afam, lamented Samuel Okezie Nwogu, Chairman of Abia State Oil Producing Development Area Commission
3.
Akwa Ibom State
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Akwa Ibom is a state in Nigeria. It is located in the southern part of the country. The state is bordered on the east by Cross River State, on the west by Rivers State and Abia State, and on the south by the Atlantic Ocean and the southernmost tip of Cross River State. Akwa Ibom is one of Nigerias 36 states, with a population of five million people. The state was created in 1987 from the former Cross River State and is currently the highest oil-, the states capital is Uyo, with over 500,000 inhabitants. Akwa Ibom has an airport and two major seaports on the Atlantic Ocean with a construction of a world-class seaport Ibaka Seaport at Oron. The state also boasts of a 30, 000-seat ultramodern sports complex, Akwa Ibom state is also home to the Ibom E-Library, a world-class information centre. In addition to English, the spoken languages are Ibibio, Annang, Eket. Essien Udim, Uyo, Eket, Ikot Ekpene, Oron, Abak, Ikot Abasi, Ikono, Etinan, Esit Eket, Uruan and they are, The region of the state was created out of Cross River State on September 23,1987. Located at the Atlantic Ocean coast are the Eket, Ibeno, the Ibono have similarities with the Oro and Obolos. Some people of the North western border of Akwa by virtue of their interactions with the Igbos tend to be bilingual, however Igbos are not indigenous to Akwa ibom The Ibibio language belongs to the Benue–Congo language family, which forms part of the Niger–Congo group of languages. Despite the homogeneity, no government existed among the people of what is now Akwa Ibom State prior to the British invasion in 1904. Instead, the Annang, Oron, Efik, Ibonos and Ibibio were all autonomous groups, although several Scottish missionaries arrived in Calabar in 1848, and Ibono in 1887, the British did not firmly establish control of the area until 1904. The creation of Enyong Division for the first time allowed the numerous groups to come together. This further provided a venue to create of the Ibibio Welfare Union and this social organization was first organized as a local development and improvement forum for educated persons and groups who were shut out from the colonial administration in 1929. Nonetheless, some historians have pointed to the union to buttress their argument about the homogeneity of groups in the area. The Obolo Union, comprising Ibono and Andoni stock, was another strong socioeconomic, the Ibono people have fought wars to maintain their unique identity and territory in the region more than any other group. When Akwa Ibom state was created in 1987, Uyo was chosen as the capital to spread development to all regions of the state
4.
Bayelsa State
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Bayelsa is a state in southern Nigeria in the core Niger Delta region, between Delta State and Rivers State. The main language spoken is Ijaw with dialects such as Kolukuma, Mein, Bomu, Nembe, Epie-Atisa, like the rest of Nigeria, English is the official language. The state was formed in 1996 from part of Rivers State and is one of the newest states of the Nigerian federation. Bayelsa State has one of the largest crude oil and natural gas deposits in Nigeria, as a result, petroleum production is extensive in the state. However, the majority of Bayelsans live in poverty and this has been a large problem in the state since its creation, successive state governments have not been able to address and repair the issue. The state, as a result, has an almost non-existent commerce, successive state governments have embarked on industrial projects and poverty-alleviation programs to reverse this situation. Some argue that there is nothing on ground to show for huge sums of money spent for development by successive, the local population engage in fishing on a subsistence and commercial level. The Bayelsa State government is otherwise the main employer in the state, Bayelsa has a riverine and estuarine setting. Many communities are almost completely surrounded by water, making them inaccessible by road, the state is home to the Edumanom Forest Reserve, in June 2008 the last known site for chimpanzees in the Niger Delta. This is part of the general brain-drain trend affecting many African communities
5.
Cross River State
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Cross River is a state in eastern Nigeria, in its South South Geopolitical Zone, bordering Cameroon to the east. Its capital is Calabar, and name derived from the Cross River, Boki, Ejagham and Efik are major languages of this state. Cross River State is a state in South South Nigeria, named after the Cross River. Located in the Niger Delta, Cross River State occupies 20,156 square kilometers and it shares boundaries with Benue State to the north, Ebonyi and Abia States to the west, to the east by Cameroon Republic and to the south by Akwa-Ibom and the Atlantic Ocean. The South-South State was created on May 27,1967 from the former Eastern Region and its name was changed to Cross River State in the 1976 state creation exercise by the then General Murtala Mohammed regime from South Eastern State. The present day Akwa Ibom State was excised from it in the state creation exercise of September 1987 by the regime of General Ibrahim Babangida. The Current Governor is Ben Ayade, who came into power on the 29th of May,2015, the State is composed of three major ethnic groups, the Efik, the Ejagham, and the Bekwarra. The Efik language is spoken in Cross River State. The Boki language is widely spoken in Cross River State, from Ikom, Obubura, Ojoga, Obudu. There is also the Qua community in Calabar, which speaks Ejagham, the main Ejagham group occupies mostly the Greater Calabar areas of Calabar Municipality, Odukpani, Biase and Akampkpa sections of Cross River State. There are also the Yakurr/Agoi/Bahumono ethnic groups in Yakurr and Abi LGA, further up the core northern part of the state are several sub-dialectical groups, among which are Etung, Olulumo, Ofutop, Nkim/Nkum, Abanajum, Nseke and Boki in both Ikom, Etung and Boki LGAs. Also, the Yala/Yache, Igede, Ukelle, Ekajuka, Mbube, Bette, Bekwarra and Utugwanga people are found in Ogoja, Yala, Obudu and Obanliku LGAs. The Yala are a subgroup of the Idoma nation, part of the Yala LGAs subgroups are the Igede speaking people believed to have migrated from the Oju part of Benue State, finally, the state boasts of being the venue for the largest carnival in Africa. Cross River State consists of eighteen Local Government Areas and they are, In line with the objectives of the former Governor of the state Mr. Donald Duke to mix business with pleasure, there are many festivals. These festivals bring in tourists from far and wide into the state to enjoy themselves and this years Christmas event and Carnival promise to be the best. Obanliku New Yam Festival - last Saturday of August Every Year, Cross River State can be accessed by air through the Margaret Ekpo International Airport at Calabar. There are daily flights to Calabar from Lagos and Abuja serviced by such as Virgin Nigeria, Arik Airlines. Aero Contractors also have flights to the Bebi airstrip at Obanliku for trips to the Obanliku Mountain Resort, Calabar, the capital of Cross River State, is now the leading tourism city of Nigeria
6.
Delta State
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Delta or Delta State is an oil and agricultural producing state of Nigeria, situated in the region known as the South-South geo-political zone with a population of 4,098,291. The state has a land area of 16,842 square kilometres. The state covers a landmass of about 18,050 km², the state lies approximately between Longitude 5°00 and 6°.45 East and Latitude 5°00 and 6°.30 North. Delta State is generally low-lying without remarkable hills, the state has a wide coastal belt inter-lace with rivulets and streams, which form part of the Niger Delta. Delta State was carved out of the former Bendel State on August 27,1991, the state was created following agitations for the creation of a separate distinct state by the peoples of the old Delta Province, the Urhobos, Itsekiri, Isoko, Ijaw and Ukwuani. There was yet another state creation movement designated as Niger State comprising the old midwestern Igbo-speaking Asaba divisions and this was transformed into Anioma following the creation of Niger State from the old Northwestern State by the Murtala Muhammeds administration in 1976. The then Military President, Gen Ibrahim Babangida created the state using the name Delta advanced by Niger Delta region, Asaba was designated as capital of the proposed Anioma State. The proposed capital was a land or Anioma city in the heart of the two constituent divisions that had evolved to become the Anioma area. Delta state was integrated in the Mid Western state from 1963 to 1976 and later Bendel state. The name Bendel coined from the old Benin and Delta Provinces of Western Region-Delta to reflect the integration of Benin, Delta State is ethnically diverse, with four linguistic stocks of people and seven languages between them. The first region is made up of one linguistic grouping, collectively referred to as Anioma, all three inhabit the Delta North senatorial district. The second region consists of the three main linguistic groups, Edoid, comprising of the Isoko and Urhobo ethnic groups, Yoruboid, Itsekiri. The Itsekiri speak a very closely related to Yoruba but have been heavily culturally influenced by Edoid-speaking ethnic groups, as well as the Ijaw. The Izon are a branch of their kith and kin, in neighbouring Bayelsa State, the vast majority of inhabitants are Christian, with very few subscribers to African Traditional Religion. Arthur Okowa Ifeanyi, a member of the Peoples Democratic Party, was elected Governor, the state has three National Senatorial Districts. In 2011 and 2013, the senators were James Manager, Arthur Okowa Ifeanyi and Emmanuel Aguariavwodo who replaced Pius Ewherido who died in 2013 at National Hospital. The Executive, Legislative and Judicial Chambers are housed in Asaba with a government house annex in Warri. Delta State consists of 25 Local Government Areas, There are various mineral deposits within state - industrial clay, silica, lignite, kaolin, tar sand, decorative rocks, limestone
7.
