1.
Nikon
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Nikon Corporation, also known just as Nikon, is a Japanese multinational corporation headquartered in Tokyo, Japan, specializing in optics and imaging products. The companies held by Nikon form the Nikon Group, Nikons main competitors in camera and lens manufacturing include Canon, Sony, Fujifilm, Panasonic, Pentax, and Olympus. Founded on July 25,1917 as Nippon Kōgaku Kōgyō Kabushikigaisha, Nikon is a member of the Mitsubishi group of companies. Nikon Corporation was established on 25 July 1917 when three leading optical manufacturers merged to form a comprehensive, fully integrated optical company known as Nippon Kōgaku Tōkyō K. K. Over the next sixty years, this company became a manufacturer of optical lenses and equipment used in cameras, binoculars, microscopes. During World War II the company operated thirty factories with 2,000 employees, manufacturing binoculars, lenses, bomb sights, after the war Nippon Kōgaku reverted to producing its civilian product range in a single factory. In 1948, the first Nikon-branded camera was released, the Nikon I, Nikon lenses were popularised by the American photojournalist David Douglas Duncan. Duncan was working in Tokyo when the Korean War began, Duncan had met a young Japanese photographer, Jun Miki, who introduced Duncan to Nikon lenses. From July 1950 to January 1951, Duncan covered the Korean War, fitting Nikon optics to his Leica rangefinder cameras produced high contrast negatives with very sharp resolution at the centre field. Founded in 1917 as Nippon Kōgaku Kōgyō Kabushikigaisha, the company was renamed Nikon Corporation, after its cameras, the name Nikon, which dates from 1946, is a merging of Nippon Kōgaku and Zeisss brand Ikon. This would cause some problems in Germany as Zeiss complained that Nikon violated its trademarked camera. From 1963 to 1968 the Nikon F in particular was therefore labeled Nikkor, the Nikkor brand was introduced in 1932, a westernised rendering of an earlier version Nikkō, an abbreviation of the companys original full name. Nikkor is the Nikon brand name for its lenses, another early brand used on microscopes was Joico, an abbreviation of Japan Optical Industries Co. Expeed is the brand Nikon uses for its processors since 2007. The Nikon SP and other 1950s and 1960s rangefinder cameras competed directly with models from Leica, however, the company quickly ceased developing its rangefinder line to focus its efforts on the Nikon F single-lens reflex line of cameras, which was successful upon its introduction in 1959. For nearly 30 years, Nikons F-series SLRs were the most widely used small-format cameras among professional photographers, however, as autofocus SLRs became available from Minolta and others in the mid-1980s, Nikons line of manual-focus cameras began to seem out of date. Canon introduced a new type of lens-camera interface with its entirely electronic Canon EOS cameras, the much faster lens performance permitted by Canons electronic focusing and aperture control prompted many professional photographers to switch to the Canon system through the 1990s. Nikon created some of the first digital SLRs for NASA, used in the Space Shuttle since 1991, after a 1990s partnership with Kodak to produce digital SLR cameras based on existing Nikon film bodies, Nikon released the Nikon D1 SLR under its own name in 1999
2.
