1.
Hawaii
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Hawaii is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States of America, having received statehood on August 21,1959. Hawaii is the only U. S. state located in Oceania and it is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U. S. state not located in the Americas, the state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast, Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Island of Hawaiʻi. The last is the largest island in the group, it is called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U. S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U. S. states. It is the state with an Asian plurality. The states coastline is about 750 miles long, the fourth longest in the U. S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida, the state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaiʻi is that was named for Hawaiʻiloa and he is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled. The Hawaiian language word Hawaiʻi is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, cognates of Hawaiʻi are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori, Rarotongan and Samoan. According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaiʻi or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the home, but in Hawaii. A somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as an official state language. The title of the constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii, diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length
2.
Hawaiian Islands
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Formerly the group was known to Europeans and Americans as the Sandwich Islands, a name chosen by James Cook in honor of the then First Lord of the Admiralty John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich. The contemporary name is derived from the name of the largest island, the Hawaiian monarchy was overthrown in 1893 and the United States annexed the islands in 1898. The Hawaiian Islands are the peaks of a great undersea mountain range known as the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. The islands are about 1,860 miles from the nearest continent and this name was in use until the 1840s, when the local name Hawaii gradually began to take precedence. The Hawaiian Islands have a land area of 6,423.4 square miles. Except for Midway, which is a territory of the United States. The eight main islands of Hawaii are listed here and this number includes all minor islands and islets, or very small island, offshore of the main islands and individual islets in each atoll. Thus, the southeast island is volcanically active, whereas the islands on the northwest end of the archipelago are older and typically smaller, the age of the archipelago has been estimated using potassium-argon dating methods.4 Ma. The only active volcanism in the last 200 years has been on the island, Hawaiʻi. The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory of the USGS documents recent volcanic activity and provides images, almost all of the magma of the hotspot has the composition of basalt, and so the Hawaiian volcanoes are composed almost entirely of this igneous rock. There is very little coarser-grained gabbro and diabase, nephelinite is exposed on the islands but is extremely rare. Hawaiʻi island is the biggest and youngest island in the chain, mauna Loa, taking up over half of the Big Island, is the largest shield volcano on the Earth. The measurement from sea level to summit is more than 2.5 miles, the Hawaiian Islands have many earthquakes, generally caused by volcanic activity. Most of the earthquake monitoring took place in Hilo, by missionaries Titus Coan, Sarah J. Lyman. From 1833 to 1896, approximately 4 or 5 earthquakes were reported per year, Hawaii accounted for 7. 3% of the United States reported earthquakes with a magnitude 3.5 or greater from 1974 to 2003, with a total 1533 earthquakes. Hawaii ranked as the state with the third most earthquakes over this period, after Alaska. On October 15,2006, there was an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.7 off the northwest coast of the island of Hawaii, the initial earthquake was followed approximately five minutes later by a magnitude 5.7 aftershock. Minor-to-moderate damage was reported on most of the Big Island, several major roadways became impassable from rock slides, and effects were felt as far away as Honolulu, Oahu, nearly 150 miles from the epicenter
3.
Hawaiian language
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The Hawaiian language is a Polynesian language that takes its name from Hawaiʻi, the largest island in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed. Hawaiian, along with English, is a language of the state of Hawaii. King Kamehameha III established the first Hawaiian-language constitution in 1839 and 1840, Hawaiian was essentially displaced by English on six of seven inhabited islands. In 2001, native speakers of Hawaiian amounted to under 0. 1% of the statewide population, linguists were unsure that Hawaiian and other endangered languages would survive. Nevertheless, from around 1949 to the present day, there has been an increase in attention to. Public Hawaiian-language immersion preschools called Pūnana Leo were started in 1984, the first students to start in immersion preschool have now graduated from college and many are fluent Hawaiian speakers. The federal government has acknowledged this development, for example, the Hawaiian National Park Language Correction Act of 2000 changed the names of several national parks in Hawaiʻi, observing the Hawaiian spelling. A pidgin or creole language spoken in Hawaiʻi is Hawaiian Pidgin and it should not be mistaken for the Hawaiian language nor for a dialect of English. The Hawaiian alphabet has 12 letters, five vowels and seven consonants and it contains an additional consonantal sound okina which is a glottal stop. The island name was first written in English in 1778 by British explorer James Cook and they wrote it as Owhyhee or Owhyee. Explorers Mortimer and Otto von Kotzebue used that spelling, the initial O in the name is a reflection of the fact that unique identity is predicated in Hawaiian by using a copula form, o, immediately before a proper noun. Thus, in Hawaiian, the name of the island is expressed by saying O Hawaiʻi, the Cook expedition also wrote Otaheite rather than Tahiti. The spelling why in the name reflects the pronunciation of wh in 18th-century English, the spelling hee or ee in the name represents the sounds, or. Putting the parts together, O-why-ee reflects, an approximation of the native pronunciation. American missionaries bound for Hawaiʻi used the phrases Owhihe Language and Owhyhee language in Boston prior to their departure in October 1819 and they still used such phrases as late as March 1822. However, by July 1823, they had begun using the phrase Hawaiian Language, in Hawaiian, ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi means Hawaiian language, as adjectives follow nouns. Hawaiian is a Polynesian member of the Austronesian language family and it is closely related to other Polynesian languages, such as Marquesan, Tahitian, Māori, Rapa Nui, and less closely to Samoan and Tongan. According to Schütz, the Marquesans colonized the archipelago in roughly 300 CE followed by waves of immigration from the Society Islands
4.
Kauai
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For the Childish Gambino EP see STN MTN / Kauai Kauaʻi or Kauai is geologically the oldest of the main Hawaiian Islands. With an area of 562.3 square miles, it is the fourth largest of these islands, known also as the Jurassic Isle, Kauaʻi lies 105 miles across the Kauaʻi Channel, northwest of Oʻahu. This island is the site of Waimea Canyon State Park, the United States Census Bureau defines Kauaʻi as census tracts 401 through 409 of Kauaʻi County, Hawaiʻi, which comprises all of the county except for the islands of Kaʻula, Lehua and Niʻihau. The 2010 United States Census population of the island was 67,091, the most populous town was Kapaʻa. Hawaiian narrative locates the origin in the legend of Hawaiʻiloa. The story relates how he named the island of Kauaʻi after a favorite son, another possible translation is food season. Kauaʻi was known for its dialect of the Hawaiian language. While the standard language today adopts the dialect of Hawaiʻi island, which has the sound, in effect, Kauaʻi dialect retained the old pan-Polynesian /t/, while standard Hawaiʻi dialect has changed it to the. Therefore, the name for Kauaʻi was said as Tauaʻi. Kauaʻis origins are volcanic, the island having been formed by the passage of the Pacific Plate over the Hawaii hotspot, at approximately six million years old, it is the oldest of the main islands. The highest peak on this island is Kawaikini at 5,243 feet. The second highest peak is Mount Waiʻaleʻale near the center of the island,5,148 feet above sea level, one of the wettest spots on earth, with an annual average rainfall of 1,170 centimetres, is located on the east side of Mount Waiʻaleʻale. The high annual rainfall has eroded deep valleys in the central mountains, at 3,000 feet deep, Waimea Canyon is often referred to as The Grand Canyon of the Pacific. Kokeo Point lies on the side of the island. The Na Pali Coast is a center for recreation in a setting, including kayaking past the beaches. The headland, Kuahonu Point, is on the south-east of the island, Kauaʻi’s climate is tropical, with generally humid and stable conditions year round, although weather phenomena and infrequent storms have caused instances of extreme weather. At the lower elevations the annual precipitation varies from an average of about 50 inches on the windward shore, average temperature in Lihue, the county seat, ranges from 78 °F in February to 85 °F in August and September. Kauaʻi’s mountainous regions offer cooler temperatures and provide a pleasant contrast to the coastal areas
5.
Wetland
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A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally, such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem. The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants. Wetlands play a number of roles in the environment, principally water purification, flood control, carbon sink, Wetlands are also considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal life. Wetlands occur naturally on every continent except Antarctica, the largest including the Amazon River basin, the West Siberian Plain, the water found in wetlands can be freshwater, brackish, or saltwater. The main wetland types include swamps, marshes, bogs, and fens, and sub-types include mangrove, carr, pocosin, the UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment determined that environmental degradation is more prominent within wetland systems than any other ecosystem on Earth. International conservation efforts are being used in conjunction with the development of rapid assessment tools to people about wetland issues. Constructed wetlands can be used to treat municipal and industrial wastewater as well as stormwater runoff and they may also play a role in water-sensitive urban design. A patch of land that develops pools of water after a storm would not be considered a wetland. Wetlands have unique characteristics, they are distinguished from other water bodies or landforms based on their water level. Specifically, wetlands are characterized as having a table that stands at or near the land surface for a long enough period each year to support aquatic plants. A more concise definition is a community composed of hydric soil, Wetlands have also been described as ecotones, providing a transition between dry land and water bodies. In environmental decision-making, there are subsets of definitions that are agreed upon to make regulatory and policy decisions. A wetland is an ecosystem that arises when inundation by water produces soils dominated by anaerobic processes, There are four main kinds of wetlands – marsh, swamp, bog and fen. Some experts also recognize wet meadows and aquatic ecosystems as additional wetland types, the largest wetlands in the world include the swamp forests of the Amazon and the peatlands of Siberia. Under the Ramsar international wetland conservation treaty, wetlands are defined as follows, Article 2.1, may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low tide lying within the wetlands. Although the general definition given above applies around the world, each county, Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs and similar areas. This definition has been used in the enforcement of the Clean Water Act, some US states, such as Massachusetts and New York, have separate definitions that may differ from the federal governments. It is not uncommon for a wetland to be dry for long portions of the growing season, the most important factor producing wetlands is flooding
6.