Edo State
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Edo is a state in southern Nigeria. It is bounded in the north and east by Kogi State, in the south by Delta State, the state is home to the National Museum located at the famous Kings Square in Benin City. The 1992 gubernatorial election, pitting John Odigie Oyegun against Lucky Igbinedion was annulled on 4 February of that year by the electoral tribunal, among Igbinedions claims were that the Oba of Benin and one of his chiefs, Nosakhare Isekhure, unfairly supported Oyegun. Oyeguns victory was upheld on 18 March 1992, the decision was based on several voting irregularities. Oshiomhole was re-elected for a term in 2012. Edo State consists of eighteen Local Government Areas and they are, English is the official language of the state. The major tribal languages spoken in the state are Igarra, Edo, Etsako/Afemai, Esan, Edo State is home to several ethnicities, among them the Edo, Okpe, Esan, Afemai/Etsako, Ora, Akoko-Edo, Igbanke, Emai and Ijaw. And other mineral resources like limestone and quarry, Oba of Benin Late admiral Mike Akhigbe, former vice president of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Pastor Chris Oyakhilome, founder of the Believers Loveworld Nation Mike Oghiadome, former chief of staffs to the president of republic of Nigeria. He created the Bendel State university now named after him, professor Osayuki Godwin Oshodin, former vice chancellor of University of Benin Jacob U. Eke, Federal Commissioner for Rehabilitation during Gowons administration, former Chairman Oredo LG who built the famous Urhokpota hall. Y, eke,2 times Minister of Federal Republic of Nigeria, first as Minister of Education and later Minister of Information. And also Nigeria Ambassador to the US
8.
Imo State
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Imo is one of the 36 states of Nigeria and lies in the South East of Nigeria with Owerri as its capital and largest city. Its other major cities are Orlu and Okigwe, name=www. vanguardngr. com/> Located in the south-eastern region of Nigeria, it occupies the area between the lower River Niger and the upper and middle Imo River. Its Imo State is bordered by Abia State on the East, River Niger and Delta State to the West, Anambra State on the North, the State lies within latitudes 4°45N and 7°15N, and longitude 6°50E and 7°25E with an area of around 5,100 sq km. The main cities in Imo State are Owerri, Orlu and Okigwe, the Orashi River has its source in Imo State. Imo River, being the river in the State, drains through Abia State, where it is joined by Aba River from the North. There are Njaba River, Oguta Lake, Utu River and Awbana River in the State, otamiri River and its 9.2 km length tributary, Nworie River flow in the State. There are other rivers and creeks in the state including Onas Creek in Ohaji/Egbema, Okitankwo River in Umudi, the state is rich in natural resources including crude oil, natural gas, lead, Calcium Cabornate and zinc. Economically exploitable flora including iroko, mahogany, obeche, bamboo, rubber tree, other natural resources found in the State are white clay, fine sand and limestone. The main petroleum companies operating in the state are Addax Petroleum, Chevron Corporation, Royal Dutch Shell, some of the established oil-rich and producing Local Government Councils include Ohaji/Egbema, Oguta, Oru East, Iho, Oru West, Obowo and Ngor Okpala. In addition to presence of oil and gas investors, independent global brewer, the company manages the world-class Awo-omamma Brewery, a multiple-line brewery plant. Many more opportunities in oil and gas are yet to be fully exploited, establishment of industrial parks and processing zones to harness the huge agricultural produce and minerals would give a major boost to the States economic growth and industrialization. No doubt, production centers would employ large number of labor, Oguta Lake, Palm Beach Holiday Resort in Awo-omamma and a host of other tourist sites along the banks of the 26 km-length Njaba River present hotspots for tourism. The economy of the State depends primarily on agriculture and commerce, the chief occupation of the people is farming. However, with a population density and over farming the soil has been degraded. Their cash crops include oil palm, raffia palm, rice, groundnut, melon, cotton, cocoa, rubber, maize, etc. food crops such as yam, cassava, cocoyam and maize are also produced in large quantities. The rainy season begins in April and lasts until October with annual rainfall varying from 1, 500mm to 2, an average annual temperature above 20 °C creates an annual relative humidity of 75%. With humidity reaching 90% in the rainy season, the dry season experiences two months of Harmattan from late December to late February. The hottest months are between January and March, with high population density and over farming, the soil has been degraded and much of the native vegetation has disappeared
9.
Ondo State
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Ondo or Ondo State is a state in Nigeria created on 3 February 1976 from the former Western State. It originally included what is now Ekiti State, which was split off in 1996, each state in Nigeria have different ministerial offices representing the federal offices in each state. The state contains eighteen Local Government Areas, the ones being Akoko, Akure, Okitipupa, Ondo. The majority of the citizens live in urban centers. The big government universities in Ondo state are the Federal University of Technology Akure, Akure, the ethnic composition of Ondo State is largely from the Yoruba subgroups of the Akoko, Akure, Okitipupa, Ilaje, Ondo, and Owo peoples. Ondo State consists of eighteen Local Government Areas. B
10.
Rivers State
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Rivers State, also known simply as Rivers, is one of the 36 states of Nigeria. According to census data released in 2006, the state has a population of 5,185,400 and its capital, Port Harcourt is the largest city and is economically significant as the centre of Nigerias oil industry. Rivers State is bounded on the South by the Atlantic Ocean, to the North by Imo, Abia and Anambra States, to the East by Akwa Ibom State and to the West by Bayelsa and Delta states. It is home to indigenous ethnic groups, Ikwerre, Ibani, Opobo, Eleme, Okrika. The people from Rivers State are known as Riverians, the inland part of the state consists of tropical rainforest, towards the coast the typical Niger Delta environment features many mangrove swamps. Rivers State, named after the rivers that border its territory, was part of the Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 till 1893. In 1900 the region was merged with the territories of the Royal Niger Company to form the colony of Southern Nigeria. The state was formed in 1967 with the split of the Eastern Region of Nigeria, until 1996 the state contained the area now known as Bayelsa State. In the early days of the period, several protection treaties were signed between various indigenous communities and the British colonial government. Between 1941 and 1952, agitation for the creation of Rivers province began with the formation of the Ijo Rivers Peoples League. By 1953, the Council of Rivers Chiefs was birthed as a replacement body for the League, the year, another organisation. The Council of Rivers Chiefs was later renamed in 1954 to Rivers Chiefs and Peoples Congress and in 1956, until 1958, hopes of an independent state resonated with the region, and lingered consistently in the minds of its natives. During the constitutional conference that year, the countrys nationhood was affirmed while an agreement was reached on some measures to mitigate the fears of the minorities in the area. Around this time, the COR State Movement had broken away to press their own case, thereafter, the British launched a commission led by Sir Henry Willink to look into the misgivings of these autochthons. The Willink Commission initiated the conception of the Niger Delta Development Board, the purpose was to tackle the problems of underdevelopment, however, this failed to rise to the expectations of the masses. After much discontent, some of the people attempted to take the route to achieve their goals. In February 1966, Isaac Boro, Sam Owonaro and Nottingham Dick alongside their supporters proclaimed a Delta Peoples Republic, the rebellion was immediately crushed by the Federal and the old Eastern Nigeria government. On 27 May 1967, under the administration of General Yakubu Gowon, decree No.14 was issued, the state government has executive and legislative branches, with an independent judiciary
11.
River delta
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A river delta is a landform that forms from deposition of sediment carried by a river as the flow leaves its mouth and enters slower-moving or standing water. This occurs where a river enters an ocean, sea, estuary, lake, reservoir, River deltas are ecologically important as they provide coastline defense, are home to many species, and can impact drinking water supply. The tidal currents also cannot be too strong, as sediment would wash out into the body faster than the river deposits it. Of course, the river must carry enough sediment to layer into deltas over time, the rivers velocity decreases rapidly, causing it to deposit the majority, if not all, of its load. This alluvium builds up to form the river delta, when the flow enters the standing water, it is no longer confined to its channel and expands in width. This flow expansion results in a decrease in the flow velocity, as a result, sediment drops out of the flow and deposits. Over time, this single channel builds a deltaic lobe, pushing its mouth into the standing water, as the deltaic lobe advances, the gradient of the river channel becomes lower because the river channel is longer but has the same change in elevation. As the slope of the channel decreases, it becomes unstable for two reasons. First, gravity makes the flow in the most direct course down slope. If the river breaches its natural levees, it out onto a new course with a shorter route to the ocean. Second, as its slope gets lower, the amount of stress on the bed decreases, which results in deposition of sediment within the channel. This makes it easier for the river to breach its levees, often when the channel does this, some of its flow remains in the abandoned channel. When these channel-switching events occur, a mature delta develops a distributary network, another way these distributary networks form is from deposition of mouth bars. When this mid-channel bar is deposited at the mouth of a river and this results in additional deposition on the upstream end of the mouth-bar, which splits the river into two distributary channels. A good example of the result of this process is the Wax Lake Delta, in both of these cases, depositional processes force redistribution of deposition from areas of high deposition to areas of low deposition. This results in the smoothing of the shape of the delta as the channels move across its surface. Because the sediment is laid down in fashion, the shape of these deltas approximates a fan. The more often the flow changes course, the shape develops as closer to an ideal fan, the Mississippi and Ural River deltas, with their birds-feet, are examples of rivers that do not avulse often enough to form a symmetrical fan shape
12.