Zoom lens
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A zoom lens is a mechanical assembly of lens elements for which the focal length can be varied, as opposed to a fixed focal length lens. A true zoom lens, also called a lens, is one that maintains focus when its focal length changes. A lens that loses focus during zooming is more properly called a varifocal lens, despite being marketed as zoom lenses, virtually all consumer lenses with variable focal lengths use varifocal design. The convenience of variable focal length comes at the cost of complexity - and some compromises on image quality, weight, dimensions, aperture, autofocus performance, and cost. For example, all zoom lenses suffer from at least slight, if not considerable, loss of resolution at their maximum aperture. This effect is evident in the corners of the image, when displayed in a format or high resolution. The greater the range of length a zoom lens offers. Zoom lenses are described by the ratio of their longest to shortest focal lengths. For example, a lens with focal lengths ranging from 100 mm to 400 mm may be described as a 4,1 or 4× zoom. This ratio can be as high as 300× in professional television cameras, as of 2009, photographic zoom lenses beyond about 3× cannot generally produce imaging quality on par with prime lenses. Constant fast aperture zooms are typically restricted to this zoom range, quality degradation is less perceptible when recording moving images at low resolution, which is why professional video and TV lenses are able to feature high zoom ratios. Digital photography can also accommodate algorithms that compensate for optical flaws, some photographic zoom lenses are long-focus lenses, with focal lengths longer than a normal lens, some are wide-angle lenses, and others cover a range from wide-angle to long-focus. Lenses in the group of zoom lenses, sometimes referred to as normal zooms, have displaced the fixed focal length lens as the popular one-lens selection on many contemporary cameras. The markings on these lenses usually say W and T for Wide, Telephoto is designated because the longer focal length supplied by the negative diverging lens is longer than the overall lens assembly. Some digital cameras allow cropping and enlarging of a captured image and this is commonly known as digital zoom and produces an image of lower optical resolution than optical zoom. Exactly the same effect can be obtained by using image processing software on a computer to crop the digital image and enlarge the cropped area. Many digital cameras have both, combining them by first using the optical, then the digital zoom, Zoom and superzoom lenses are commonly used with still, video, motion picture cameras, projectors, some binoculars, microscopes, telescopes, telescopic sights, and other optical instruments. In addition, the part of a zoom lens can be used as a telescope of variable magnification to make an adjustable beam expander
3.
Crop factor
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In the case of digital cameras, the imaging device would be a digital sensor. The most commonly used definition of crop factor is the ratio of a 35 mm frames diagonal to the diagonal of the sensor in question. Given the same 3,2 aspect ratio as 35mms 36 mm ×24 mm area, this is equivalent to the ratio of heights or ratio of widths, the ratio of sensor areas is the square of the crop factor. If it is desired to capture an image with the field of view and image quality but different cameras. The term format factor is also used, and is a more neutral term that corresponds to the German word for this concept. Of course, the focal length of a photographic lens is fixed by its optical construction. Most DSLRs on the market have nominally APS-C-sized image sensors, smaller than the standard 36 ×24 mm film frame, for example, many Canon DSLRs use an APS-C sensor that measures 22.2 mm ×14.8 mm. Because of this crop, the field of view is reduced by a factor proportional to the ratio between the smaller sensor size and the 35 mm film format size. For most DSLR cameras, this factor is 1. 3–2. 0× and this narrowing of the FOV is a disadvantage to photographers when a wide FOV is desired. Ultra-wide lens designs become merely wide, wide-angle lenses become normal, however, the crop factor can be an advantage to photographers when a narrow FOV is desired. It allows photographers with long-focal-length lenses to fill the frame more easily when the subject is far away. A300 mm lens on a camera with a 1.6 crop factor delivers images with the same FOV that a 35 mm film camera would require a 480 mm long focus lens to capture. Due to the statistics of photon shot noise, the properties of signal-to-noise ratio. Since crop factor is proportional to the square root of sensor area. The larger sensor has the smaller crop factor and the higher signal-to-noise ratio, most SLR camera and lens manufacturers have addressed the concerns of wide-angle lens users by designing lenses with shorter focal lengths, optimized for the DSLR formats. In most cases, these lenses are designed to cast an image circle that would not cover a 24×36 mm frame. Because they cast an image circle, the lenses can be optimized to use less glass and are sometimes physically smaller and lighter than those designed for full-frame cameras. Such lenses usually project an image circle than lenses that were designed for the full-frame 35 mm format
4.