Hawaiian coot
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The Hawaiian coot, also known as the ʻalae kea in Hawaiian, is a bird in the rail family, Rallidae, that is endemic to Hawaiʻi. In Hawaiian, ʻalae is a noun and means mud hen, kea or its synonym keo is an adjective for white. It is similar to the American coot at 33–40.6 cm in length and it has black plumage and a prominent white frontal shield. Its natural habitats are lakes, freshwater marshes, coastal saline lagoons. The bird was federally listed in October 1970 as a species and is considered both endemic and endangered by the state of Hawaii. It is threatened by loss and introduced predators such as the small Asian mongoose. The Makalawena Marsh on the Big Island of Hawaiʻi has been listed as a National Natural Landmark to preserve one of its last nesting areas, the Hawaiian coot was federally listed in October 1970 as an endangered species and is considered both endemic and endangered by the state of Hawaii. The United States Fish and Wildlife Services 5-year review, conducted in 2010 and it is now considered either to be a separate species, Fulica alai, or a subspecies of the American coot, Fulica americana alai. Since the 1960s, the population size has fluctuated from less than 1,000 birds to over 3,000. Recent surveys estimated winter populations fluctuating around 1,500 birds and a summer population fluctuating around 2,000 birds
7.
Black-winged stilt
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The black-winged stilt, common stilt, or pied stilt is a widely distributed very long-legged wader in the avocet and stilt family. Opinions differ as to whether the birds treated under the scientific name H. himantopus ought to be treated as a species and if not. The scientific name Himantopus comes from the Greek meaning strap foot or thong foot, most sources today accept 2–4 species. They have long legs, a long thin black bill and are blackish above and white below, with a white head. Males have a back, often with greenish gloss. Females backs have a hue, contrasting with the black remiges. This difference is not clear-cut, however, and males usually get all-white heads in winter, immature birds are grey instead of black and have a markedly sandy hue on the wings, with light feather fringes appearing as a whitish line in flight. The taxonomy of this bird is somewhat contentious. Some describe as many as five species, others consider some or all of these to be subspecies. In addition, two subspecies are also sometimes listed, but not as independent species. In the most extensive circumscription, with one species and 5–7 subspecies, the name black-winged stilt on the other hand can specifically refer to the Old World nominate subspecies. Northwestern populations migrate south to Africa in winter, head and neck vary from all-white to white with all-black cap and hindneck, usually with white band across upper back. Sometimes a vestigial open black chest band is present, black-necked stilt Found from southern North America through Central America and the Caribbean to northern Peru and northeastern Brazil. Northernmost populations migrate south in winter, intergrades with white-backed stilt in central Brazil. Head and neck white with black cap down to the eyeline, has a white spot above eye. Usually shows no white band across upper back, but often has an open black chest band. White-backed stilt Found in South America from central Peru and northern Chile to southeastern Brazil, intergrades with black-necked stilt in central Brazil. Head and neck are white with black hindneck and a black line from the nape to the eye
8.
Hawaiian duck
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The Hawaiian duck or koloa is a species of bird in the family Anatidae that is endemic to the large islands of Hawaiʻi. Taxonomically, the koloa is closely allied with the mallard and it differs in that it is monochromatic and non-migratory. As with many species in the genus Anas, Hawaiian duck and mallards can interbreed and produce viable offspring. However, all major authorities now consider this form to be a species within the mallard complex. Recent analyses indicate that this is a species that arose through ancient hybridization between mallard and Laysan duck. The native Hawaiian name for duck is koloa maoli, or simply koloa. This species is listed as endangered by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, both male and female are mottled brown in color and resemble a female mallard. The males are bigger than the females. The speculum feathers of both sexes are green to blue, bordered on both sides by white, the tail is dark overall, unlike the black-and-white tail of a mallard. The feet and legs are orange to yellow-orange, the bill is olive green in the male and dull orange with dark markings in the female. The adult male has a head and neck, which is also sometimes green. The female is generally lighter-colored than the male and has plainer back feathers, a first-year male Hawaiian duck looks like an eclipse-plumaged male mallard. In addition, the extent of hybridization at a location can contribute to the difficulty of identification, the male Hawaiian duck has an average length of 48–50 cm and the female has an average length of 40–43 cm. On average, the male weighs 604 grams and the female weighs 460 grams, the Hawaiian duck is typically smaller than the mallard by 20 to 30 percent. Their diet consists of vegetation, mollusks, insects. Specifically, they are known to consume snails, insect larvae, earthworms, tadpoles, crayfish, mosquito larvae, mosquito fish, grass seeds, rice, the Hawaiian duck quacks like a mallard, but its call is softer and it quacks less frequently. The Hawaiian duck is a wary bird, often found in pairs instead of large groups. The koloa is most prominently found residing in the tall, wetland grasses and they are very secretive birds and do not associate with other animals much
9.
Brighamia insignis
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It is native to the islands of Kauaʻi and Niʻihau. This short-lived perennial species is a member of a unique endemic Hawaiian genus with one other species. In 1994 the United States Fish and Wildlife Service reported five populations totaling 45 to 65 individuals, B. insignis is a potentially branched plant with a succulent stem that is bulbous at the bottom and tapers toward the top, ending in a compact rosette of fleshy leaves. The stem is usually 1–2 m in height, but can reach 5 m, the plant blooms in September through November. It has clusters of fragrant yellow flowers in groups of three to eight in the leaf axils, the scent has been compared to honeysuckle. Petals are fused into a tube 7 to 14 cm long, the fruit is a capsule 13 to 19 mm long containing numerous seeds. B. insignis is found at elevations from sea level to 480 m in mesic shrublands and it grows on rocky ledges with little soil and steep sea cliffs. Associated plants include ʻāhinahina ʻakoko, alaheʻe, kāwelu, pili, kokiʻo ʻula, ʻānaunau, nehe, pokulakalaka, according to the U. S. Botanic Garden, its only pollinator was a certain type of now-extinct hawk moth. This has made it all but impossible for B. insignis to reproduce on its own, therefore, individuals only produce seed when artificially pollinated by humans. Other threats to the species have included exotic plant species, feral goats and pigs, slugs, rats, fire, there is also a hiking trail near one of the populations. The plant grows on steep, exposed cliffs and has been damaged by hurricanes and landslides, despite its rarity in the wild it is not hard to cultivate in a nursery, and it has come into use as a novel ornamental plant
10.
Hawaiian lobelioids
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The Hawaiian lobelioids are a group of flowering plants in the bellflower family, Campanulaceae, all of which are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. This is the largest plant radiation in the Hawaiian Islands, and indeed the largest on any island archipelago, based on recent DNA sequence evidence it now believed that all are derived from a single introduction. This was likely a Lobelia-like species that arrived about 13 million years ago, many species have beautiful and spectacular flowers, especially those in Lobelia and Trematolobelia. Unfortunately, they are highly vulnerable to feeding by feral ungulates such as feral pigs, the stems are only partly woody. The bark contains a latex, and is often chewed by rats. Seedlings are also vulnerable to disturbance by pig digging, and in areas with high densities of pigs it is not uncommon to find the only lobelioids being epiphytic on trees or on fallen logs. Brighamia is quite unlike the other genera, with a succulent stem and long, thin and it was long thought to have been the result of a separate introduction, and its unique combination of characters made it difficult to place. These characters are the result of adaptation to growing on cliffs and pollination by the endemic Hawaiian hawkmoth and this moth is now itself listed as endangered, surviving mainly on the southern slopes of Maui, well away from where Brighamia live. Some pollination may be done by closely related alien hawkmoths such as the Five-Spotted Hawkmoth, despite their inaccessible habitat on cliffs, Brighamia are sometimes hand-pollinated by botanists to ensure seed set. Both species are now extremely rare, the genus is named in honour of the first director of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, William Tufts Brigham. However, many genera are derived from it and it is highly paraphyletic. The Hawaiian species are divided into two sections, based on color and other characters. Like Brighamia and Trematolobelia, the fruit of Lobelia is a dry capsule and these species are probably the closest in appearance to the original Hawaiian colonist. – Kuhiʻaikamoʻowahie Lobelia monostachya* Lammers Lobelia niihauensis* H. St. John Lobelia oahuensis* Rock Lobelia remyi Rock Lobelia yuccoides Hillebr, - Pānaunau † species believed to be extinct * species is listed Endangered Trematolobelia is distinguished from Lobelia by its unique dispersal method. Rather than drying and splitting apart, the wall of the fruit disintegrates. They can be quite spectacular when in flower, with multiple flower branches, individual plants live for 5–10 years before flowering and dying. Trematobelia species Trematolobelia grandifolia Rock Trematolobelia kauaiensis Rock – Koliʻi Trematolobelia macrostachys A. Zahlbr, – Koliʻi Trematolobelia singularis* H. St. John † species believed to be extinct * species is listed Endangered Clermontia, with 22 species, are the most common of Hawaiian lobelioids. Unlike Cyanea, which are found in dense forest, Clermontia are frequently found in more open areas and edges
11.
United States Census Bureau
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The United States Census Bureau is a principal agency of the U. S. Federal Statistical System, responsible for producing data about the American people and economy. The Census Bureaus primary mission is conducting the U. S. Census every ten years, in addition to the decennial census, the Census Bureau continually conducts dozens of other censuses and surveys, including the American Community Survey, the U. S. Economic Census, and the Current Population Survey, furthermore, economic and foreign trade indicators released by the federal government typically contain data produced by the Census Bureau. The Bureaus various censuses and surveys help allocate over $400 billion in federal funds every year and help states, local communities, the Census Bureau is part of the U. S. Department of Commerce and its director is appointed by the President of the United States. The Census Bureau now conducts a population count every 10 years in years ending with a 0. Between censuses, the Census Bureau makes population estimates and projections, the Census Bureau is mandated with fulfilling these obligations, the collecting of statistics about the nation, its people, and economy. The Census Bureaus legal authority is codified in Title 13 of the United States Code, the Census Bureau also conducts surveys on behalf of various federal government and local government agencies on topics such as employment, crime, health, consumer expenditures, and housing. Within the bureau, these are known as surveys and are conducted perpetually between and during decennial population counts. The Census Bureau also conducts surveys of manufacturing, retail, service. Between 1790 and 1840, the census was taken by marshals of the judicial districts, the Census Act of 1840 established a central office which became known as the Census Office. Several acts followed that revised and authorized new censuses, typically at the 10-year intervals, in 1902, the temporary Census Office was moved under the Department of Interior, and in 1903 it was renamed the Census Bureau under the new Department of Commerce and Labor. The department was intended to consolidate overlapping statistical agencies, but Census Bureau officials were hindered by their role in the department. An act in 1920 changed the date and authorized manufacturing censuses every 2 years, in 1929, a bill was passed mandating the House of Representatives be reapportioned based on the results of the 1930 Census. In 1954, various acts were codified into Title 13 of the US Code, by law, the Census Bureau must count everyone and submit state population totals to the U. S. President by December 31 of any year ending in a zero. States within the Union receive the results in the spring of the following year, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau regions are widely used. for data collection, the Census Bureau definition is pervasive. Title 13 of the U. S. Code establishes penalties for the disclosure of this information, all Census employees must sign an affidavit of non-disclosure prior to employment. The Bureau cannot share responses, addresses or personal information with anyone including United States or foreign government, only after 72 years does the information collected become available to other agencies or the general public
12.
