1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Species
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In biology, a species is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. While this definition is often adequate, looked at more closely it is problematic, for example, with hybridisation, in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies, or in a ring species, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear. Other ways of defining species include similarity of DNA, morphology, all species are given a two-part name, a binomial. The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs, the second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet. For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus, Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed kinds that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being. In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time, Charles Darwins 1859 book The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection. Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal transfer, and species may become extinct for a variety of reasons. In his biology, Aristotle used the term γένος to mean a kind, such as a bird or fish, a kind was distinguished by its attributes, for instance, a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood. A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, Aristotle believed all kinds and forms to be distinct and unchanging. His approach remained influential until the Renaissance, when observers in the Early Modern period began to develop systems of organization for living things, they placed each kind of animal or plant into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical, animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently, one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa. In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics and he established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships. At the time, however, it was widely believed that there was no organic connection between species, no matter how similar they appeared. However, whether or not it was supposed to be fixed, by the 19th century, naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in 1859, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace provided a compelling account of evolution and the formation of new species. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals and this required a new definition of species. Darwin concluded that species are what appear to be, ideas
3.
King penguin
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The king penguin is a large species of penguin, second only to the emperor penguin in size. There are two subspecies, A. p. patagonicus and A. p. halli, patagonicus is found in the South Atlantic, King penguins eat small fish, mainly lanternfish, and squid. They are less reliant on krill and other crustaceans than most Southern Ocean predators, on foraging trips king penguins repeatedly dive to over 100 metres, and have been recorded at depths greater than 300 metres. King penguins breed on the islands at the northern reaches of Antarctica, South Georgia. The king penguin stands at 70 to 100 cm tall and weighs from 9.3 to 18 kg, males are slightly larger than females. The mean body mass of adults from Marion Island was 12.4 kg for 70 males and 11.1 kg for 71 females, another study from Marion Island found that the mean mass of 33 adults feeding chicks was 13.1 kg. Thus the average weight of the penguin is similar or just slightly higher than that of the largest living flying birds. Both species have colorful markings along the side of their lower mandible, once fully molted of its heavy dark brown down, the juvenile king penguin resembles the adult but is somewhat less colorful. King penguins breed on islands between 45 and 55°S, at the northern reaches of Antarctica, as well as Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands. The total population is estimated to be 2.23 million pairs and is increasing, macquarie Island has around 70,000 pairs. The non-breeding range is known due to vagrant birds having been recorded from the Antarctic peninsula as well as South Africa, Australia. The Nature Protection Society released king penguins in Gjesvær in Finnmark, birds were reported in the area several times in the 1940s though none have been seen since 1949. The current maximum dive recorded is 343 metres in the Falkland Islands region, the king penguin dives to depths of 100–300 meters, spending around five minutes submerged, during daylight hours, and less than 30 metres at night. The majority of dives undertaken by king penguins are flat-bottomed, that is and they have been described as U-shaped or W-shaped, relating to the course of the dive. The bird dives in a V-shaped or spike pattern in the remaining 12% of dives, other penguins dive in this latter foraging pattern in contrast. Observations at Crozet Islands revealed most king penguins were seen within 30 km of the colony, using the average swimming speed, Kooyman estimated the distance travelled to foraging areas at 28 km. Its average swimming speed is 6. 5–10 km/h, on shallower dives under 60 m, it averages 2 km/h descending and ascending, while on deeper dives over 150 m deep, it averages 5 km/h in both directions. King penguins also porpoise, a technique used to breathe while maintaining speed
4.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
5.