Aperture
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In optics, an aperture is a hole or an opening through which light travels. More specifically, the aperture and focal length of a system determine the cone angle of a bundle of rays that come to a focus in the image plane. The aperture determines how collimated the admitted rays are, which is of importance for the appearance at the image plane. If an aperture is narrow, then highly collimated rays are admitted, a wide aperture admits uncollimated rays, resulting in a sharp focus only for rays coming from a certain distance. This means that a wide aperture results in an image that is sharp for things at the correct distance, the aperture also determines how many of the incoming rays are actually admitted and thus how much light reaches the image plane. In the human eye, the pupil is the aperture, an optical system typically has many openings or structures that limit the ray bundles. In general, these structures are called stops, and the stop is the stop that primarily determines the ray cone angle. In some contexts, especially in photography and astronomy, aperture refers to the diameter of the aperture stop rather than the stop or the opening itself. For example, in a telescope, the stop is typically the edges of the objective lens or mirror. One then speaks of a telescope as having, for example, note that the aperture stop is not necessarily the smallest stop in the system. Magnification and demagnification by lenses and other elements can cause a large stop to be the aperture stop for the system. In astrophotography, the aperture may be given as a measure or as the dimensionless ratio between that measure and the focal length. In other photography, it is given as a ratio. Sometimes stops and diaphragms are called apertures, even when they are not the stop of the system. The word aperture is used in other contexts to indicate a system which blocks off light outside a certain region. In astronomy, for example, a photometric aperture around a star usually corresponds to a window around the image of a star within which the light intensity is assumed. The aperture stop is an important element in most optical designs and its most obvious feature is that it limits the amount of light that can reach the image/film plane. This can be unavoidable, as in a telescope where one wants to collect as much light as possible, or deliberate
5.
Diaphragm (optics)
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In optics, a diaphragm is a thin opaque structure with an opening at its center. The role of the diaphragm is to stop the passage of light, thus it is also called a stop. The diaphragm is placed in the path of a lens or objective. The centre of the diaphragms aperture coincides with the axis of the lens system. Most modern cameras use a type of adjustable diaphragm known as an iris diaphragm, see the articles on aperture and f-number for the photographic effect and system of quantification of varying the opening in the diaphragm. A natural optical system that has a diaphragm and an aperture is the human eye, the iris is the diaphragm, and the opening in the iris of the eye is the aperture. An analogous dev in a lens is called an iris diaphragm. In the early years of photography, a lens could be fitted with one of a set of interchangeable diaphragms, the iris diaphragm in most modern still and video cameras is adjusted by movable blades, simulating the iris of the eye. The diaphragm has two to twenty blades, depending on price and quality of the device in which it is used, straight blades result in polygon shape of the diaphragm opening, while curved blades improve the roundness of the iris opening. In a photograph, the number of blades that the diaphragm has can be guessed by counting the number of diffraction spikes converging from a light source or bright reflection. For an odd number of blades, there are twice as many spikes as there are blades. In case of a number of blades, the two spikes per blade will overlap each other, so the number of spikes visible will be the number of blades in the diaphragm used. This is most apparent in pictures taken in the dark with small bright spots, some cameras, such as the Olympus XA or lenses such as the MC Zenitar-ME1, however, use a two-bladed diaphragm with right-angle blades creating a square aperture. Similarly, out-of-focus points of light appear as polygons with the number of sides as the aperture has blades. If the blurred light is circular, then it can be inferred that the aperture is round or the image was shot wide-open. The shape of the opening has a direct relation with the appearance of the blurred out-of-focus areas in an image called bokeh. A rounder opening produces softer and more natural out-of-focus areas, some lenses utilize specially shaped diaphragms in order to create certain effects. Some modern automatic point-and-shoot cameras do not have a diaphragm at all, unlike a real diaphragm, this has no effect on depth of field
6.