Lehua
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Lehua Island is a small, crescent-shaped island in the Hawaiian islands, only 0.7 miles north of Niʻihau, due west of Kauai. The uninhabited, 284-acre barren island is a cone which is part of the extinct Niʻihau volcano. Lehua was one of the first five islands sighted by Captain James Cook in 1778 which he spelled as Oreehoua, Lehua Island is a Hawaii State Wildlife Sanctuary. As a restricted sanctuary, all activities are prohibited on the island without a permit, public access to the island is restricted to areas below the high tide water mark. Lehua provides habitat for at least 16 species of seabirds, as well as non-native Pacific rats, a population of European rabbits had lived on the island for many years but were removed in 2005. When weather and wave conditions permit crossings from Kauai, Lehua is a destination for snorkeling. It is also known for an unusual geological formation dubbed the keyhole. Located in one of the crescents narrow arms, this is a tall, thin notch cut from one side, the United States Coast Guard maintains Lehua Rock Light on Kaunuakalā, at 704 feet the highest point of the island. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, in, Hawaii Administrative Rules, § 13-126. Lehua Island Ecosystem Restoration Project Final Environmental Assessment - Lehua Island Restoration
13.
Kauai County, Hawaii
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Kauaʻi County is a county located in the U. S. state of Hawaiʻi. It consists of the islands of Kauaʻi, Niʻihau, Lehua, as of the 2010 Census the population was 67,091. The Kapaa Micropolitan Statistical Area includes all of Kauai County, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 1,266 square miles, of which 620 square miles is land and 646 square miles is water. The Pacific Ocean surrounds the county, executive authority is vested in the Mayor of Kauaʻi, elected by the voters on a non-partisan basis to a four-year term. Legislative authority is vested in the seven-member County Council, all members of the County Council are elected on a non-partisan, at-large basis to two-year terms. Kauai County, like the rest of Hawaii, is represented entirely by Democrats in both the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives, Kauai County has traditionally been a solid Democratic stronghold. The county has not voted Republican since the 1984 election, when it voted in favour of Ronald Reagan. As of the census of 2000, there were 58,463 people,20,183 households, the population density was 94 people per square mile. There were 25,331 housing units at a density of 41 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 29. 5% White,0. 3% Black or African American,0. 4% Native American,36. 0% Asian,9. 1% Pacific Islander,0. 9% from other races, and 23. 8% from two or more races. 8. 2% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,21. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.87 and the family size was 3.34. In the county, the population was out with 26. 4% under the age of 18,7. 1% from 18 to 24,27. 2% from 25 to 44,25. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 100.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.50 males, one of the ten branches of the University of Hawaii system, it offers a range of 2-year degrees and is accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. Public schools in the county are operated by the Hawaii Department of Education, There are 14 elementary schools,4 middle schools and 3 high schools in the county. Lihue Airport serves the island of Kauai, Bus service is provided by The Kauai Bus. Route 50 Route 51 Route 56 Route 58 Route 520 Route 540 Route 550 Route 570 Route 580 Route 581 Route 583 There are no incorporated communities in Kauai County
14.
2000 United States Census
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This was the twenty-second federal census and was at the time the largest civilly administered peacetime effort in the United States. Approximately 16 percent of households received a form of the 2000 census. Full documentation on the 2000 census, including forms and a procedural history, is available from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Microdata from the 2000 census is available through the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Aggregate data for small areas, together with electronic boundary files, personally identifiable information will be available in 2072. The U. S. resident population includes the number of people in the 50 states. The Bureau also enumerated the residents of the U. S. territory of Puerto Rico, its population was 3,808,610, the 2000 Census was the first time survey options for multiracial Americans were provided. S. Households had access to computers, 42% have Internet access, regionally, the South and West experienced the bulk of the nations population increase,14,790,890 and 10,411,850, respectively. This meant that the center of U. S. population moved to Phelps County. The Northeast grew by 2,785,149, the Midwest by 4,724,144, the results of the census are used to determine how many congressional districts each state is apportioned. Congress defines the formula, in accordance with Title 2 of the U. S. Code, each member of the House represents a population of about 647,000. The populations of the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico are excluded from the apportionment population because they do not have voting seats in the U. S, since the first census in 1790, the decennial count has been the basis for the United States representative form of government. Article I, Section II specifies that The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, in 1790, each member of the House represented about 34,000 residents. Since then, the House more than quadrupled in size, today, each member represents about 20 times as many constituents. This recommendation was followed by the Secretary of Commerce, after the census was tabulated, Utah challenged the results in two different ways. Utah was extremely close to gaining a fourth seat, falling 857 people short. The margin was later shortened to 80 people, after the government discovered that it overcounted the population of North Carolina by 2,673 residents. Utah claimed that individuals traveling abroad as religious missionaries should be counted as residents, almost half of all Mormon missionaries, more than 11,000 individuals, were from Utah, only 102 came from North Carolina
15.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
16.
Elizabeth Sinclair
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Born in Glasgow, Scotland, she married Francis Sinclair, a ships captain. With six children in tow, the moved to New Zealand. Her husband and eldest son were later lost at sea, after years of farming, mainly at Pigeon Bay on the Banks Peninsula in the Canterbury Region of the South Island, she decided to relocate to Canada. Unhappy with the conditions she found on Vancouver Island, she considered California and she later bought additional lands at Hanapepe and Makaweli on the island of Kauaʻi. Her descendants, the Robinson family, continue to own and maintain the island of Niihau, Elizabeth Sinclair was born in Glasgow, Scotland, on 26 April 1800. Known as Eliza, she was one of six born to William a successful merchant. Eliza married Captain Francis W. Sinclair of the Royal Navy on 13 January 1824 and they had three sons and three daughters. Sinclair was considered a master navigator, best known for saving the life of the Duke of Wellington in rough seas while escorting him on his return from the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. The Sinclairs moved to New Zealand, arriving in 1841, they settled in Pigeon bay in 1843, Elizas husband and her oldest son George disappeared at sea in 1846 during a business trip headed towards Wellington. Her husband was carrying all the cash and produce supplies. After the disappearance of her husband, Eliza and her five children were left to survive on their own in Pigeon Bay, with her children marrying and producing grandchildren, the Sinclair clan needed more land, and Elizas son Francis helped plan a new voyage towards that end. They sold their property in New Zealand and sailed to the Pacific Northwest of the United States with the goal of acquiring property in British Columbia, in early June 1863, the Bessie arrived in Victoria, British Columbia on Vancouver Island. The Sinclairs found the wild and undeveloped with thick forests, making the effort required to clear land for agriculture close to impossible with their limited labor. The new arrivals also found the Native Americans different from the Māori they were familiar with in New Zealand, Eliza set her sights on California, but an acquaintance named Henry Rhodes recommended that they avoid the rough oceans during the winter as it would make anchorage difficult. Rhodes suggested that they sail to the Sandwich Islands instead, since his brother lived in Honolulu, the Sinclairs agreed, and they boarded the Bessie one last time. At the age of 63 years, Eliza led 13 members of her family to Hawaii, arriving in Honolulu Harbor on 17 September 1863 on the vessel Bessie captained by her son-in-law, Thomas Gay. The 300-ton barque arrived fully provisioned, with Merino sheep, one cow, hay, grain, chickens, a piano, books. Eliza was considered a chiefess by the native Hawaiians she and her family employed on the island of Niihau and her descendants continue to run the island under their private ownership
17.
Kingdom of Hawaii
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The Kingdom of Hawaiʻi originated in 1795 with the unification of the independent islands of Hawaiʻi, Oʻahu, Maui, Molokaʻi, and Lānaʻi under one government. In 1810 the whole Hawaiian archipelago became unified when Kauaʻi and Niʻihau joined the kingdom voluntarily, two major dynastic families ruled the kingdom, the House of Kamehameha and the House of Kalākaua. The kingdom won recognition from major European powers, the United States became its chief trading partner, and the kingdom was watched jealously lest Britain, Japan, or another power threaten to seize control. Hawaii adopted a new constitution in 1887 to reduce the power of King Kalākaua. Queen Liliuokalani, who succeeded Kalākaua in 1891, tried to restore the old order, Hawaii became a republic until the United States annexed it in 1898. Before the founding of a formal, united kingdom, the islands were all ruled by independent aliʻi nui or supreme executives. All of these rulers were believed to come from a hereditary line descended from the first Polynesian, Papa, Captain James Cook stumbled across the islands, but was killed while attempting to kidnap the aliʻi nui of Hawaii Island in 1779. Three years later Hawaii was passed to Kalaniʻōpuʻus son, Kīwalaʻō, while religious authority was passed to the rulers nephew, a series of battles, lasting 15 years, was led by the warrior chief who became Kamehameha the Great. The Kingdom of Hawaii was established with the help of weapons and advisors, such as John Young. Although successful in attacking both Oʻahu and Maui, he failed to secure a victory in Kauaʻi, his effort hampered by a storm, eventually, Kauaʻis chief swore allegiance to Kamehameha. The unification ended the ancient Hawaiian society, transforming it into an independent constitutional monarchy crafted in the traditions, from 1810 to 1893, the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi was ruled by two major dynastic families, the House of Kamehameha and the Kalākaua Dynasty. Five members of the Kamehameha family led the government styled as Kamehameha, Lunalilo was a member of the House of Kamehameha through his mother. Liholiho and Kauikeaouli, were sons of Kamehameha the Great. For a period of Liholiho and Kauikeaoulis reigns, the wife of Kamehameha the Great, Queen Kaʻahumanu, ruled as Queen Regent and Kuhina Nui. Economic and demographic factors in the 19th century reshaped the islands, in 1848 the Great Māhele was imposed by the king, it resulted in the selling off virtually all the village land farmed by the natives. For the natives, contact with the world represented demographic disaster. The Hawaiian population of natives fell from approximately 128,000 in 1778 to 71,000 in 1853, American missionaries converted most of the natives to Christianity. The missionaries and their children became a powerful elite into the mid-19th century and they provided the chief advisors and cabinet members of the kings, and dominated the professional and merchant class in the cities
18.