Niger River
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The Niger River is the principal river of western Africa, extending about 4,180 km. Its drainage basin is 2,117,700 km2 in area and its source is in the Guinea Highlands in southeastern Guinea. The Niger is the third-longest river in Africa, exceeded only by the Nile and its main tributary is the Benue River. The Scottish explorer Mungo Park was the first Westerner known to have travelled to the portion of the Niger River. The earliest use of the name Niger for the river is by Leo Africanus in his Della descrittione dell’Africa et delle cose notabili che iui sono published in Italian in 1550, the name may come from Berber phrase ger-n-ger meaning river of rivers. As Timbuktu was the end of the principal Trans-Saharan trade route to the western Mediterranean. When European colonial powers began to send ships along the West coast of Africa in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Niger Delta, pouring into the Atlantic through mangrove swamps and thousands of distributaries along more than 160 kilometres, was thought to be no more than coastal wetlands. The Niger River is a clear river, carrying only a tenth as much sediment as the Nile because the Nigers headwaters lie in ancient rocks that provide little silt. Like the Nile, the Niger floods yearly, this begins in September, peaks in November, an unusual feature of the river is the Inner Niger Delta, which forms where its gradient suddenly decreases. The result is a region of braided streams, marshes, and lakes the size of Belgium, the river loses nearly two-thirds of its potential flow in the Inner Delta between Ségou and Timbuktu to seepage and evaporation. All the water from the Bani River, which flows into the Delta at Mopti, the average loss is estimated at 31 km3/year, but varies considerably between years. The river is joined by various tributaries, but also loses more water to evaporation. The quantity of water entering Nigeria measured in Yola was estimated at 25 km3/year before the 1980s, the most important tributary of the Niger in Nigeria is the Benue River which merges with the river at Lokoja in Nigeria. The Niger takes one of the most unusual routes of any major river and this strange geography apparently came about because the Niger River is two ancient rivers joined together. Over time upstream erosion by the lower Niger resulted in capture of the upper Niger by the lower Niger. The northern part of the river, known as the Niger bend, is an important area because it is the major river and this made it the focal point of trade across the western Sahara, and the centre of the Sahelian kingdoms of Mali and Gao. The surrounding Niger River Basin is one of the distinct physiographic sections of the Sudan province, the origin of the rivers name remains unclear. What is clear is that Niger was an appellation applied in the Mediterranean world from at least the Classical era, when knowledge of the area by Europeans was slightly better than fable
13.
Gulf of Guinea
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The Gulf of Guinea is the northeasternmost part of the tropical Atlantic Ocean between Cape Lopez in Gabon, north and west to Cape Palmas in Liberia. The intersection of the Equator and Prime Meridian is in the gulf, among the many rivers that drain into the Gulf of Guinea are the Niger and the Volta. The coastline on the gulf includes the Bight of Benin and the Bight of Bonny, the Niger River in particular deposited organic sediments out to sea over millions of years which became crude oil. The origin of the name Guinea is thought to be an area in the region, bovill gives a thorough description, The name Guinea is usually said to have been a corrupt form of the name Ghana, picked up by the Portuguese in the Maghrib. The present writer finds this unacceptable, the name Guinea has been in use both in the Maghrib and in Europe long before Prince Henrys time. A passage in Leo points to Guinea having been a form of Jenne, less famous than Ghana but nevertheless for many centuries famed in the Maghrib as a great market. The relevant passage reads, The Kingdom of Ghinea. called by the merchants of our nation Gheneoa, by the inhabitants thereof Genni and by the Portugals. But it seems probable that Guinea derives from aguinaou, the Berber for Negro. Marrakech has a gate, built in the century, called the Bab Aguinaou. The modern application of the name Guinea to the coast dates only from 1481, the name Guinea is still attached to the names of three countries in Africa, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, and Equatorial Guinea, as well as New Guinea in Melanesia. The main river shedding its waters in the gulf is the Niger River, the Gulf of Guinea contains a number of islands, the largest of which are in a southwest-northeast chain, forming part of the Cameroon line of volcanoes. Annobón, also known as Pagalu or Pigalu, is an island that is part of Equatorial Guinea, bobowasi Island is an island off the west coast of Africa in the Gulf of Guinea that is part of Western region Ghana. Bioko is an island off the west coast of Africa in the Gulf of Guinea that is part of Equatorial Guinea, corisco is an island belonging to Equatorial Guinea. Elobey Grande and Elobey Chico are two small islands belonging to Equatorial Guinea, São Tomé and Príncipe is a Portuguese-speaking island nation in the Gulf of Guinea that became independent from Portugal in 1975. It is located off the western equatorial coast of Africa and consists of two islands, São Tomé and Príncipe and they are located about 140 kilometres apart and about 250 and 225 kilometres, respectively, off the northwestern coast of Gabon. Both islands are part of a volcanic mountain range. São Tomé, the southern island, is situated just north of the Equator. Media related to Gulf of Guinea at Wikimedia Commons The Gulf of Guinea Commission - CGG - GGC
14.
Atlantic Ocean
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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
15.
Nigeria
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Its coast in the south lies on the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean. It comprises 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory, where the capital, Nigeria is officially a democratic secular country. Modern-day Nigeria has been the site of numerous kingdoms and tribal states over the millennia, the modern state originated from British colonial rule beginning in the 19th century, and the merging of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and Northern Nigeria Protectorate in 1914. The British set up administrative and legal structures whilst practising indirect rule through traditional chiefdoms, Nigeria became a formally independent federation in 1960, and plunged into a civil war from 1967 to 1970. Nigeria is often referred to as the Giant of Africa, owing to its large population, with approximately 184 million inhabitants, Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa and the seventh most populous country in the world. Nigeria has one of the largest populations of youth in the world, Nigeria is divided roughly in half between Christians, who live mostly in the southern part of the country, and Muslims in the northern part. A minority of the population practise religions indigenous to Nigeria, such as native to the Igbo. As of 2015, Nigeria is the worlds 20th largest economy, worth more than $500 billion and $1 trillion in terms of nominal GDP and it overtook South Africa to become Africas largest economy in 2014. The 2013 debt-to-GDP ratio was 11 percent, Nigeria is a member of the MINT group of countries, which are widely seen as the globes next BRIC-like economies. It is also listed among the Next Eleven economies set to become among the biggest in the world, Nigeria is a founding member of the African Union and a member of many other international organizations, including the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations and OPEC. The name Nigeria was taken from the Niger River running through the country and this name was coined in the late 19th century by British journalist Flora Shaw, who later married Lord Lugard, a British colonial administrator. The origin of the name Niger, which applied only to the middle reaches of the Niger River, is uncertain. The word is likely an alteration of the Tuareg name egerew n-igerewen used by inhabitants along the middle reaches of the river around Timbuktu prior to 19th-century European colonialism. The Nok civilisation of Northern Nigeria flourished between 500 BC and AD200, producing life-sized terracotta figures which are some of the earliest known sculptures in Sub-Saharan Africa, further north, the cities Kano and Katsina have a recorded history dating to around 999 AD. Hausa kingdoms and the Kanem-Bornu Empire prospered as trade posts between North and West Africa, the Kingdom of Nri of the Igbo people consolidated in the 10th century and continued until it lost its sovereignty to the British in 1911. Nri was ruled by the Eze Nri, and the city of Nri is considered to be the foundation of Igbo culture, Nri and Aguleri, where the Igbo creation myth originates, are in the territory of the Umeuri clan. Members of the clan trace their lineages back to the patriarchal king-figure Eri, in West Africa, the oldest bronzes made using the lost-wax process were from Igbo Ukwu, a city under Nri influence. The Yoruba kingdoms of Ife and Oyo in southwestern Nigeria became prominent in the 12th and 14th centuries, the oldest signs of human settlement at Ifes current site date back to the 9th century, and its material culture includes terracotta and bronze figures
16.
Palm oil
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Palm oil is naturally reddish in color because of a high beta-carotene content. It is not to be confused with palm oil derived from the kernel of the same fruit. The differences are in color, and in saturated fat content, palm oil is 49% saturated, while palm kernel oil and coconut oil are 81% and 86% saturated fats. Along with coconut oil, palm oil is one of the few highly saturated vegetable fats and is semisolid at room temperature, Palm oil is a common cooking ingredient in the tropical belt of Africa, Southeast Asia and parts of Brazil. Its use in the food industry in other parts of the world is widespread because of its lower cost. In 2004, a group called the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil was formed to work with the palm oil industry to address these concerns. It is believed that traders brought the oil palm to Egypt, Palm oil from E. guineensiss has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, and is widely used as a cooking oil. European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as an oil in Europe. Palm oil became a highly sought-after commodity by British traders, for use as a lubricant for machinery during Britains Industrial Revolution. Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers Sunlight soap, by around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries, such as Ghana and Nigeria, although this was overtaken by cocoa in the 1880s. Palm oil, like all fats, is composed of fatty acids, Palm oil has an especially high concentration of saturated fat, specifically, of the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid palmitic acid, to which it gives its name. Monounsaturated oleic acid is also a constituent of palm oil. Unrefined palm oil is a significant source of tocotrienol, part of the vitamin E family. The approximate concentration of fatty acids in palm oil is, Red palm oil is rich in carotenes, such as alpha-carotene, beta-carotene and lycopene, many processed foods either contain palm oil or various ingredients derived from it. After milling, various oil products are made using refining processes. First is fractionation, with crystallization and separation processes to obtain solid, then melting and degumming removes impurities. Then the oil is filtered and bleached, RBDPO is the basic palm oil product sold on the worlds commodity markets. Many companies fractionate it further to produce palm olein for cooking oil, since the mid-1990s, red palm oil has been cold-pressed and bottled for use as cooking oil, and blended into mayonnaise and salad oil
17.