Lens-based stabilization
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Image stabilization is a family of techniques used to reduce blurring associated with the motion of a camera or other imaging device during exposure. Generally, it compensates for pan and tilt of the imaging device and it is used in image-stabilized binoculars, still and video cameras, astronomical telescopes, and also smartphones, mainly the high-end. With still cameras, camera shake is particularly problematic at slow speeds or with long focal length lenses. With video cameras, camera shake causes visible frame-to-frame jitter in the recorded video, in astronomy, the problem of lens-shake is added to by variations in the atmosphere over time, which will cause the apparent positions of objects to change. In photography, image stabilization can often permit the use of shutter speeds 2–4.5 stops slower, for example, at a focal length of 125 mm on a 35 mm camera, vibration or camera shake could affect sharpness if the shutter speed was slower than 1/125 second. The sharpness obtainable at a speed can increase dramatically. When calculating the effective length, it is important to take into account the image format a camera uses. For example, many digital SLR cameras use a sensor that is 2/3, 5/8. This means that the 35 mm frame is 1.5,1.6, the latter values are referred to as the crop factor, field-of-view crop factor, focal-length multiplier, or format factor. On a 2x crop factor camera, for instance, a 50 mm lens produces the field of view as a 100 mm lens used on a 35 mm film camera. However, image stabilization does not prevent motion blur caused by the movement of the subject or by extreme movements of the camera, Image stabilization is only designed for and capable of reducing blur that results from normal, minute shaking of a lens due to hand-held shooting. Some lenses and camera bodies include a secondary panning mode or a more aggressive active mode, image-stabilization features can also be a benefit in astrophotography, when the camera is technically—but not effectively—fixed in place. The Pentax K-5 and K-r can use their sensor-shift capability to reduce star trails in reasonable exposure times, in effect, the stabilization compensates for the Earths motion, not the cameras. There are two types of implementation - lens-based, or body-based stabilization and these refer to where the stabilizing system is located. Both have their advantages and disadvantages, an optical image stabilizer, often abbreviated OIS, IS, or OS, is a mechanism used in a still camera or video camera that stabilizes the recorded image by varying the optical path to the sensor. This technology is implemented in the lens itself, as distinct from In Body Image Stabilization, the key element of all optical stabilization systems is that they stabilize the image projected on the sensor before the sensor converts the image into digital information. In Nikon and Canons implementation, it works by using a lens element that is moved orthogonally to the optical axis of the lens using electromagnets. Vibration is detected using two piezoelectric angular velocity sensors, one to detect movement and the other to detect vertical movement
7.
Macro photography
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Macro photography, is extreme close-up photography, usually of very small subjects and living organisms like insects, in which the size of the subject in the photograph is greater than life size. By some definitions, a photograph is one in which the size of the subject on the negative or image sensor is life size or greater. However, in other uses it refers to a photograph of a subject at greater than life size. The ratio of the size on the film plane to the actual subject size is known as the reproduction ratio. Likewise, a lens is classically a lens capable of reproduction ratios of at least 1,1, although it often refers to any lens with a large reproduction ratio. For example, when producing a 6×4 inch print using 35 format film or sensor, reproduction ratios much greater than 1,1 are considered to be photomicrography, often achieved with digital microscope. In the digital age, a macro photograph can be more practically defined as a photograph with a vertical subject height of 24 mm or less. The term photo-macrograph was proposed in 1899 by W. H. Walmsley for close-up images with less than 10 diameters magnification, one of the earliest pioneers of macro photography was Percy Smith, born in 1880. He was a British nature documentary filmmaker, and was known for his close-up photographs, Macro lenses specifically designed for close-up work, with a long barrel for close focusing and optimized for high reproduction ratios, are one of the most common tools for macro photography. Most modern macro lenses can focus continuously to infinity as well, others, such as the Infinity Photo-Opticals TS-160 can achieve magnifications from 0-18x on sensor, focusing from infinity down to 18 mm from the object. The further the lens is from the film or sensor, the closer the distance, the greater the magnification. Tubes of various lengths can be stacked, decreasing lens-to-subject distance, bellows or tubes eliminate infinity focus. Placing an auxiliary close-up lens in front of the lens is another option. Inexpensive screw-in or slip-on attachments provide close focusing and this method works with cameras that have fixed lenses, and is commonly used with bridge cameras. These lenses add diopters to the power of the lens, decreasing the minimum focusing distance. They are typically designated by their diopter, and can be stacked to achieve the desired magnification, photographers may employ view camera movements and the Scheimpflug principle to place an object close to the lens in focus, while maintaining selective background focus. This technique requires the use of a camera or perspective control lens with the ability to tilt the lens with respect to the film or sensor plane. Traditional view cameras permit such adjustment as part of their design, ordinary lenses can be used for macro photography by using a reversing ring
8.