Aubrey Robinson (Hawaii)
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Aubrey Robinson was an owner of a sugarcane plantation and a ranch consisting of an entire island in the Hawaiian Islands. Aubrey Robinson was born in Canterbury, New Zealand on October 17,1853 and his father was Charles Barrington Robinson and mother was Helen Sinclair. His grandmother, Elizabeth McHutchison, also spelled McHutcheson, was born in Glasgow, Scotland, married Francis Sinclair in 1824, in 1846 her husband and eldest son died at sea. With her remaining children and grandchildren, she left New Zealand heading for Canada, when they arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in September 1863, King Kamehameha IV suggested they stay and purchase some land. Although the King soon died, the family purchased the island of Niʻihau from King Kamehameha V for US$10,000 on January 23,1864. In 1865, Eliza Sinclair purchased the ahupuaʻa of Makaweli from Victoria Kamāmalu Ka‘ahumanu for $15,000, Robinson was educated at home and attended the Boston University School of Law and was admitted to the bar in eastern courts. Other partners were Elizabeth Sinclair, Jane Sinclair Gay and Helen Sinclair Robinson and their island of Niʻihau was used exclusively by Gay & Robinson for grazing cattle, as was much of their Makaweli estate. Robinson raised pure-bred sheep and cattle, and imported strains of Merino sheep and shorthorn cattle from the United States, Australia, Robinson developed the Makaweli sugar plantation on Kauaʻi, on which the Hawaiian Sugar Company leased about 6,000 acres. Besides this land, the firm of Gay & Robinson had a plantation of more than 1,000 acres on the same estate. In 1884, Robinson imported purebred Arabian horses, Robinson took an active interest in church and missionary work both in Hawaii and abroad. His aunt Anne Sinclair married Kauaʻi sugar planter Valdemar Knudsen in 1867, Robinson married his first cousin Alice Gay in 1885, daughter of Captain Thomas Gay and Jane Gay. They had four sons, Sinclair Robinson, Aylmer Francis Robinson, Selwyn Aubrey Robinson, Robinson died on his estate in 1936, and the Kauai estate passed to his wife and their five children and Niihau going to Aylmer and Lester. His descendants have kept the tradition of treating Niʻihau as private, Niʻihau was owned by Lesters wife Helen Matthew Robinson and then as of 2008, her sons Bruce and Keith Robinson
19.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
20.
Niihau incident
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He was killed in a struggle with people on the island. The islands Native Hawaiian residents were unaware of the attack. Nishikaichi then sought and received the assistance of the three locals of Japanese descent on the island in overcoming his captors, finding weapons, the incident and the actions of Nishikaichis abettors demonstrated the potential for racial or ethnic allegiance to overwhelm national allegiance. This ultimately may have influenced Franklin D. Roosevelts decision to intern Japanese Americans during World War II, Ben Kanahele was decorated for his part in stopping the takeover, but Ella Kanahele received no official recognition. Niʻihau, the westernmost and second smallest of the primary Hawaiian Islands, has privately owned by the Robinsons. At the time of the incident, it had 136 inhabitants, in 1941 the owner was Aylmer Robinson, a Harvard University graduate who was fluent in Hawaiian. Robinson ran the island without interference from any government authority, and although he lived on the island of Kauaʻi. The island was accessible with permission from Robinson, which was almost never given except to friends or relatives of Niʻihauans. The handful of residents included three of Japanese ancestry, issei Ishimatsu Shintani and Hawaiian-born nisei Yoshio and Irene Harada, all of whom were involved in the incident. Prior to the Pearl Harbor attack, the Imperial Japanese Navy had designated Niʻihau, mistakenly believed to be uninhabited, pilots were told they could wait on the island until they were rescued by a submarine. Kaleohano was unaware of the attack at Pearl Harbor, but knew from newspapers that the relationship between the U. S. and Japan was poor due to Japanese expansionism and the U. S. oil embargo on Japan. Recognizing Nishikaichi and his plane as Japanese, Kaleohano thought it prudent to relieve the pilot of his pistol and he and the other Hawaiians who gathered about treated the pilot with courtesy and the traditional Hawaiian hospitality, even throwing a party for him later that Sunday afternoon. However, the Hawaiians could not understand Nishikaichi, who spoke only Japanese with an amount of English. They sent for Japanese-born Ishimatsu Shintani, who was married to a native Hawaiian, having been briefed on the situation beforehand and approaching the task with evident distaste, Shintani exchanged just a few words with the pilot and departed without explanation. Nishikaichi informed Harada of the attack on Pearl Harbor, a revelation Harada thought prudent not to share with the non-Japanese natives, Nishikaichi desperately wanted his papers returned, which he had been told should by no means fall into American hands, but Kaleohano refused to return them. The Haradas decided to assist Nishikaichi in retrieving his papers and escaping, Niʻihau had neither electricity nor telephones, but later that night, the Hawaiians heard a radio report about the Pearl Harbor attack on a battery-operated radio. The Hawaiians confronted the pilot, and this time Harada translated what was said about the attack, the owner of the island, Aylmer Robinson, was scheduled to arrive on his regular weekly trip from Kauaʻi, a much larger island just 17 miles away, the next morning. It was decided that the pilot would return to Kauaʻi with Robinson, Robinson did not arrive on Monday because the U. S. military had instituted a ban on boat traffic in the islands within hours of the attack
21.
Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service
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The Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service was the air arm of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. The organization was responsible for the operation of aircraft and the conduct of aerial warfare in the Pacific War. It was controlled by the Navy Staff of the Imperial Japanese Navy, the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service was equal in function to the Royal Navys Fleet Air Arm, the Italian Navys Aviazione Navale, or the Soviet Navys Morskaya Aviatsiya. The Imperial Japanese Navy Aviation Bureau of the Ministry of the Navy of Japan was responsible for the development, the Japanese military acquired their first aircraft in 1910 and followed the development of air combat during World War I with great interest. They initially procured European aircraft but quickly built their own and launched themselves onto an aircraft carrier building program. They launched the worlds first purpose-built aircraft carrier, Hōshō, in 1922, afterwards they embarked on a conversion program of several excess battlecruisers and battleships into aircraft carriers. The IJN Air Service had the mission of air defence, deep strike, naval warfare. It retained this mission to the end, the Japanese pilot training program was very selective and rigorous, producing a high-quality and long-serving pilot corps, who ruled the air in the Pacific during early World War II. However, the duration of the training program, combined with a shortage of gasoline for training. Moreover, the Japanese, unlike the U. S. or Britain, the resultant decrease in quantity and quality, among other factors, resulted in increasing casualties toward the end of the war. In 1912, the Royal Navy had informally established its own flying branch, the Japanese admirals, whose own Navy had been modeled on the Royal Navy and whom they admired, themselves proposed their own Naval Air Service. The Japanese Navy had also observed technical developments in other countries, the following year, in 1913 a Navy transport ship, the Wakamiya was converted into a seaplane tender, a number of aircraft were also purchased. On 23 August 1914, as a result of its treaty with Great Britain, the Japanese, together with a token British force, then laid siege to the German held territory of Kiaochow and its administrative capital Tsingtao on the Shandong peninsula. During the siege, starting from September, Maurice Farman seaplanes onboard the Wakamiya conducted reconnaissance and aerial bombardments on German positions and ships. On 30 September the Wakamiya was later damaged by a mine, the Wakamiya conducted the worlds first naval-launched aerial raids in history and was in effect the first aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy. By the end of the siege the aircraft had conducted 50 sorties and dropped 200 bombs, the mission consisted of a group of 29 British instructors, headed by Captain William Sempill, and stayed in Japan for 18 months. The British government hoped it would lead to lucrative an arms deal, the mission also brought the plans of the most recent British aircraft carriers, such as the HMS Argus and the HMS Hermes, which influenced the final stages of the development of the carrier Hōshō. The Hōshō became the first designed aircraft carrier from the keel up to be built, the military in Japan were also aided in their quest to build up their naval forces by Sempill who had become a Japanese spy
22.
Fighter aircraft
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A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose main mission is to attack ground targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed, maneuverability, many fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are designed as dual-purpose fighter-bombers, often aircraft that do not fulfill the standard definition are called fighters. This may be for political or national security reasons, for advertising purposes, a fighters main purpose is to establish air superiority over a battlefield. Since World War I, achieving and maintaining air superiority has been considered essential for victory in conventional warfare, the word fighter did not become the official English-language term for such aircraft until after World War I. In the British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force these aircraft were referred to as scouts into the early 1920s, the U. S. Army called their fighters pursuit aircraft from 1916 until the late 1940s. In most languages a fighter aircraft is known as a hunter, exceptions include Russian, where a fighter is an истребитель, meaning exterminator, and Hebrew where it is matose krav. As a part of nomenclature, a letter is often assigned to various types of aircraft to indicate their use. In Russia I was used, while the French continue to use C and this has always been the case, for instance the Sopwith Camel and other fighting scouts of World War I performed a great deal of ground-attack work. Several aircraft, such as the F-111 and F-117, have received fighter designations but had no fighter capability due to political or other reasons, the F-111B variant was originally intended for a fighter role with the U. S. Navy, but it was cancelled. This blurring follows the use of fighters from their earliest days for attack or strike operations against ground targets by means of strafing or dropping small bombs, versatile multirole fighter-bombers such as the F/A-18 Hornet are a less expensive option than having a range of specialized aircraft types. An interceptor is generally an aircraft intended to target bombers and so often trades maneuverability for climb rate, fighters were developed in World War I to deny enemy aircraft and dirigibles the ability to gather information by reconnaissance. Early fighters were very small and lightly armed by later standards, and most were built with a wooden frame, covered with fabric. As control of the airspace over armies became increasingly important all of the major powers developed fighters to support their military operations, between the wars, wood was largely replaced by steel tubing, then aluminium tubing, and finally aluminium stressed skin structures began to predominate. By World War II, most fighters were all-metal monoplanes armed with batteries of guns or cannons. By the end of the war, turbojet engines were replacing piston engines as the means of propulsion, further increasing aircraft speed. Since the weight of the engine was so less than on piston engined fighters. This in turn required the development of ejection seats so the pilot could escape, in the 1950s, radar was fitted to day fighters, since pilots could no longer see far enough ahead to prepare for any opposition. Since then, radar capabilities have grown enormously and are now the method of target acquisition
23.