Efik people
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The Efik are an ethnic group located primarily in southeastern Nigeria, in the southern part of Cross River State. The Efik speak the Efik language which is a Benue–Congo language of the Cross River family, Efik oral histories tell of migration down the Cross River from Arochukwu to found numerous settlements in the Calabar and Creek Town area. Creek Town and its environs are often referred to as Calabar. Calabar is not to be confused with the Kalabari Kingdom in Rivers State which is an Ijaw state to its west, Cross River State with Akwa Ibom State was formerly one of the original twelve states of Nigeria known as the Southeastern State. The Efik people also occupy southwestern Cameroon including Bakassi and this separation was further extended when as a result of a 1961 plebiscite the area voted to join the Republic of Cameroon. Most of the area was transferred, but in August 2006 - Nigeria handed over the Bakassi peninsula to Cameroon. The people of Uruan were said to have them the name Efik deriving from a verb meaning to press or oppress. The Efik people are found in the South-South geopolitical zone of Nigeria, in “the South Eastern corner of the Cross River State. ”They occupy the basins of the Lower Cross River and down to the Bakassi Peninsula, the Calabar River and down to its tributaries – the Kwa River, Akpayafe and the Eniong Creek. ”They occupied Calabar “towards the end of the century or at the beginning of the 18th century. ”The Efik are related to the Annang, Ibibio, Igbo, Oron, Biase, Akampkpa, Uruan. Although the actual origins of the Efik people are unknown, oral traditions provide accounts of their migration from Igbo and they had sojourned from Nubia through to Ghana and then Arochukwu in present-day South East Nigeria. After staying there harmoniously as guests for about 400 years, they left after a disagreement with the Aros, the bulk of them left to Uruan in present-day Akwa Ibom State, some to Eniong and surrounding areas. They stayed in Uruan for about a hundred or so years and then moved to Ikpa Ene, there would seem to be three successive stages in the history of efik migration and settlement, an Igbo phase an Ibibio phase and the drift to the coast. There are some Efik who advocate the oriental origins of their people and this is believed to be elaborated in some of their peculiar burial sites and ceremonies. Although their economy was based on fishing, the area quickly developed into a major trading centre. Incoming European goods were traded for slaves, palm oil and other palm products, the Efik kings collected a trading tax called comey from docking ships until the British replaced it with comey subsidies. The diary of Antera Duke, an Efik, is the surviving record from an African slave-trading house. The Efik were the men between the white traders on the coast and the inland tribes of the Cross River and Calabar district. Christian missions were at work among the Efiks beginning in the middle of the 19th century, even by 1900, many of the native peoples were well educated in European ideologies and culture, professed Christianity and dressed in European fashion. In 1884 the Efik kings and the chiefs of the Efik placed themselves under British protection and these treaties and attendant territorial economic rights, are documented in CAP23 of Laws of Eastern Nigeria, captioned Comey subsidies law
18.
Esan people
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The Esan people are an ethnic group of southsouth Nigeria who speak the Esan language. The Esan are traditionally agriculturalists, trado-medical practitionals, mercenary warriors and hunters, there are on the whole 35 established kingdoms in Esanland, including Ewohimi, Ekpoma, Ubiaja, Uromi, Igueben, and Ewu. The Esan kingdoms often warred among each other, despite the wars, the Esans kept a homogenous culture which was chiefly influenced by the Benin Empire. After independence, the Esan people have suffered civil war, poverty. The Esans primarily speak the Esan language, an Edoid language related to Edo, Urhobo, Isoko and it is considered a regionally important language in Nigeria, and it is taught in primary schools in addition to being broadcast on radio and television. The Esan language is recognized in the Census of the United Kingdom. It is estimated that the Esan people who reside in Esanland number about one million to 1.5 million citizens in Nigeria, esan-speaking communities exist in the United States, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Canada, Spain, and Italy. Pan-Esan groups such as the Esan World Congress have kept the Esan community tight-knit, the term Esan has been applied to the Esan people for thousands of years, and was used before contact with Europeans. It is believed by historians that the name Esan owes its origin to Bini. Ishan is an Anglicized form of Esan, the result of colonial Britains inability to pronounce the name of this ethnic group. It is believed that corruption has affected such Esan names as ubhẹkhẹ, uloko, Abhuluimẹn. Efforts have however made to return to status quo ante. g. Uro Esan, otọ Esan, ọghẹdẹ Esan, in the pre-colonial era, Esans carried a crows foot tribal scar below their eyes. Esan myth varies over the origins of the Esan people. In some clans, the first Esan simply fell out of the sky, in other clans, Esans are said to have come from the rivers. Nearly all Esan myths, however, point to the Benin Empire as the source, according to archaeological and linguistic evidence, humans have resided in the savannah-forest ecotone in Esanland for at least 3000 years ago. These people were associated with the Nok people and came from the savannahs in the north to the southern forests. To this day, northern Esan dialects have more in common with Northern Edo languages such as Etsako and Owan than southern Esan dialects do and these proto-Edoid peoples grew yam, oil palm and vegetables, but also hunted and gathered
19.
Ibibio people
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The Ibibio people are from southeast Nigeria. They are related to the Anaang and Efik peoples, during colonial period in Nigeria, the Ibibio Union asked for recognition by the British as a sovereign nation. The Annang, Efik, Ekid, Oron and Ibeno share personal names, culture, and traditions with the Ibibio, because of the larger population of the Ibibio people, they hold political control over Akwa-Ibom State, but government is shared with the Anaangs, Eket and Oron. The political system follows the method of consensus. Even though elections are held, practically, the leaders are pre-discussed in a manner that is benefiting to all. The Ibibio people are located in Southeastern Nigeria also known as Coastal Southeastern Nigeria, prior to the existence of Nigeria as a nation, the Ibibio people were self-governed. The Ibibio people became a part of the Eastern Nigeria of Nigeria under British colonial rule, during the Nigerian Civil War, the Eastern region was split into three states. Southeastern State of Nigeria was where the Ibibio were located, one of the twelve states of Nigeria) after Nigerian independence. The Efik, Anaang, Oron, Eket and their brothers and sisters of the Ogoja District, were also in the Southeastern State, the state was later renamed Cross Rivers State. On 23 September 1987, by Military Decree No.24, Cross Rivers State remains as one of neighbouring states. Southwestern Cameroon was a part of present Cross River State and Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria, during the then Eastern Region of Nigeria it got partitioned into Cameroon in a 1961 plebiscite. This resulted in the Ibibio, Efik, and Annang being divided between Nigeria and Cameroon, however, the leadership of the Northern Region of Nigeria was able to keep Northwestern section during the plebiscite that is now todays Nigerian Adamawa and Taraba states. Ibio-ibio means short or brief and doesnt have anything to do with ulok, the name Ikot often replaces the house of. Or the people of, referring to their origin or ancestors, another meaning for Ikot in Ibibioland is bush. Traditionally Ibibio society consists of communities that are made up of Large Families with blood affinity each ruled by their Constitutional, the Obong Ikpaisong ruled with the Mbong Ekpuk which together with the Heads of the Cults and Societies constitute the Afe or Asan or Esop Ikpaisong. Membership is open to all Ibibio males, but one must have access to wealth to move into the politically influential grades, the Priests of these spiritual entities were the Temple Chief Priests of the various Ibibio Divisions. These have been the ancient political and religious system of Ibibio people from time immemorial, tradition, interpreted in Ibibio Language, is Ikpaisong. Tradition in Ibibio Custom embodies the Religious and Political System, the word Obong in Ibibio language means Ruler, King, Lord, Chief, Head and is applied depending on the Office concern
20.