Angle of view
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In photography, angle of view describes the angular extent of a given scene that is imaged by a camera. It is used interchangeably with the general term field of view. It is important to distinguish the angle of view from the angle of coverage, typically the image circle produced by a lens is large enough to cover the film or sensor completely, possibly including some vignetting toward the edge. A cameras angle of view not only on the lens. Digital sensors are usually smaller than 35mm film, and this causes the lens to have an angle of view than with 35mm film. In everyday digital cameras, the factor can range from around 1, to 1.6. For lenses projecting rectilinear images of distant objects, the focal length. Calculations for lenses producing non-rectilinear images are more complex and in the end not very useful in most practical applications. Angle of view may be measured horizontally, vertically, or diagonally, for example, for 35mm film which is 36 mm wide and 24mm high, d =36 mm would be used to obtain the horizontal angle of view and d =24 mm for the vertical angle. Because this is a function, the angle of view does not vary quite linearly with the reciprocal of the focal length. However, except for wide-angle lenses, it is reasonable to approximate α ≈ d f radians or 180 d π f degrees. The effective focal length is equal to the stated focal length of the lens. Angle of view can also be determined using FOV tables or paper or software lens calculators, consider a 35 mm camera with a lens having a focal length of F =50 mm. The dimensions of the 35 mm image format are 24 mm ×36 mm, here α is defined to be the angle-of-view, since it is the angle enclosing the largest object whose image can fit on the film. We want to find the relationship between, the angle α the opposite side of the triangle, d /2 the adjacent side, S2 Using basic trigonometry, we find. For macro photography, we neglect the difference between S2 and F. From the thin lens formula,1 F =1 S1 +1 S2, a second effect which comes into play in macro photography is lens asymmetry. The lens asymmetry causes an offset between the plane and pupil positions
9.
Image stabilization
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Image stabilization is a family of techniques used to reduce blurring associated with the motion of a camera or other imaging device during exposure. Generally, it compensates for pan and tilt of the imaging device and it is used in image-stabilized binoculars, still and video cameras, astronomical telescopes, and also smartphones, mainly the high-end. With still cameras, camera shake is particularly problematic at slow speeds or with long focal length lenses. With video cameras, camera shake causes visible frame-to-frame jitter in the recorded video, in astronomy, the problem of lens-shake is added to by variations in the atmosphere over time, which will cause the apparent positions of objects to change. In photography, image stabilization can often permit the use of shutter speeds 2–4.5 stops slower, for example, at a focal length of 125 mm on a 35 mm camera, vibration or camera shake could affect sharpness if the shutter speed was slower than 1/125 second. The sharpness obtainable at a speed can increase dramatically. When calculating the effective length, it is important to take into account the image format a camera uses. For example, many digital SLR cameras use a sensor that is 2/3, 5/8. This means that the 35 mm frame is 1.5,1.6, the latter values are referred to as the crop factor, field-of-view crop factor, focal-length multiplier, or format factor. On a 2x crop factor camera, for instance, a 50 mm lens produces the field of view as a 100 mm lens used on a 35 mm film camera. However, image stabilization does not prevent motion blur caused by the movement of the subject or by extreme movements of the camera, Image stabilization is only designed for and capable of reducing blur that results from normal, minute shaking of a lens due to hand-held shooting. Some lenses and camera bodies include a secondary panning mode or a more aggressive active mode, image-stabilization features can also be a benefit in astrophotography, when the camera is technically—but not effectively—fixed in place. The Pentax K-5 and K-r can use their sensor-shift capability to reduce star trails in reasonable exposure times, in effect, the stabilization compensates for the Earths motion, not the cameras. There are two types of implementation - lens-based, or body-based stabilization and these refer to where the stabilizing system is located. Both have their advantages and disadvantages, an optical image stabilizer, often abbreviated OIS, IS, or OS, is a mechanism used in a still camera or video camera that stabilizes the recorded image by varying the optical path to the sensor. This technology is implemented in the lens itself, as distinct from In Body Image Stabilization, the key element of all optical stabilization systems is that they stabilize the image projected on the sensor before the sensor converts the image into digital information. In Nikon and Canons implementation, it works by using a lens element that is moved orthogonally to the optical axis of the lens using electromagnets. Vibration is detected using two piezoelectric angular velocity sensors, one to detect movement and the other to detect vertical movement
Yes
No