Attack on Pearl Harbor
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The attack, also known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor, led to the United States entry into World War II. The Japanese military leadership referred to the attack as the Hawaii Operation and Operation AI, Japan intended the attack as a preventive action to keep the U. S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions they planned in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States. Over the next seven hours there were coordinated Japanese attacks on the U. S. -held Philippines, Guam and Wake Island and on the British Empire in Malaya, Singapore, the attack commenced at 7,48 a. m. The base was attacked by 353 Imperial Japanese fighter planes, bombers, all eight U. S. Navy battleships were damaged, with four sunk. All but the USS Arizona were later raised, and six were returned to service, the Japanese also sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, an anti-aircraft training ship, and one minelayer. 188 U. S. aircraft were destroyed,2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 others were wounded. Important base installations such as the station, shipyard, maintenance. Japanese losses were light,29 aircraft and five midget submarines lost, one Japanese sailor, Kazuo Sakamaki, was captured. The surprise attack came as a shock to the American people. The following day, December 8, the United States declared war on Japan, the U. S. responded with a declaration of war against Germany and Italy. Domestic support for non-interventionism, which had been fading since the Fall of France in 1940, Roosevelt to proclaim December 7,1941, a date which will live in infamy. Because the attack happened without a declaration of war and without explicit warning, over the next decade, Japan continued to expand into China, leading to all-out war between those countries in 1937. Japan spent considerable effort trying to isolate China and achieve sufficient resource independence to attain victory on the mainland, from December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on USS Panay, the Allison incident, and the Nanking Massacre swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan. Fearing Japanese expansion, the United States, the United Kingdom, in 1940, Japan invaded French Indochina in an effort to control supplies reaching China. The United States halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools, and aviation gasoline to Japan, an invasion of the Philippines was also considered necessary by Japanese war planners. War Plan Orange had envisioned defending the Philippines with a 40 and this was opposed by Douglas MacArthur, who felt that he would need a force ten times that size, and was never implemented. By 1941, U. S. planners anticipated abandonment of the Philippines at the outbreak of war and orders to that effect were given in late 1941 to Admiral Thomas Hart, commander of the Asiatic Fleet
24.
Lei (garland)
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Lei is a garland or wreath. More loosely defined, a lei is any series of objects together with the intent to be worn. The most popular concept of a lei in Hawaiian culture is a wreath of flowers presented upon arriving or leaving as a symbol of affection and this concept was popularized through tourism between the Hawaiian Islands and the continental United States in the 19th and 20th centuries. Children and sweethearts are poetically referred to as lei and many ancient and modern songs, a lei can be given to someone for a variety of reasons. Most commonly, these reasons include love, honor, or friendship for another person, common events during which leis may be distributed include graduations, weddings, and school dances. Often the composition of a lei determine the meaning behind a lei, a lei made using a hala fruit for instance is said to be connected to love, desire, transition, and change. A lei may be composed of a pattern or series of just about anything, but most commonly consists of natural foliage such as flowers, leaves, vines, fern fronds. The Hawaiian Island of Ni‘ihau is famous for its lei made of tiny gem-like shells, the eight most common methods of making lei are, Haku, three-ply braid incorporating additional materials. A method of making a lei by using a material, such as softened tree bark or long leaves. Normally used for flowers and foliage with long pliable petioles or stems, hili, braid or plait with only one kind of material. Most commonly made from three or more strands of vine or fern braided together. A method of making a lei by twisting two strands together to form a rope, the popular and simple lei laʻi is made using this method. Hipuʻu / nipuʻu, a method of making a lei by knotting the stems of the plant material. It requires a long stem on the decorative material. Humu / humuhumu, sew to a backing, usually using a basting stitch, a method of making a lei by sewing the decorative material to a backing such as hala, laʻi, paper, or felt. Each successive row of lei material is overlapped on the previous to create a scale-like effect, bougainvillea lei and feather hat lei often are made with this method. A method of making a lei by sewing or piercing the decorative material with a needle and this is probably the style with which most Westerners are familiar. This method is used to string flowers such as plumeria, rose, carnation
25.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
26.
Arid
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A region is arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life. Environments subject to arid climates tend to lack vegetation and are called xeric or desertic, most arid climates surround the equator, these places include most of Africa and parts of South America, Central America and Australia. The distribution of aridity observed at any one point in time is largely the result of the circulation of the atmosphere. The latter does change significantly over time through climate change, for example, temperature increase across the Nile Basin over the next 30–40 years could change the region from semi-arid to arid, resulting in a significant reduction in agricultural land. In addition, changes in use can result in greater demands on soil water. Durrenberger, R. W. Arid Climates, article in The Encyclopedia of Climatology, p. 92-101, Edited by J. E. Oliver and R. W. Fairbridge, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, ISBN 0-87933-009-0. J Aridity Indexes, article in The Encyclopedia of Climatology, p. 102-107, Edited by J. E. Oliver and R. W. Fairbridge, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, blue Peace for the Nile Report,2009, Strategic Foresight Group
27.
Rain shadow
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A rain shadow is a dry area on the leeward side of a mountainous area. The mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems and cast a shadow of dryness behind them, wind and moist air is drawn by the prevailing winds towards the top of the mountains, where it condenses and precipitates before it crosses the top. The air, without much moisture left, advances behind the mountains creating a side called the rain shadow. The condition exists because warm moist air rises by orographic lifting to the top of a mountain range, as atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude, the air has expanded and adiabatically cooled to the point that the air reaches its adiabatic dew point. At the adiabatic dew point, moisture condenses onto the mountain and it precipitates on the top, the air descends on the leeward side, but due to the precipitation it has lost much of its moisture. There are regular patterns of prevailing winds found in round the Earths equatorial region. The zone designated the trade winds is the zone between about 30° N and 30° S, blowing predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere, the strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes can come in the Roaring Forties between 30 and 50 degrees latitude. The Dasht-i-Lut in Iran is in the shadow of the Elburz. The Ordos Desert is rain shadowed by mountain chains including the Kara-naryn-ula, the Sheitenula, and the Yin Mountains, which link on to the south end of the Great Khingan Mountains. The Thar desert is bounded and rain shadowed by the Aravalli ranges to the south-east, the Himalaya to the northeast, Eastern Side of Sahyadri ranges on Deccan e. g. Northern Karnataka & Solapur, Beed, Osmanabad and Vidharba Plateau of India. The central region of Myanmar is in the shadow of the Arakan Mountains and is almost semi-arid with only 750 millimetres of rain as against as much as 5.5 metres on the Rakhine State coast. The High Peaks of Mount Lebanon rain-shadow the northern parts of the Beqaa Valley, the Judean Desert, the Dead Sea and the western slopes of the Moab Mountains on the opposite side are rain-shadowed by the Judean Hills. The Atacama Desert in Chile is the driest non-polar desert on Earth because it is blocked from moisture on both sides, Cuyo and Eastern Patagonia is rain shadowed from the prevailing westerly winds by the Andes range and is arid. The Argentinian wine region of Cuyo and Northern Patagonia is almost completely dependent on irrigation, on the largest scale, the entirety of the North American Interior Plains are shielded from the prevailing Westerlies carrying moist Pacific weather by the North American Cordillera. More pronounced effects are observed, however, in valley regions within the Cordillera. Most rainshadows in the western United States are due to the Sierra Nevada, champlain Valley in upstate New York. It is protected by the Adirondack Mountains, hawaii also has rain shadows, with some areas being desert. Orographic lifting produces the worlds second-highest annual precipitation record,12.7 meters, on the island of Kauai, the entire island of Kahoolawe lies in the rain shadow of Mauis East Maui Volcano
28.
Trade winds
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Trade winds also transport African dust westward across the Atlantic Ocean into the Caribbean Sea, as well as portions of southeastern North America. Shallow cumulus clouds are seen within trade wind regimes, and are capped from becoming taller by a trade wind inversion, the weaker the trade winds become, the more rainfall can be expected in the neighboring landmasses. The term trade winds originally derives from the fourteenth century late Middle English word trade. The Portuguese recognized the importance of the winds in navigation in both the north and south Atlantic ocean as early as the 15th century. From West Africa, the Portuguese had to sail away from continental Portugal and they could then turn northeast, to the area around the Azores islands, and finally east to mainland Europe. They also learned that to reach South Africa, they needed to go far out in the ocean, head for Brazil, following the African coast southbound means upwind in the Southern hemisphere. In the Pacific ocean, the wind circulation, which included both the trade wind easterlies and higher-latitude Westerlies, was unknown to Europeans until Andres de Urdanetas voyage in 1565. The captain of a sailing ship seeks a course along which the winds can be expected to blow in the direction of travel, for example, Manila galleons could not sail into the wind at all. Between 1847 and 1849, Matthew Fontaine Maury collected enough information to create wind, as part of the Hadley cell circulation, surface air flows toward the equator while the flow aloft is towards the poles. A low-pressure area of calm, light winds near the equator is known as the doldrums, near-equatorial trough, intertropical front. When located within a region, this zone of low pressure. Around 30° in both hemispheres, air begins to descend toward the surface in subtropical high-pressure belts known as subtropical ridges. The subsident air is dry because as it descends, the temperature increases, but the absolute humidity remains constant. This warm, dry air is known as an air mass. An increase of temperature with height is known as a temperature inversion, when it occurs within a trade wind regime, it is known as a trade wind inversion. The surface air flows from these subtropical high-pressure belts toward the Equator is deflected toward the west in both hemispheres by the Coriolis effect. These winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere, the trade winds of both hemispheres meet at the doldrums. As they blow across tropical regions, air masses heat up over lower latitudes due to direct sunlight
29.