Igbo people
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The Igbo people, also erroneously known as the Ibo people, are an indigenous linguistic and cultural people of southern Nigeria. Geographically, the Igbo homeland is divided into two sections by the Niger River – an eastern and a western section. They speak Igbo, which includes various Igboid languages and dialects, the Igbo homeland is almost surrounded on all sides by other ethnic peoples of southern and central Nigeria namely, the Ijaw, Edo, Isoko, Ogoni, Igala, Tiv, Yako, Idoma and Ibibio. The Igbo people are one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa, in rural Nigeria, Igbo people work mostly as craftsmen, farmers and traders. The most important crop is the yam, celebrations take place annually to celebrate its harvesting, other staple crops include cassava and taro. Before British colonial rule, the Igbo were a politically fragmented group, there were variations in culture such as in art styles, attire and religious practices. Various subgroups were organized by clan, lineage, village affiliation, there were not many centralized chiefdoms, hereditary aristocracy, or kingship customs except in kingdoms such as those of the Nri, Arochukwu, Agbor and Onitsha. This political system changed significantly under British colonialism in the early 20th century, the Igbo became overwhelmingly Christian under colonization. Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart is one of the most popular novels to depict Igbo culture, by the mid-20th century, the Igbo people developed a strong sense of ethnic identity. Certain conflicts with other Nigerian ethnicities led to Igbo-densely populated Eastern Nigeria seceding to create the independent state of Biafra, the Nigerian Civil War or the Nigerian-Biafran War broke out shortly after. With their defeat, the Republic of Biafra once again was part of Nigeria, MASSOB, a sectarian organization formed in 1999, continues a non-violent struggle for an independent Igbo state. Due to the effects of migration and the Atlantic slave trade, there are descendant ethnic Igbo populations in such as Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea. Their exact population outside Africa is unknown, but today many African Americans, according to Liberian historians the fifth president of Liberia Edward James Roye was of Igbo descent. The Igbo people have had fragmented and politically independent communities, before knowledge of Europeans and full exposure to other neighbouring ethnic groups, the Igbo did not have a strong identity as one people. As in the case of most ethnic groups, the British, Chinua Achebe, among other scholars, challenged this because of its negative connotations and possible wrong definition. He suggested defining the Igbo people as a nation although the Igbo do not have an officially recognized state of their own. The most common name for the Igbo in English was formerly Ibo and they have also been known as the Iboe, Ebo, Eboe, Eboans, or Heebo. Their territory and main settlement have also been known by their name
21.
Yoruba people
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Yoruba people are an ethnic group of Southwestern and North Central Nigeria as well as Southern and Central Benin, together known as Yorubaland. The Yoruba constitute over 40 million people in total, the majority of this population is from Nigeria and make up 21% of its population, according to the CIA World Factbook, making them one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa. The majority of the Yoruba speak the Yoruba language, which is tonal, the Yoruba share borders with the Bariba to the northwest in Benin, the Nupe to the north, and the Ebira to the northeast in central Nigeria. To the east are the Edo, Ẹsan, and the Afemai groups in mid-western Nigeria, adjacent the Ebira and Edo groups are the related Igala people found in the northeast to the left bank of the Niger river. To the southwest are the Gbe speaking Mahi, Egun, Fon and Ewe who border Yoruba communities in Benin, to the southeast are Itsekiri who live in the north-west end of the Niger delta. They are ancestrally related to the Yoruba but chose to maintain a cultural identity. Significant Yoruba populations in other West African countries can be found in Ghana, Ivory Coast, Liberia and this older group has communities in such countries as Cuba, Dominican Republic, Saint Lucia, Jamaica, Brazil, Grenada, Trinidad and Tobago, among others. As an ethnic description, the word Yoruba was first recorded in reference to the Oyo Empire in a written by the 16th-century Songhai scholar Ahmed Baba. It was popularized by Hausa usage and ethnography written in Arabic and Ajami during the 19th century, the extension of the term to all speakers of dialects related to the language of the Oyo dates to the second half of the 19th century. It is due to the influence of Samuel Ajayi Crowther, the first Anglican bishop in Nigeria, Crowther was himself a Yoruba and compiled the first Yoruba dictionary as well as introducing a standard for Yoruba orthography. The number of speakers is estimated at about 30 million in 2010. Yoruba is classified within the Edekiri languages, which together with the isolate Igala, Igala and Yoruba have important historical and cultural relationships. The languages of the two ethnic groups bear such a close resemblance that researchers such as Forde and Westermann and Bryan regarded Igala as a dialect of Yoruba, the Yoruboid languages are assumed to have developed out of an undifferentiated Volta-Niger group by the 1st millennium BCE. There are three dialect areas, Northwest, Central, and Southeast. The area where North-West Yoruba is spoken corresponds to the historical Oyo Empire, south-East Yoruba was probably associated with the expansion of the Benin Empire after c. Central Yoruba forms an area in that the lexicon has much in common with NWY. Though for a part based on the Oyo and Ibadan dialects. As of the 7th century BCE the African peoples who lived in Yorubaland were not initially known as the Yoruba, although they shared a common ethnicity, by the 8th century, a powerful Yoruba kingdom already existed in Ile-Ife, one of the earliest in Africa
22.
Ijaw people
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Ijaw are a collection of peoples indigenous mostly to the regions of the Bayelsa, Edo, Delta, Ondo, and Rivers States within the Niger Delta in Nigeria. The Ijo population is estimated to be over 10 million people and they have long lived in locations near many sea trade routes, and they were well connected to other areas by trade as early as the 15th century. The former President of Nigeria, Goodluck Jonathan, is an Ijaw, the Ijaw speak nine closely related Niger–Congo languages, all of which belong to the Ijoid branch of the Niger–Congo tree. There are two prominent groupings of the Izon language, the first, termed either Western or Central Izon consists of Western Ijaw speakers, Ekeremor, Sagbama, Bassan, Apoi, Arogbo, Boma, Kabo, Ogboin, Tarakiri, and Kolokuma-Opokuma. Nembe, Brass and Akassa dialects represent Southeast Ijo, buseni and Okordia dialects are considered Inland Ijo. The other major Ijaw linguistic group is Kalabari, Kalabari is considered an Eastern Ijaw language but the term Eastern Ijaw is not the normal nomenclature. Kalabari is the name of one of the Ijaw clans that reside on the side of the Niger-Delta who form a major group in Rivers State. Other Eastern Ijaw clans are the Okrika, Ibani and Nkoroo and they are neighbours to the Kalabari people in present-day Rivers State, Nigeria. Other related Ijaw subgroups which have distinct languages but very close kinship, cultural and territorial ties with the rest of the Ijaw are the Epie-Atissa, Engenni and these groups speak Delta Edoid languages. The Ogbia clan, Andoni people, as well as residents of Bukuma and Abuloma speak Cross River languages and it was discovered in the 1980s that a nearly extinct Berbice Creole Dutch, spoken in Guyana, is partly based on Ijo lexicon and grammar. Its nearest relative seems to be Eastern Ijo, most likely Kalabari, the Ijaw ethnic group consists of 50 loosely affiliated clans. These clans are based along kinship lines and/or shared cultural and religious traditions, the other main occupation common among the Ijaw has traditionally been fishing and farming. Being a maritime people, many Ijaws were employed in the merchant shipping sector in the early, with the advent of oil and gas exploration in their territory, some are employed in that sector. Other main occupation are in the service of the Nigerian states of Bayelsa. Extensive state-government sponsored overseas scholarship programs in the 1970s and 1980s have also led to a significant presence of Ijaw professionals in Europe, smoke-dried fish, timber, palm oil and palm kernels are processed for export. While some clans had chiefs and a stratified society, other clans are believed not to have had any centralized confederacies until the arrival of the British. However, owing to influence of the neighbouring Kingdom of Benin individual communities even in the western Niger Delta also had chiefs, marriages are completed by the payment of a bridal dowry, which increases in size if the bride is from another village. Funeral ceremonies, particularly for those who have accumulated wealth and respect, are very dramatic
23.
Urhobo people
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The Urhobos are people of southern Nigeria, near the northwestern Niger delta. The Urhobo is the ethnic group in Delta State. Delta State is one of the 36 states of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, the Urhobos speak the Urhobo language. The Urhobo culture is related to cultures in the Niger-Delta. Isoko is closely related in language and culture, leading to the missionaries erroneously labelling the Urhobo and this name was strongly rejected by both tribes. However, there are those of the opinion that Isoko is a dialect of Urhobo, the Urhobo nation is made up of twenty four sub-groups, including Okpe the largest of all Urhobo sub-groups. Isoko used to be regarded as a part of Urhobo nation until the late 1950s when they were granted autonomy, there are about two million Urhobos. The word Urhobo refer to a group of people and not the geographical territory, the Urhobos have social and cultural affinity to the Edo speaking people of Nigeria. The Urhobo now live in a territory bounded by latitudes 6°and 5°, 15° North and Longitudes 5°, 40° and 6°, 25° East in the Delta State and Bayelsa State of Nigeria. Their neighbours are the Isoko to the South East, the Itsekiri to the West, the Urhobo territory consist of evergreen forest with many oil palm trees which provide the lucrative palm produce industry for which the Urhobo have some technological preserve. The territory is covered by a network of streams whose volumes of water and flow are directly concerned with the season, wet season. The Urhobos are currently organized as kingdoms, gerontocracy and plutocracies. Although it is not clear which kingship is older among the kingdoms, Urhobo politics and government structure occur at two levels kingdom level town level. Men and women of Urhobo heritage are organized either by elders based on the system and or based on rich. An outline of Urhobo indigenous government and politics have the titles and he is the symbol of his kingdoms, culture and also of his royal predecessors. His Councillors are called Otota, Ohoveworen or Okakoro, addressed collectively as Ilorogun, other title holders are the executioners and warriors called Ogbu. Historically, this region was the most pristine in all of Africa, until the Portuguese burst into its territories in the late fifteenth century, its forest peoples cultivated their own forms of civilization, untouched by outside influences. A bulk of the Urhobo people reside in the South Western states of Delta, ofoni is an Urhobo community in Sagbama Local Government Area in Bayelsa State of the Federal Republic of Nigeria
24.