Norwegian Army
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Norway achieved full independence in 1905, and in the first century of its short life has contributed to three major conflicts, World War II, the Cold War and the War on Terror. The Norwegian Army currently operates in Northern Norway and in Afghanistan as well as in Eastern Europe, the Army is the oldest of the service branches, established as a modern military organization in 1628. The Army participated in wars during the 17th, 18th and 19th century as well, after the Kalmar War broke out in 1611, the Danish king tried to revive the volunteer leidang, with dire results. As the Norwegian citizenry had not been armed or trained in the use of arms for nearly three centuries they were not able to fight, the soldiers had to participate in military drills, while providing supplementary labor to the local community when not in active service. During the war of 1643–45, the Norwegian army performed well while its Danish counterpart flopped, as a result, large areas had to be ceded to Sweden. In 2008 the army faced criticism from within for only being able to only one district in Oslo in the event of a national invasion. German ceased to be the language of command in the army in 1772. With the outbreak of the Napoleonic wars, Denmark-Norway and Sweden tried to remain neutral, by 1807, Denmark-Norway was formally at war with Britain. As the Napoleonic era drew to a close, the allies decided to award Norway to Sweden in 1814. This union lasted until 1905, during which time the Norwegian Army retained a separate entity within the joint kingdom, financial budgeting, recruitment, regimental organization and uniforms were all independent of their Swedish counterparts. The basis for recruitment for the Norwegian Army was initially one of conscription for up to five years by lot drawn amongst rural recruits only, a framework was provided by regular soldiers or hvervede, enlisted as long-service volunteers. As with other armies of the period, the payment of a substitute to serve in place was permitted. This system was replaced by one of universal conscription introduced in 1854, in 1884 the basis of service was further modified with the training period being reduced to 90 days. The regulars of the hvervede were reduced to a cadre of officers, ncos. In June 1905 the Storting unilaterally dissolved the 91-year-old union with Sweden, after a short but tense period during which both armies were mobilized, Sweden agreed to the peaceful dissolution of the union. Though nominally a neutral nation during World War I, Norway was in the position of being dependent on the warring sides for its trade. Coal from Britain was needed to keep the country going, and Norway had thus to agree that each shipload of coal leaving Britain be matched with incoming Norwegian cargoes such as copper ore and this attracted the attention of German submarines. By 1920 the army of Norway was a national militia, service was universal and compulsory, liability commencing at the age of 18 and continuing till the age of 56
6.
Brigadier
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Brigadier /brɪɡəˈdɪər/ is a military rank, the seniority of which depends on the country. In some countries, it is a rank above colonel, equivalent to a brigadier general. In other countries, it is a non-commissioned rank, in many countries, especially those formerly part of the British Empire, a brigadier is either the highest field rank or most junior general appointment, nominally commanding a brigade. It ranks above colonel and below major general, the rank is used by the British Army, the Royal Marines, the Australian Army, the Indian Army, the Sri Lankan Army, the New Zealand Army, the Pakistan Army and several others. Although it is not always considered an officer rank, it is always considered equivalent to the brigadier general. In NATO forces, brigadier is OF-6 on the rank scale, the grade of brigadier-general, also called, almost interchangeably, brigadier, first appeared in the British army during the reign of King James II. A warrant of 1705 placed the grade directly below major-general, but the appointment was considered temporary. The British were ambiguous over whether the holder was considered an officer or a senior field grade office. The title is derived from the equivalent British rank of brigadier-general, used until 1922, Brigadier was already in use as a generic term for a commander of a brigade irrespective of specific rank. Until the rank was dissolved in 1922, brigadier-generals wore a crossed sword, colonel-commandant was only ever used for officers commanding brigades, depots or training establishments. Officers holding equivalent rank in administrative appointments were known as colonels on the staff, colonel-commandants and colonels on the staff wore the same rank badge later adopted by brigadiers. Until shortly after World War II, brigadier was an appointment conferred on colonels rather than a substantive rank, in Commonwealth countries, and most Arabic-speaking countries, the rank insignia comprises a crown with three stars, which are often arranged in a triangle. A brigadiers uniform may also have red gorget patches and it is otherwise similar to that of a colonel The Canadian Army used the rank of brigadier until the unification of the Canadian Forces in 1968. The rank then became brigadier-general with the insignia of St. Edwards Crown surmounting a crossed sword, until 1788, a rank of brigadier des armées, which could be described as a senior colonel or junior brigade commander, was used in the French Army. The normal brigade command rank was field marshal, during the French Revolution, the ranks of brigadier des armées and maréchal de camp were replaced by brigade general. In common with countries, France now uses the officer rank of brigade general instead of a brigadier rank. The brigadier des armées held a one-star insignia, while the général de brigade inherited the maréchal de camp two-stars insignia, the disparition of the brigadier rank is the reason that there is no one-star insignia in the French Army. The rank of a brigadier was established by Felipe V in 1702 as a rank between colonel and true generals
7.