Kona storm
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Kona storms are a type of seasonal cyclone in the Hawaiian Islands, usually formed in the winter from winds coming from the westerly kona direction. They are mainly cold core cyclones, which places them in the extratropical cyclone rather than the subtropical cyclone category, Hawaii typically experiences two to three annually, which can affect the state for a week or more. Among their hazards are heavy rain, hailstorms, flash floods and their associated landslides, high snow, high winds which result in large surf and swells. Kona is a Hawaiian language term for the side of an island. The Kona District for example on the Big Island of Hawaiʻi still uses this name, although normally dry and leeward, the traditional easterly tradewinds slacken and reverse during one of these cyclones. Once termed as subtropical cyclones, a change in the definition of the term during the early 1970s makes categorization of the systems not straightforward, Kona lows are typically cold core, making them extratropical cyclones. However, they share the subtropical cyclone characteristic of losing their associated weather fronts with time. Otkin and Martin identified three types of storms, cold-frontal cyclogenesis cyclones, trade wind easterlies, and cold-frontal cyclogenesis/trade wind easterlies cyclones. Of the three, CFC cyclones are the most common, rainfall in a Kona storm is more pronounced than a cold front storm, and most intense from south to east of the storm and in front of the storms center. Steady rains may last from hours to days, with longer lasting storms typically interrupted by intervals of lighter rain. Intense showers may appear on more moderate but steady rain, some winters occur without a single Kona storm, with a high of four or five. Hawaii typically experiences two to three annually between October and April, the cyclone events for Hawaii can be long-lived, affecting the state for a week or more. Kona lows produce a range of weather hazards for Hawaii. Among them are heavy rain, hailstorms, flash floods and their associated landslides, high winds result in large surf and swells, waterspouts. Kona winds are associated with cyclones with central pressures below 1,000.0 hectopascals which pass within 500 miles/820 km northwest of the Hawaiian Islands, strong Kona winds usually last for a day. Considerable damage is caused to boats lying southwest of the islands, on land, trees are uprooted and roofs can be blown off homes. When passing through mountain gaps and over mountains, downsloped winds gust over 100 mph/165 km/h, the most powerful Kona storm in the last fifty years struck the Hawaiian islands between 8 January and 11 January 1980. The storm caused severe weather across the state, forcing the closure of all airports
30.
Drought
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A drought is a period of below-average precipitation in a given region, resulting in prolonged shortages in its water supply, whether atmospheric, surface water or ground water. A drought can last for months or years, or may be declared after as few as 15 days and it can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region and harm to the local economy. Annual dry seasons in the tropics significantly increase the chances of a drought developing, periods of heat can significantly worsen drought conditions by hastening evaporation of water vapour. Many plant species, such as those in the family Cactaceae, have drought tolerance adaptations like reduced leaf area, some others survive dry periods as buried seeds. Semi-permanent drought produces arid biomes such as deserts and grasslands, prolonged droughts have caused mass migrations and humanitarian crises. Most arid ecosystems have inherently low productivity, the most prolonged drought ever in the world in recorded history occurred in the Atacama Desert in Chile. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice. Drought are mainly course by in low rain areas, if these factors do not support precipitation volumes sufficient to reach the surface over a sufficient time, the result is a drought. Once a region is within drought, feedback mechanisms such as local arid air, hot conditions which can promote warm core ridging, within the tropics, distinct, wet and dry seasons emerge due to the movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone or Monsoon trough. The dry season greatly increases drought occurrence, and is characterized by its low humidity, with watering holes, because of the lack of these watering holes, many grazing animals are forced to migrate due to the lack of water and feed to more fertile spots. Examples of such animals are zebras, elephants, and wildebeest, because of the lack of water in the plants, bushfires are common. Since water vapor becomes more energetic with increasing temperature, more water vapor is required to increase relative humidity values to 100% at higher temperatures, periods of warmth quicken the pace of fruit and vegetable production, increase evaporation and transpiration from plants, and worsen drought conditions. Drier and hotter weather occurs in parts of the Amazon River Basin, Colombia, winters during the El Niño are warmer and drier than average conditions in the Northwest, northern Midwest, and northern Mideast United States, so those regions experience reduced snowfalls. Conditions are also drier than normal from December to February in south-central Africa, mainly in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Botswana. Direct effects of El Niño resulting in drier conditions occur in parts of Southeast Asia and Northern Australia, increasing bush fires, worsening haze, drier-than-normal conditions are also in general observed in Queensland, inland Victoria, inland New South Wales, and eastern Tasmania from June to August. As warm water spreads from the west Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the east Pacific, it causes extensive drought in the western Pacific. Singapore experienced the driest February in 2014 since records began in 1869, with only 6.3 mm of rain falling in the month, the years 1968 and 2005 had the next driest Februaries, when 8.4 mm of rain fell. Human activity can directly trigger exacerbating factors such as farming, excessive irrigation, deforestation
31.
James Cook
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Captain James Cook FRS RN was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755 and he saw action in the Seven Years War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. This helped bring Cook to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society, in three voyages Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail, as he progressed on his voyages of discovery he surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, Cook was attacked and killed while attempting to kidnap the native chief of Hawaii during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge which was to influence his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him. James Cook was born on 7 November 1728 in the village of Marton in Yorkshire and baptised on 14 November in the church of St Cuthbert. He was the second of eight children of James Cook, a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, in 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his fathers employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years schooling, he work for his father. For leisure, he would climb a hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude. Cooks Cottage, his parents last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, having moved from England and reassembled, brick by brick. In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved 20 miles to the village of Staithes. Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window. After 18 months, not proving suitable for work, Cook travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to friends of Sandersons, John. The Walkers, who were Quakers, were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade and their house is now the Captain Cook Memorial Museum. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their fleet of vessels. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and his three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea
32.
George Vancouver
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He also explored the Hawaiian Islands and the southwest coast of Australia. George Vancouver was born in Kings Lynn on 22 June 1757 as the sixth, and youngest, child of John Jasper Vancouver, a Deputy Collector of Customs, and Bridget Berners. In 1771, at the age of 13, George Vancouver entered the Royal Navy as a young gentleman and he was selected to serve as a midshipman aboard HMS Resolution, on James Cooks second voyage searching for Terra Australis. He also accompanied Cooks third voyage, this time aboard Resolutions sister ship, Discovery, upon his return to Britain in October 1780, Vancouver was commissioned as a lieutenant and posted aboard the sloop Martin initially on escort and patrol duty in the English Channel and North Sea. He accompanied the ship when it left Plymouth on 11 February 1782 for the West Indies, on 7 May 1782 he was appointed fourth Lieutenant of the HMS Fame which was at the time part of the British West Indies Fleet and assigned to patrolling the French-held Leeward Islands. Vancouver returned to England in June 1783, in the late 1780s the Spanish empire commissioned an expedition to the Pacific Northwest. However, the 1789 Nootka Crisis intervened, spain and Britain came close to war over ownership of the Nootka Sound on contemporary Vancouver Island, and of greater importance, the right to colonize and settle the Pacific Northwest coast. Henry Roberts and Vancouver joined Britains more warlike vessels, Vancouver went with Joseph Whidbey to HMS Courageux. When the first Nootka Convention ended the crisis in 1790, Vancouver was given command of Discovery to take possession of Nootka Sound, departing England with two ships on 1 April 1791, Vancouver commanded an expedition charged with exploring the Pacific region. In its first year the expedition travelled to Cape Town, Australia, New Zealand, Tahiti and he formally claimed at Possession Point, King George Sound Western Australia, now the town of Albany, Western Australia for the British. Proceeding to North America, Vancouver followed the coasts of present-day Oregon and Washington northward, in April 1792 he encountered American Captain Robert Gray off the coast of Oregon just prior to Grays sailing up the Columbia River. Vancouver entered the Strait of Juan de Fuca, between Vancouver Island and the Washington state mainland on 29 April 1792 and his orders included a survey of every inlet and outlet on the west coast of the mainland, all the way north to Alaska. Most of this work was in small craft propelled by sail and oar, maneuvering larger sail-powered vessels in uncharted waters was generally impractical and dangerous. Mount Rainier – after his friend, Rear Admiral Peter Rainier, Discovery Bay, Discovery Island and Port Discovery. Vancouver was the second European to enter Burrard Inlet on 13 June 1792 and it is the present day main harbour area of the City of Vancouver beyond Stanley Park. George Vancouver surveyed Howe Sound and Jervis Inlet over the nine days. Then, on his 35th birthday on 22 June 1792, he returned to Point Grey, here he unexpectedly met a Spanish expedition led by Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and Cayetano Valdés y Flores. For three weeks they cooperatively explored the Georgia Strait and the Discovery Islands area before sailing separately towards Nootka Sound, after the summer surveying season ended, in August 1792, Vancouver went to Nootka, then the regions most important harbour, on contemporary Vancouver Island
33.