Ukwuani people
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The Ukwuani people are located in the southern part of Nigeria in the western part of the Niger Delta. They are found majorly in the part of Delta State and in some western parts of Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni local government area of Rivers State. Ukwuani people are located in the Delta North senatorial district of Delta State and their indigenous territory stretches over three robust Local Government Areas, namely Ndokwa East, Ndokwa West and Ukwuani. Boasting of over three towns and villages in total, the Ukwuani are the second-largest indigenous ethnic group in Delta State. The most popular settlements in their terrain include Kwale, Aboh, Abbi, Ndokwa land lies between latitudes 50481 N and 50601 N and longitudes 60081 E and 60321 E of Delta State. The important rivers in the region are Niger, Ethiope, Adofi, in the swampy region, numerous creeks and impassable dense forest abound which also experience flood during certain period of the year. The area also has adequate rainfall all year round and the vegetation is a mixture of evergreen forest, the Ukwuani people, just like every other tribe or ethnic group in Nigeria has their own traditions of origin. Hence, one has to rely on oral traditions from the Okpala’s, Okwa’s, Onotu’s, Eze’s, Ada’s, again, there are so many traditions of origins of Ukwuani and this has been a subject of great controversy. The controversy arose from the fact there are vested interest on the topic with each clan, village or family component trying to exert influence. In consequence of the heterogeneity of Ukwuani clans, divergent views were held with regards to the origins of the people. However, from the account of the elders, three waves of migration appeared to account for the present population of the Ukwuani people from the varying accounts of the elders. The first wave are represented by the clans who claimed to have originated from Benin Kingdom, some of these clans include Umu-akashiada, Ebedei, and Akarai. The second waves of independent settlers and expansionist from the great Nri Kingdom are those whose ancestors migrated from Eastern Nigeria, the clans in this group settled along the bank of the River Niger and they include Umu-obarauchi, Ndoni, Onya, and Adawai. A third wave is in the form of a well organised expendition of Benin conquerors and some of this include, Aboh, Amai. Ogbe-ani in Utagba-uno clan also claimed to migrate from ancient Benin Kingdom, stated that apart from these three waves of immigration, there are also mixed eastern and western Igbo, Igala origin and Edo immigration. It is a branch of the Volta-Niger language family and have slight differences in the Language based on their closeness to the four ethnic groups at their borders. These are, Igbo, Urhobo, Edo and Ijaw, the one spoken by the majority of the people is the Utagba dialect. It is easily understood by the speaker of the other dialects, Ukwuani language is also included in the list of 27 Nigerian languages approved by the Federal Government for the purposes of “mother tongue education”
25.
Okrika
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Okrika is a port town in Rivers State, Nigeria, capital of the Local Government Area of the same name. The town is situated on an island just south of Port Harcourt. The average elevation of Okrika is 452 metres and it lies on the north of the Bonny River and on Okrika Island,35 miles upstream from the Bight of Biafra. The town can be reached by vessels of a draft of 29 feet or less and it served as a port for the exportation of palm oil after the abolition of the slave trade in the 1830s, but it was a less significant port facility than either Bonny or Opobo. It also has a gas plant facility that supplies to the refinery. Refined petroleum products are Okrika’s only significant exports, the town has considerable local trade in fish, oil palm produce, locally processed salt, cassava, taro, plantains, and yams. The 2006 census determined the population of the Wakirike Local Government Area of the Rivers State of Nigeria was 222,026, an estimated 145,000 Okrika natives live elsewhere around the world, mostly in the United Kingdom and the United States. The local Kirike language is part of the ljoid group, also spoken by some natives as first language is the Igbo language as well. Nine traditional towns constituted the Okrika Kingdom before 1913, these towns are Kirike, Ogoloma, Ogu, Bolo, Abuloma, Ogbogbo, Ibaka, Ele, most of these traditional towns also have satellite villages. Today the constituent towns of Okrika kingdom has increased to eleven towns, the additional two towns are Obumoton and Koniju Town. Obumoton is a name for Okrika villages acquired by the British Colonial Government in 1913 to establish a sea port now Port Harcourt. Some Ikwere Igbo villages were also acquired by the Colonial Government, Obumoton is also part of Okrika Kingdom. The Koniju section of Kirike was declared Koniju town by a Rivers State high court in 1995 and it is now also a constituent town of Okrika Kingdom. The traditional towns that constitutes the Okrika nation has therefore increased from nine prior to 1913 to eleven towns as at 1995. Kinsmen living together in the area make up each War-Canoe House. Although the War-Canoe is an institution of kinship, historically, it deals principally with war, War-Canoe houses may be different in terms of size and man power. However, Benefits and community assets are shared to the War-Canoe house equally, every War-Canoe House is headed by a Chief who is assisted in various capacities by sub-chiefs. The Chief is addressed as the Warinyanabo or Waridabo showing his status as head of the entire War-Canoe house, each War-Canoe house also known as Omuaru-wari or Warinyengi is constituted by sub-units known variously as Warikubu or Oko
26.
Ogoni people
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The Ogoni Kingdom are one of the many indigenous peoples in the region of southeast Nigeria. They number about 1.5 million people and live in a 404-square-mile homeland which they refer to as Ogoni. They share common oil-related environmental problems with the Ijaw people of Niger Delta, the Ogoni rose to international attention after a massive public protest campaign against Shell Oil, led by the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People. The territory is located in Rivers State on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea and it extends across the Local Government Areas Khana, Gokhana, Eleme and Tae. Traditionally, Ogoniland is divided into the six kingdoms of Babbe, Gokana, Ken-Khana, Nyo-Khana, Eleme and Tai. Major language of the Ogoni people is khana which mutually twisted intelligible by the six kingdom Khana, Gokana, Tae, Eleme, according to oral tradition, the Ogoni people migrated from ancient Ghana down to the Atlantic coast eventually making their way over to the eastern Niger Delta. Linguistic calculations done by Kay Williamson place the Ogoni in the Niger Delta since before 15 BC, radiocarbon dating taken from sites around Ogoniland and the neighboring communities oral traditions also support this claim. Traditionally, the Ogoni are agricultural, also known for herding, fishing, salt and palm oil cultivation. They survived the period of the trade in relative isolation. After Nigeria was colonized by the British in 1885, British soldiers arrived in Ogoni by 1901, major resistance to their presence continued through 1914. The Ogoni were integrated into a succession of economic systems at a pace that was extremely rapid and exacted a great toll from them. At the turn of the century, “the world to them did not extend beyond the next three or four villages, ” but that soon changed. ”The Ogoni people have been victims of human rights violations for many years. Because of oil spills, oil flaring, and waste discharge, furthermore, in many areas that seemed to be unaffected, groundwater was found to have high levels of hydrocarbons or were contaminated with benzene, a carcinogen, at 900 levels above WHO guidelines. UNEP estimated that it could take up to 30 years to rehabilitate Ogoniland to its full potential, in October 1990, MOSOP presented The Ogoni Bill of Rights to the government. The Bill hoped to gain political and economic autonomy for the Ogoni people, in the chaos that followed, it has been alleged that 27 villages were raided, resulting in the death of 2,000 Ogoni people and displacement of 80,000. A word list of the Gokana dialect of Ogoni, journal of West African Languages, 143-52. The representation of nasality in Gokana, in, The structure of phonological representations. Ed. H. van der Hulst & Norval Smith, in, Current issues in African linguistics,2
27.
Bight of Benin
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The Bight of Benin or Bay of Benin is a bight in the Gulf of Guinea area on the western African coast. It extends eastward for about 400 miles from Cape St. Paul to the Nun outlet of the Niger River, to the east it is continued by the Bight of Bonny. The Republic of Benin and this bight were both named after the Benin Empire, on December 25,2003, UTAGE Flight 141 crashed in the Bight. Historical associations with the Atlantic slave trade led to the becoming known as the Slave Coast. The Bight of Benin has an association with slavery, its shore being known as the Slave Coast. An old rhyme says, Beware, beware the Bight of the Benin, a variation goes, Beware beware, the Bight of Benin, one comes out, where fifty went in. This is said to be a jingle or sea shanty about the risk of malaria in the Bight. A third version of the couplet is Beware and take care of the Bight of Benin, theres one comes out for forty goes in. The author Philip McCutchan has written a book titled Beware, beware the Bight of Benin, a short story by Elizabeth Coatsworth, The Forgotten Island, deals with a treasure from Benin. A variation of the rhyme is also mentioned, in Patrick OBrians novel The Commodore, Dr. Maturin recites the rhyme when he learned of his ships destination. Commodore Aubrey checks him, telling him it is bad luck to say out loud on the way in. The rhyme is also quoted in chapter Context of John Brunners novel Stand on Zanzibar. The Bight of Benin is mentioned throughout the novel, david Bramhalls trilogy The Greatest Cape also mentions the rhyme, one of the characters in the first volume, The Black Joke, having been a pirate and a slaver. In 2007, a collection of stories entitled The Bight of Benin. The stories are set in Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria, avant-garde musician Bucketheads song The Bight of Benin off the album Albino Slug is named after this area. Paul to the Nun outlet of River Niger
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Bight of Biafra
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The Bight of Biafra is a bight off the West African coast, in the easternmost part of the Gulf of Guinea. The Bight of Biafra extends east of the Bight of Benin from the River Delta of the Niger in the north until it reaches Cape Lopez in Gabon. Besides the Niger River, other rivers reaching the bay are the Cross River, Wouri River, Calabar River, Ndian, Wouri, Sanaga, Nyong River, Ntem, Mbia, Mbini, Muni and Komo River. The main islands in the Bay are Bioko and Príncipe, other important islands are Ilhéu Bom Bom, Ilhéu Caroço, Elobey Grande, countries located at the Bight of Bonny are Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon. The area would, in different steps, merge further via the 12 May 1893 Niger Coast Protectorate,1 January 1900, on 28 February 1906 made into the Colony, from 1 January 1914, it was part of Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. The bight was renamed within independent Nigeria in 1972, when after the Biafran War, the Nigerian government wanted to remove the name of the term Biafra considered secessionist
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Adamawa State
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Adamawa is a state in northeastern Nigeria, with its capital at Yola. It was formed in 1991 from part of Gongola State with four divisions, Adamawa, Ganye, Mubi. It is the home of the American University of Nigeria in Yola and it is one of the thirty-six states that constitute the Federal Republic of Nigeria. On May 14,2013, President Goodluck Jonathan declared a state of emergency in Adamawa State, along with neighboring Borno State and Yobe State, Adamawa is one of the largest states of Nigeria and occupies about 36,917 square kilometres. It is bordered by the states of Borno to the northwest, Gombe to the west and its eastern border forms the national eastern border with Cameroon. Topographically, it is a mountainous land crossed by the river valleys – Benue, Gongola. The valleys of the Cameroon, Mandara and Adamawa mountains form part of the landscape, the major occupation of the people is farming as reflected in their two notable vegetational zones, tile Sub-Sudan and Northern Guinea Savannah Zone. Their cash crops are cotton and groundnuts while food crops maize, yam, cassava, guinea corn, millet. The village communities living on the banks of the engage in fishing while the Fulanis are cattle rearers. The state has a network of roads linking all parts of the country and these were however handed over, as UN Trustee Territories, to the British at the end of the first World War with the signing of the Versailles Treaty. After a series of plebiscites, the Northern Kameruns joined Nigeria to form the then Sardauna Province, the Church of the Brethren in Nigeria was founded in Garkida Gombi Local Government of the state in March 1923 by American missionaries. The Lutheran Church of Christ in Nigeria was founded in Numan by Dutch missionaries in 1913, before it became a state in Nigeria, Adamawa was a subordinate kingdom of the Sultanate of Sokoto which also included much of northern Cameroon. The rulers bear the title of emir, the name Adamawa came from the founder of the kingdom, Modibbo Adama, a regional leader of the Fulani Jihad organized by Usumaanu dan Fodio of Sokoto in 1804. Modibbo Adama came from the region of Gurin and in 1806 received a flag for leading the jihad in his native country. In the following years Adama conquered many lands and tribes, in 1838 he moved his capital to Ribadu, and in 1839 to Joboliwo. In 1841 he founded Yola, where he died in 1848, after the European colonization the rulers remained as emirs, and the line of succession has continued to the present day. Another 100,000 internally displaced persons are estimated to be living in households outside the camps, some Nigerians who had earlier fled to Cameroon have now been repatriated. Yet another estimate placed the number of displaced persons around Yola at 400,000
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Taraba State
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Taraba is a state in Nigeria, named after the Taraba River which traverses the southern part of the state. The state was created out of the former Gongola State on 27 August 1991, by the military government of General Ibrahim Babangida. Taraba State is bounded in the west by Nasarawa State and Benue State, northwest by Plateau State, north by Bauchi State and Gombe State, northeast by Adamawa State, east and south by Cameroon. Taraba State lies largely within the middle of Nigeria and consists of undulating landscape dotted with a few mountainous features and these include the scenic and prominent Mambilla Plateau. The state lies largely within the zone and has a vegetation of low forest in the southern part. The Mambilla Plateau with an altitude of 1,800 meters above sea level has a temperate climate all year round, rivers Benue, Donga, lau Taraba and Ibi are the main rivers in the state. They rise from the Cameroonian mountains, straining almost the length of the state in the North and South direction to link up with the River Niger. Taraba State consists of sixteen Local Government Areas and they are governed by elected chairmen. They are as follows, The major occupation of the people of Taraba State is agriculture, cash crops produced in the state include coffee, tea, groundnuts and cotton. Crops such as maize, rice, sorghum, millet, cassava, in addition, cattle, sheep and goats are reared in large numbers, especially on the Mambilla Plateau, and along the Benue and Taraba valleys. Similarly, the people undertake other livestock production activities like poultry production, rabbit breeding, communities living on the banks of River Benue, River Taraba, River Donga and Ibi engage in fishing all year round. Other occupational activities such as pottery, cloth-weaving, dyeing, mat-making, carving, embroidery and blacksmithing are also carried out in various parts of the State. Other festivals are Purma of the Chamba in Donga, Takum and jibu culture dance in Bali, a striking historical fact about the State is that it encompasses part of the Mambilla Region which is famed as the Bantu cradle, having been occupied for some five millennia to date. Taraba State website Nigerian Post Office- with map of LGAs of the state
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Bakassi
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Bakassi is a peninsula on the Gulf of Guinea. It lies between the Cross River estuary, near the city of Calabar in the west, and the Rio del Ray estuary on the east. It is governed by Cameroon, following the transfer of sovereignty from neighbouring Nigeria as a result of a judgment by the International Court of Justice. On 22 November 2007, the Nigerian Senate rejected the transfer, regardless, the territory was transferred to Cameroon on 14 August 2008. The peninsula lies between latitudes 4°25′ and 5°10′N and longitudes 8°20′ and 9°08′E and it consists of a number of low-lying, largely mangrove covered islands covering an area of around 665 km². The population of Bakassi is the subject of dispute, but is generally put at between 150,000 and 300,000 people. Bakassi is situated at the eastern end of the Gulf of Guinea. This makes the Bakassi area a fertile fishing ground, comparable only to Newfoundland in North America. Most of the population make their living through fishing, the peninsula is commonly described as oil-rich, though in fact no commercially viable deposits of oil have been discovered. However, the area has aroused considerable interest from oil companies in the light of the discovery of reserves of high grade crude oil in Nigeria. At least eight multinational oil companies have participated in the exploration of the peninsula, in October 2012, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation announced it had discovered new oil and gas resources in the Bakassi region. During the Scramble for Africa, Queen Victoria signed a Treaty of Protection with the King and Chiefs of Akwa Akpa and this enabled the British Empire to exercise control over the entire territory around Calabar, including Bakassi. The territory subsequently became de facto part of Nigeria, although the border was never permanently delineated, after Southern Cameroons voted in 1961 to leave Nigeria and became a part of Cameroon, Bakassi remained under Calabar administration in Nigeria until ICJ judgement of 2002. Bakassi inhabitants are mainly the Oron people, the people of Cross River State, Nigeria and Cameroon have disputed the possession of Bakassi for some years, leading to considerable tension between the two countries. In 1981 the two went to the brink of war over Bakassi and another area around Lake Chad. More armed clashes broke out in the early 1990s, in response, Cameroon took the matter to the International Court of Justice on 29 March 1994. The case was extremely complex, requiring the court to review diplomatic exchanges dating back over 100 years, Cameroon pointed to the Anglo-German treaty of 1913, which defined sphere of control in the region, as well as two agreements signed in the 1970s between Cameroon and Nigeria. The line was drawn through the Cross River estuary to the west of the peninsula, however, Nigeria never ratified the agreement, while Cameroon regarded it as being in force
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Igboland