Afforestation
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Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there was no previous tree cover. Reforestation is the reestablishment of forest cover, either naturally or artificially, forestation is the establishment of forest growth on areas that either had forest or lacked it. Reforestation and afforestation are categories of forestation, special tools, e. g. tree planting bar, are used to make planting of trees easier and faster. Gap dynamics is the pattern of plant growth that occurs following the creation of a forest gap, gap dynamics are a typical characteristic of temperate and tropical forests, and have a wide variety of causes and effects on forest life. In some places, forests need help to themselves because of environmental factors. For example, in zones, once forest cover is destroyed. Other factors include overgrazing by livestock, especially such as goats, cows. Together these may lead to desertification and the loss of topsoil, without soil, in some tropical areas, forest cover removal may result in a duricrust or duripan that effectively seal off the soil to water penetration and root growth. In many areas, reforestation is impossible because people are using the land, in other areas, mechanical breaking up of duripans or duricrusts is necessary, careful and continued watering may be essential, and special protection, such as fencing, may be needed. There is extensive and ongoing Amazon deforestation. )China has deforested most of its wooded areas. China reached the point where timber yields declined far below historic levels, although it has set official goals for reforestation, these goals are set over an 80-year time horizon and have not been significantly met by 2008. China is trying to correct these problems by projects as the Green Wall of China, a law promulgated in 1981 requires that every school student over the age of 11 plants at least one tree per year. As a result, China has the highest afforestation rate of any country or region in the world, however, the forest area per capita is still far lower than the international average. There has also been criticism regarding the effectiveness of planting so many trees especially in regions where they never grew prior. Studies reveal that the table of those areas is becoming deeper indicating significant water loss. India has witnessed an increase in the percentage of the land area under forest cover from 1950 to 2006. In 1950 around 40.48 million hectares was covered by forest, in 1980 it increased to 67.47 million hectares and in 2006 it was found to be 69 million hectares. 23% of India is covered by forest, the forests of India are grouped into 5 major categories and 16 types based on biophysical criteria
34.
Conservation movement
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The early conservation movement included fisheries and wildlife management, water, soil conservation and sustainable forestry. Some say the movement is part of the broader and more far-reaching environmental movement. Chiefly in the United States, conservation is seen as differing from environmentalism in that it aims to preserve natural resources expressly for their sustainable use by humans. The conservation movement can be traced back to John Evelyns work Sylva, published as a book two years later, it was one of the most highly influential texts on forestry ever published. The field developed during the 18th century, especially in Prussia and these methods were first applied rigorously in British India from the early-19th century. This early ecological idea was in order to preserve the growth of teak trees. The first forestry officer was appointed in 1806 to regulate and preserve the trees necessary for shipbuilding and this promising start received a setback in the 1820s and 30s, when laissez-faire economics and complaints from private landowners brought these early conservation attempts to an end. Conservation was revived in the century, with the first practical application of scientific conservation principles to the forests of India. Edward Percy Stebbing warned of desertification of India and this was the first case of state management of forests in the world. These local attempts gradually received more attention by the British government as the unregulated felling of trees continued unabated, in 1850, the British Association in Edinburgh formed a committee to study forest destruction at the behest of Dr. Hugh Cleghorn a pioneer in the nascent conservation movement. He had become interested in forest conservation in Mysore in 1847, in the same year, Cleghorn organised the Madras Forest Department and in 1860 the Department banned the use shifting cultivation. Cleghorns 1861 manual, The forests and gardens of South India, in 1861, the Forest Department extended its remit into the Punjab. Sir Dietrich Brandis, a German forester, joined the British service in 1856 as superintendent of the forests of Pegu division in eastern Burma. During that time Burmas teak forests were controlled by militant Karen tribals and he introduced the taungya system, in which Karen villagers provided labour for clearing, planting and weeding teak plantations. After seven years in Burma, Brandis was appointed Inspector General of Forests in India and he formulated new forest legislation and helped establish research and training institutions. The Imperial Forest School at Dehradun was founded by him, germans were prominent in the forestry administration of British India. As well as Brandis, Berthold Ribbentrop and Sir William P. D, schlich brought new methods to Indian conservation, the latter becoming the Inspector-General in 1883 after Brandis stepped down. Schlich helped to establish the journal Indian Forester in 1874, and he authored the five-volume Manual of Forestry on silviculture, forest management, forest protection, and forest utilisation, which became the standard and enduring textbook for forestry students
35.
Pritchardia
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The genus Pritchardia consists of between 24-40 species of fan palms found on tropical Pacific Ocean islands in Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, Tuamotus, and most diversely in Hawaii. The generic name honors William Thomas Pritchard, a British consul at Fiji and these palms vary in height, ranging from 6 to 40 m. The leaves are fan-shaped and the trunk columnar, naked, smooth or fibrous, longitudinally grooved, the flowers and subsequent fruit are borne in a terminal cluster with simple or compound branches of an arcuate or pendulous inflorescence that is longer than the leaves. There are 29 known species, of which 19 are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, – Hawaiʻi Pritchardia Pritchardia arecina Becc. & Rock Pritchardia hardyi Rock – Makaleha Pritchardia Pritchardia hillebrandii Becc, Pritchardia kaalae Rock – Waiʻanae Range Pritchardia Pritchardia lanaiensis Becc. & Rock – Lānaʻi Pritchardia Pritchardia lanigera Becc, Pritchardia limahuliensis H. St. John Pritchardia lowreyana Rock – Molokaʻi Pritchardia Pritchardia maideniana Pritchardia martii H. Wendl – Koʻolau Range pritchardia Pritchardia minor Becc. – Alakaʻi Swamp Pritchardia Pritchardia mitiaroana Dransfield & Ehrhardt Pritchardia munroi Rock – Kamalo Pritchardia Pritchardia napaliensis H. St. John Pritchardia pacifica Seem, Pritchardia pericularum Pritchardia perlmanii Gemmill Pritchardia remota Becc. – Nihoa Pritchardia Pritchardia schattaueri Hodel – Giant Pritchardia Pritchardia thurstonii F. Muell, – Stickybud Pritchardia Pritchardia vuylstekeana Pritchardia waialealeana R. W. Read Pritchardia woodfordiana Licuala grandis H. Wendl. Kew Palms Checklist, Pritchardia Media related to Pritchardia at Wikimedia Commons Data related to Pritchardia at Wikispecies
36.
Arecaceae
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The Arecaceae are a botanical family of perennial climbers, shrubs, acaules and trees commonly known as palm trees. They are flowering plants, a family in the monocot order Arecales, currently 181 genera with around 2600 species are known, most of them restricted to tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate climates. Most palms are distinguished by their large, compound, evergreen leaves, known as fronds, however, palms exhibit an enormous diversity in physical characteristics and inhabit nearly every type of habitat within their range, from rainforests to deserts. Palms are among the best known and most extensively cultivated plant families and they have been important to humans throughout much of history. Many common products and foods are derived from palms, and palms are widely used in landscaping, making them one of the most economically important plants. In many historical cultures, palms were symbols for such ideas as victory, peace, for inhabitants of cooler climates today, palms symbolize the tropics and vacations. Whether as shrubs, trees, or vines, palms have two methods of growth, solitary or clustered, the common representation is that of a solitary shoot ending in a crown of leaves. This monopodial character may be exhibited by prostrate, trunkless, some common palms restricted to solitary growth include Washingtonia and Roystonea. Palms may instead grow in sparse though dense clusters, the trunk develops an axillary bud at a leaf node, usually near the base, from which a new shoot emerges. The new shoot, in turn, produces an axillary bud, exclusively sympodial genera include many of the rattans, Guihaia, and Rhapis. Several palm genera have both solitary and clustering members, Palms which are usually solitary may grow in clusters, and vice versa. These aberrations suggest the habit operates on a single gene, Palms have large, evergreen leaves that are either palmately or pinnately compound and spirally arranged at the top of the stem. The leaves have a sheath at the base that usually splits open on one side at maturity. The inflorescence is a spadix or spike surrounded by one or more bracts or spathes that become woody at maturity, the flowers are generally small and white, radially symmetric, and can be either uni- or bisexual. The sepals and petals usually number three each, and may be distinct or joined at the base, the stamens generally number six, with filaments that may be separate, attached to each other, or attached to the pistil at the base. The fruit is usually a single-seeded drupe but some genera may contain two or more seeds in each fruit, like all monocots, palms do not have the ability to increase the width of a stem via the same kind of vascular cambium found in non-monocot woody plants. This explains the shape of the trunk that is often seen in palms. The Arecaceae are notable among monocots for their height and for the size of their seeds, leaves, Ceroxylon quindiuense, Colombias national tree, is the tallest monocot in the world, reaching up to 60 m tall
37.
Halulu Lake
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Niʻihau is the westernmost and seventh largest inhabited island in Hawaiʻi. It is 17.5 miles southwest of Kauaʻi across the Kaulakahi Channel and its area is 69.5 square miles. Several intermittent playa lakes provide wetland habitats for the Hawaiian coot, the black-winged stilt, the island is designated as critical habitat for Brighamia insignis, an endemic and endangered species of Hawaiian lobelioid. The United States Census Bureau defines Niʻihau and the island and State Seabird Sanctuary of Lehua as Census Tract 410 of Kauai County. Its 2000 census population was 160, Its 2010 census population was 170, elizabeth Sinclair purchased Niʻihau in 1864 for $10,000 from the Kingdom of Hawaii and private ownership passed on to her descendants, the Robinson family. During World War II, the island was the site of the Niʻihau Incident, A Japanese navy fighter pilot crashed on the island, the people of Niʻihau are known for their gemlike lei pūpū craftsmanship, and speak Hawaiian as a primary language. The island is generally off-limits to all but relatives of the owners, U. S. Navy personnel, government officials and invited guests. Beginning in 1987, a number of supervised activity tours. The island is managed by brothers Bruce Robinson and Keith Robinson. Niʻihau is located about 18 miles west of Kauaʻi, and the tiny, Niʻihaus dimensions are 6.2 miles by 18.6 miles. The maximum elevation is 1,280 feet, the island is about 4.9 million years old, making it geologically younger than the 5-million-year-old neighboring island of Kauaʻi to the northeast. Niʻihau consists of one extinct volcano that had a landslide to the east. The island is relatively arid because it lies in the shadow of Kauaʻi. Niʻihau therefore, depends for its rain on winter Kona storms, as such, the island is subject to long periods of drought. As an arid island, Niʻihau was barren of trees for centuries — Captain James Cook reported it treeless in 1778, island co-owner Keith Robinson, a noted conservationist, preserved and documented many of Niʻihaus natural plant resources. The island is designated as a habitat for the ʻōlulu. Aylmer robinsonii, a Pritchardia palm tree named for Keith Robinsons uncle Aylmer Robinson, is a species native to Niʻihau. Several bird species thrive on Niʻihau, intermittent playa lakes on the island provide wetland habitats for the ʻalae keʻokeʻo, the āeʻo, and the koloa maoli
38.