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Igboland, also known as Southeastern Nigeria, is the indigenous homeland of the Igbo people. It is a cultural and common linguistic region in southern Nigeria. Geographically, it is divided by the lower Niger River into two unequal sections – an eastern and a western section and it is characterised by the diverse Igbo culture and the equally diverse Igbo language. Politically, Igboland is divided into several southern Nigerian states, culturally, it is divided into several subgroupings, including the Anioma, Ngwa, Edda Egbebu, Ezaa, Ibeku, Ohuhu, Omuma and the Ekpeye. William Balfour Baikie remarked that in Igbo each person hails, as a sailor would say, from the district where he was born. And yet considerable differences exist between different parts of this country, and the dialects spoken also vary greatly. Igboland is surrounded on all sides by a host of large rivers, in the words of William B. On the north it borders on Igara, Igala and Akpoto, the earliest found settlements in Igboland date back to 4500 BC in the central area, from where the majority of the Igbo-speaking population is believed to have migrated. The northern Igbo Kingdom of Nri, which rose around the 10th century AD, is credited with the foundation of much of Igbolands culture, customs and it is the oldest existing monarchy in present-day Nigeria. In southern Igboland several groups developed, of which the most notable was the Aro confederacy, Igboland was part of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate of the British Empire and was amalgamated into modern-day Nigeria in 1914, the nation gained independence in 1960. Shortly afterwards Igboland was involved in its biggest war during Biafras movement for secession, balkie when signing a trade agreement with Igbo chief, Ezebogo in Asaba on August 30,1885. Early settlement of Igboland dates back to 6000 BC based on early pottery work found in the Okigwe, Oka Igwe, some local Villagers retains the Original name, like Umuzuoka, The Blacksmiths Ezioka, Okigwe, Imoka, etc. Oka, igwe-Nsukka axis. There is, however, evidence of Palaeolithic man settling in southern Nigeria from at least 10,000 years ago, anthropologists at the University of Benin discovered fossils and use of monoliths dating back to 6000 BC at Ugwelle-Uturu in the Okigwe area. Further evidence of ancient settlements were uncovered at a hypothesised Nsukka metal cultural area from 3000 BC, the Nsukka-Okigwe axis forms as a basis for a proposed Proto-Igbo cultural heartland antecedent to contemporary Igbo culture. It is unclear what cultural links there are between these pre-historic artefacts and today, much of the Igbo population is believed to have migrated from a smaller area in this region, starting several independent Igbo-speaking tribes, village-groups, kingdoms and states. The works were based in Igbo Ukwu and further finds were found by archaeology teams led by Thurstan Shaw in 1959-60, the works have been attributed to an isolated bronze industry which had developed without outside influence over time to reach such sophistication. Igbo trade routes of the second millennium reached the cities of Mecca, Medina. There was evidence of beads that originated in India in the 9th century Igbo Ukwu burial sites, the burial site was associated with the Nri Kingdom which began around the same century according to indigenous history
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Nigerian Civil War
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The Nigerian Civil War, better known as the Biafran War, was a war fought to counter the secession of Biafra from Nigeria. Biafra represented nationalist aspirations of the Igbo people, whose leadership felt they could no longer coexist with the Northern-dominated federal government, the conflict resulted from political, economic, ethnic, cultural and religious tensions which preceded Britains formal decolonisation of Nigeria from 1960 to 1963. Immediate causes of the war in 1966 included a military coup, a counter-coup, control over oil production in the Niger Delta played a vital strategic role. Within a year, the Federal Military Government surrounded Biafra, capturing coastal oil facilities, the blockade imposed during the ensuing stalemate led to severe famine—accomplished deliberately as a war strategy. Over the two and half years of the war, there were about 100,000 overall military casualties and this famine entered world awareness in mid-1968, when images of malnourished and starving children suddenly saturated the mass media of Western countries. The plight of the starving Biafrans became a cause célèbre in foreign countries, enabling a significant rise in the funding, Britain and the Soviet Union were the main backers of the Federal Military Government in Lagos, while France and some independent elements supported Biafra. France and Israel provided weapons to both combatants, the civil war can be linked back to the 1914 amalgamation of Northern and southern Nigeria, which was for the purpose of better administration due to close proximity. However, there was so much difference in the culture and religion of the people, after the amalgamation, oil was discovered in Eastern Nigeria, and this was a turning point in the history of Nigeria, as this led to the struggle for control amongst the regions. At this point, there was a power tussle to see who could control the power and with southern Nigeria not as united as the north. In July 1966 Northern officers staged a counter-coup to revenge on the easterners which saw Lt. Col. Yakubu Gowon emerge as the head of state, during his tenure killing of Easters in the north continued and this led to several actions which eventually resulted in the Biafran war. Nigeria, which gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1960, had at time a population of 60 million people consisting of more than 300 differing ethnic. More than fifty years earlier, the United Kingdom had carved an area out of West Africa containing hundreds of different ethnic groups and unified it, calling it Nigeria. Although these groups have their own homelands, by the 1960s they were dispersed across Nigeria, when the war broke out in 1967 there were still 5,000 Igbos in Lagos. The semi-feudal and Islamic Hausa-Fulani in the North were traditionally ruled by a feudal, conservative Islamic hierarchy consisting of Emirs who, in turn and this Sultan was regarded as the source of all political power and religious authority. The Yoruba political system in the southwest, like that of the Hausa-Fulani, also consisted of a series of monarchs, in its zenith the Kingdom controlled most of Igbo land, including influence on the Anioma people, Arochukwu, and Onitsha land. Unlike the other two regions, decisions among the Igbo were made by an assembly in which men could participate. The differing political systems among these three peoples reflected and produced divergent customs and values, political decisions were to be submitted to. As with other highly authoritarian religious and political systems, leadership positions were taken by persons willing to be subservient, a chief function of this political system was to maintain Islamic and conservative values, which caused many Hausa-Fulani to view economic and social innovation as subversive or sacrilegious
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Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People
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The Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People, also known as, is a mass‐based social movement organization of the indigenous Ogoni people of Central Niger Delta. Founded in 1990 by Ken Saro-Wiwa, Ogoni Chiefs of MOSOP initiated efforts with the Ogoni Bill of Rights, Saro-Wiwa led its submission to the government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Peoples in Geneva. Saro-Wiwa called it an ecological war, the Ogoni country has been completely destroyed by the search for oil. Oil blowouts, spillages, oil slicks, and general pollution accompany the search for oil, Oil companies have flared gas in Nigeria for the past thirty three years causing acid rain. What used to be the bread basket of the delta has now become totally infertile, all one sees and feels around is death. Environmental degradation has been a weapon in the war against the indigenous Ogoni people. It can be assumed that, due to under-reporting, the real figure is substantially higher. Another calculation, based on oil industry sources, estimates that more than 1.07 million barrels of oil were spilled in Nigeria from 1960 to 1997, DPR estimates were that more than 400,000 barrels were spilled in this incident. The result of such unchecked environmental pollution and degradation are that The Ogoni can no longer farm successfully, once the food basket of the eastern Niger Delta, the Ogoni now buy food, Fish, once a common source of protein, is now rare. Owing to the constant and continual pollution of our streams and creeks, fish can only be caught in deeper, the health hazards generated by an atmosphere charged with hydrocarbon vapour, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are innumerable. Water contamination of water supply resulted in fish kills and ruinous effects on farmland. A Human Rights Watch interview with Uche Onyeagocha, staff attorney, Civil Liberties Organisation, Washington, the World Bank estimates this accrues to only 1% of the general population. The Ogoni people will ask that Nigeria be duly chastised by both organizations for its actions and uncivilized behaviour. And if Nigeria persists in its perversity, then it should be expelled from both organizations. —Ogoni Bill of Rights Former World Bank Vice-President for Africa, Dr. Oby Ezekwesili, around 70% of the oil revenues were estimated by a Nigerian anti-corruption agency to have been wasted or lost to corruption. The Nuhu Ribadu led Task Force on Oil Revenue, produced a 146-page study covering 2002–2011, Shell Oil has maintained that the issues of pollution of the Niger Delta is brought about by illegal refining of crude oil, sabotage and theft of oil field infrastructure. Under Nigerian law the company is responsible for cleaning up oil spills from its facilities. Therefore, the human and environmental impact of Shells failure to clean up pollution cannot be defended by reference to illegal activity that, allegedly
35.
Ken Saro Wiwa
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Kenule Beeson Ken Saro-Wiwa was a Nigerian writer, television producer, environmental activist, and winner of the Right Livelihood Award and the Goldman Environmental Prize. He was also a critic of the Nigerian government, which he viewed as reluctant to enforce environmental regulations on the foreign petroleum companies operating in the area. His execution provoked outrage and resulted in Nigerias suspension from the Commonwealth of Nations for over three years. Born Kenule Tsaro-Wiwa, the son of Jim Wiwa, a forest ranger and his third wife and he changed his name to Saro-Wiwa after the Nigerian Civil war. His fathers home town is the village of Bori, Ogoniland whose residents speak the Khana dialect of Ogoni language, a distinguished student, Saro-Wiwa was captain of the table tennis team and amassed school prizes in history and English. On completion of education, he obtained a scholarship to study English at the University of Ibadan. At Ibadan, he plunged into academic and cultural interests, he won prizes in 1963 and 1965. The traveling drama troupe performed in Kano, Benin Ilorin and Lagos and he briefly became a teaching assistant at the University of Lagos and later at University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Saro-Wiwa was an African literature lecturer in Nsukka when the Civil war broke out, on his journey to Port-Harcourt, he witnessed the multitudes of refugees returning to the East, a scene he described as a sorry sight to see. Three days after his arrival, nearby Bonny was liberated by federal troops and he followed his job as an administrator with appointment as a commissioner in the old Rivers State. Saro-Wiwas war diaries, On a Darkling Plain, document his experience during the war and he was also a successful businessman and television producer. His satirical television series, Basi & Company, was wildly popular, in the early 1970s Saro-Wiwa served as the Regional Commissioner for Education in the Rivers State Cabinet, but was dismissed in 1973 because of his support for Ogoni autonomy. In the late 1970s, he established a number of business ventures in retail and real estate. In 1977, he involved in the political arena running as the candidate to represent Ogoni in the Constituent Assembly. Saro-Wiwa lost the election in a narrow margin and it was during this time he had a fall out with his friend Edwards Kobani. Saro-Wiwas works include TV, drama and prose writing, Transistor Radio, one of his best known plays was written for a revue during his university days at Ibadan but still resonated well with Nigerian society and was adapted into a television series. Some of his works drew inspiration from the play, in 1972, a radio version of the play was produced and in 1985, he produced, Basi and Company, a successful screen adaption of the play. Saro-Wiwa included the play in Four Farcical Plays and Basi and Company, Basi and company, an adaptation of Transistor Radio ran on television from 1985 to 1990