Hawaiian monk seal
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The Hawaiian monk seal, Neomonachus schauinslandi, is an endangered species of earless seal in the family Phocidae that is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. The Hawaiian monk seal is one of two remaining monk seal species, the other is the Mediterranean monk seal, a third species, the Caribbean monk seal, is extinct. The Hawaiian monk seal is the only native to Hawaii. These monk seals are a conservation reliant endangered species, known to native Hawaiians as ʻIlio-holo-i-ka-uaua, or dog that runs in rough water, its scientific name is from Hugo Schauinsland, a German scientist who discovered a skull on Laysan Island in 1899. Its common name comes from short hairs on its head, said to resemble a monk, the Hawaiian monk seals are adopted to be Hawaiis state mammal. Its grey coat, white belly, and slender physique distinguish them from their cousin, the monk seal’s physique is ideal for hunting its prey, fish, lobster, octopus and squid in deep water coral beds. When it is not hunting and eating, it generally basks on the sandy beaches, the Hawaiian monk seal is part of the family Phocidae, being named so for its characteristic lack of external ears and inability to rotate its hind flippers under the body. The Hawaiian monk seal has a small, flat head with large black eyes, eight pairs of teeth. The nostrils are vertical slits which close when the seal dives underwater. Additionally, their slender, torpedo-shaped body and hind flippers allow them to be very agile swimmers. Adult males are 300 to 400 pounds in weight and 7 feet in length while females tend to be, on average, slightly larger. When monk seal pups are born, they average 30 to 40 pounds and 40 inches in length. As they nurse for six weeks, the grow considerably, eventually weighing between 150 to 200 pounds by the time they are weaned, while the mother loses up to 300 pounds. Monk seals, like elephant seals, shed their hair and the layer of their skin in an annual catastrophic molt. During the most active period of the molt, about 10 days for the Hawaiian monk seal, the hair, generally dark gray on the dorsal side and lighter silver ventrally, gradually changes color through the year with exposure to atmospheric conditions. The juvenile coat of the seal, manifest in a molt by the time a pup is weaned is silver-gray. Many Hawaiian monk seals sport scars from attacks or entanglements with fishing gear. Maximum life expectancy is 25 to 30 years, the monk seals are members of the Phocidae
39.
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
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The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands or the Leeward Islands are the small islands and atolls in the Hawaiian island chain located northwest of the islands of Kauai and Niihau. They are part of the U. S. state of Hawaii except Midway Atoll, in the state of Hawaii, they are part of Honolulu County. The United States Census Bureau defines this area as Census Tract 114.98 of Honolulu County and its total land area is 3.1075 square miles. All the islands except Nihoa are north of the Tropic of Cancer and it represents the southwestern part of the islands former volcanic cone. Ancient Hawaiians might have stayed here long-term, 40-acre Necker Island is hook shaped and 270 feet tall at its summit. Barren of vegetation, it was used by Ancient Hawaiians for religious purposes, French Frigate Shoals is an atoll, the largest region of coral reefs in Hawaii, at 200 square miles. The atoll is composed of a dozen or so islands, Tern Island housing an airport. Gardner Pinnacles is made up of two small peaks, the last rocky island in Hawaii. While the island itself is tiny, the reef is expansive. 166-square-mile Maro Reef is an extremely fertile reef system that has described as a coral garden. Laysan is a 913-acre, low, sandy island with a lake in its interior. It has arguably the most diverse ecosystem in the NWHI, Lisianski Island, only 400 acres, is geologically akin to Laysan, without the lake. Though the island is slightly less biodiverse, the reef is very fertile. Pearl and Hermes Atoll is an very similar to French Frigate Shoals. For this reason, it was ignored by guano miners. Midway Atoll is the most commonly known of the NWHI, and is also the largest, circular Kure Atoll contains the 236-acre Green Island, which used to host a LORAN station and a runway, but these have since been demolished. In terms of biodiversity, Kure is one of the less impressive of the NWHI, as the Pacific Plate moved north and later northwest over the hot spot, volcanic eruptions built up islands in a linear chain. The isolated land masses gradually eroded and subsided, evolving from high islands in the south, much like the Main Islands of Hawaii, each of the NWHI are in various stages of erosion
40.
Necker Island (Hawaii)
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Necker Island is a small island in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It is located at 23°34′35″N 164°42′0″W in the Pacific Ocean,155 miles northwest of Nihoa and 8 miles north of the Tropic of Cancer. It contains important prehistoric sites of the Hawaiian culture and is part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge within the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Monument. The United States Census Bureau reports its land area as 45.193 acres, the island is rocky with steep sides and has very little soil. Its highest elevation is 277 feet, the island is named after Jacques Necker, a finance minister of Louis XVI. Few signs of human habitation have been found. However, the island contains 33 stone shrines and stone artifacts much like those found in the main Hawaiian Islands, because of this, many anthropologists believe that the island was a ceremonial and religious site. According to the myths and legends of the people of Kauai, according to the legend, the Menehune settled on Necker after being chased off Kauai by the stronger Polynesians and subsequently built the various stone structures there. Visits to the island are said to have started a few hundred years after the main Hawaiian Islands were inhabited, french explorer Jean-François de La Pérouse was the first European to visit the island, in 1786. The island is named after Jacques Necker, the islands were formally annexed in 1894 by the Provisional Government of Hawaii. Because of the usage by Native Hawaiians as a ceremonial and religious site in Ancient Hawaii. List of volcanoes in the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain Evenhuis, Neal L. Eldredge, natural History of Nihoa and Necker Islands. Bishop Museum Bulletin in Cultural and Environmental Studies, No.1, the Columbia Gazetteer of North America. Archived from the original on 2002-03-29
41.
Midway Atoll
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Midway Atoll is a 2. 4-square-mile atoll in the North Pacific Ocean at 28°12′N 177°21′W. As its name suggests, Midway is roughly equidistant between North America and Asia, Midway Atoll is an unorganized, unincorporated territory of the United States. Midway continues to be the island in the Hawaiian archipelago that is not part of the state of Hawaii. Unlike the other Hawaiian islands, Midway observes Samoa Time, which is one hour behind the time in the state of Hawaii, for statistical purposes, Midway is grouped as one of the United States Minor Outlying Islands. The Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, encompassing 590,991.50 acres of land and water in the area, is administered by the United States Fish. The refuge and most of its area are part of the larger Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Until 1993, the atoll was the home of the Naval Air Facility Midway, the Battle of Midway, which was fought between June 4 and 6,1942, was one of the most important battles of the Pacific campaign of World War II. The United States Navy defeated a Japanese battle group marking a point in the war in the Pacific Theater. USAAF aircraft based at the original Henderson Field on Eastern Island joined the attack against the Japanese fleet, approximately 40 to 60 people live on the atoll, which includes staff of the US Fish and Wildlife Service and contract workers. At present, visitation to the atoll is only for business reasons as the tourism program has been suspended due to budget cutbacks. In 2012, the last year that the program was in operation,332 people made the trip to Midway. Tours focused on both the ecology of Midway as well as its military history. The economy is derived solely from governmental sources and tourist fees, nearly all supplies must be brought to the island by ship or plane, though a hydroponic greenhouse and garden supply some fresh fruits and vegetables. As its name suggests, Midway is roughly equidistant between North America and Asia, and lies almost halfway around the world longitudinally from Greenwich and it is near the northwestern end of the Hawaiian archipelago, about one-third of the way from Honolulu, Hawaii, to Tokyo, Japan. Midway Atoll is less than 140 nautical miles east of the International Date Line, about 2,800 nautical miles west of San Francisco, and 2,200 nautical miles east of Tokyo. Midway Atoll is part of a chain of islands, atolls. It consists of a barrier reef and several sand islets. The two significant pieces of land, Sand Island and Eastern Island, provide a habitat for millions of seabirds
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National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
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The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is an American scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts seas, guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to improve understanding and stewardship of the environment. In addition to its employees, over 11,000 as of 2015, NOAA research. NOAA plays several roles in society, the benefits of which extend beyond the U. S. economy and into the larger global community. NOAA supplies information to its customers and partners pertaining to the state of the oceans and this is clearly manifest in the production of weather warnings and forecasts through the National Weather Service, but NOAAs information products extend to climate, ecosystems, and commerce as well. A Provider of Environmental Stewardship Services, NOAA is also the steward of U. S. coastal and marine environments. A Leader in Applied Scientific Research, the five fundamental activities are, Monitoring and observing Earth systems with instruments and data collection networks. Understanding and describing Earth systems through research and analysis of that data, assessing and predicting the changes of these systems over time. Engaging, advising, and informing the public and partner organizations with important information, managing resources for the betterment of society, economy and environment. NOAA formed a conglomeration of several existing agencies that were among the oldest in the federal government, NOAA was established within the Department of Commerce via the Reorganization Plan No.4 of 1970. In 2007 NOAA celebrated 200 years of service with its ties to the United States Coast, the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps is a uniformed service of men and women who operate NOAA ships and aircraft, and serve in scientific and administrative posts. And in addition more than a dozen staff offices, including the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology, the NOAA Central Library and this is done through a collection of national and regional centers,13 river forecast centers, and more than 120 local weather forecast offices. They are charged with issuing weather and river forecasts, advisories, watches and they issue more than 734,000 weather and 850,000 river forecasts, and more than 45,000 severe weather warnings annually. NOAA data is relevant to the issues of global warming. The NWS operates NEXRAD, a network of Doppler weather radars which can detect precipitation. Many of their products are broadcast on NOAA Weather Radio, a network of transmitters that broadcasts weather forecasts, severe weather statements, watches. The National Ocean Service focuses on ensuring that ocean and coastal areas are safe, healthy, in 1960 TIROS-1, NOAAs first owned and operated geostationary satellite was launched. Since 1966 NESDIS has managed polar orbiting satellites and since 1974 it has operated geosynchronous satellites, in 1979 NOAAs first polar-orbiting environmental satellite was launched
State of Hawaii