Colonel-in-chief
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Colonel-in-Chief is a ceremonial position in a military regiment. It is in use in several Commonwealth armies, where it is held by the regiments patron. The position was used in the armies of several European monarchies. A Colonel-in-Chief has a ceremonial role in their regiment. The Norwegian Army has taken a more whimsical approach to the position, historically a Colonel-in-Chief was the ceremonial head of a regiment, usually a member of a European countrys royal family. The practice extends at least back to 1740 in Prussia when Frederick II held that position in the newly created Garde du Corps, an elite heavy cavalry regiment. By the late 19th Century the designation could be given to the children of royalty, the German Kaiser Wilhelm II carried the title to an extreme, holding it in literally dozens of German and Austro-Hungarian, British, Russian, and Portuguese regiments. In addition, his mother, wife, son, and daughters were also full or deputy Colonels-in-Chief of various units, in modern usage, the Colonel-in-Chief of a regiment is its patron, who has a ceremonial role in the life of the regiment. They do not have a role, or the right to issue orders. The chief purpose of the Colonel-in-Chief is to maintain a link between the regiment and the royal family. Some artillery regiments have a Captain-General instead of a Colonel-in-Chief, Colonels-in-Chief are appointed at the invitation of the regiment. While it is traditional for a royal personage to hold the position, as of 2015, most Colonels-in-Chief in the British Army are members of the British royal family. These exceptions, however, do not change the raison dêtre of the post, the role has spread to other armies in the Commonwealth of Nations, at least in countries which have royal families
8.
Military mascot
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Military mascot refers to a pet animal maintained by a military unit as a mascot for ceremonial purposes or as an emblem of that unit. It may also be referred to as a pet or regimental mascot. It differs from an animal in that it is not employed for use directly in warfare as a weapon or for transport. The custom of adopting mascots originated from troops bringing a pet to war, some regimental mascots, such as those of most British infantry regiments, represent their home counties history. Regiments of the British Army have long been prone to adopt members of the world as their mascots, dogs, goats. When the custom of having regimental mascots first started is not clear, some mascots in the British Army are indicative of the recruiting area of a regiment, such as the Derbyshire Ram, Staffordshire Bull Terrier, Irish Wolfhounds and Welsh Goats. British Army mascots are classified as regimental pets or regimental mascots. The former are unofficial mascots since they are not recognized by the Army, while the latter are official mascots, official British Army mascots are entitled to the services of the Royal Army Veterinary Corps, as well as quartering and food at public expense. It costs the Army the equivalent of $55,000 a year for the upkeep of official mascots, There are also mascots whose upkeep are borne by the regiment or unit itself. They are unofficial mascots which are referred to as regimental pets. The Army is keen in preserving the distinction between pets kept by the soldiers and official mascots of the regiments, the case for official mascot recognition is presented before the Army Honours and Distinction Committee. By getting an official status, the mascot will receive a number, assume a proper rank, with prospects of promotion. There are three rules set down in 1953 that need to be hurdled to get official mascot status, first, the regiment must comply with the welfare guidelines issued by the Army Veterinary Corps to ensure that the mascot is properly fed and housed. Second, the regiments Commanding Officer must give approval before the case goes to the Army Honours, a total of seventeen ceremonial pets are kept by eleven Army regiments, but only ten are recognized as official regimental mascots by the Army. It is a jealously guarded by those who have it. So far, the animals that have made the grade of official regimental mascot are the horse, pony, wolfhound, goat, ram, a Welsh Mountain Pony named Emrys. A Welsh Mountain Pony was selected to reflect the Regiment’s Welsh heritage, the Mascots full title is 16851959 Tpr Emrys Forlan Jones. His number embodies the years of formation for the Queens Bays and Kings Dragoon Guards, Emrys means The Immortal One in Welsh and is a name steeped in Welsh history and mythology
9.
Hans Majestet Kongens Garde
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Hans Majestet Kongens Garde is a battalion of the Norwegian Army. The HMKG is located in Huseby leir in Oslo, Huseby leir is located on the old Oslo farm Nordre Huseby gård, which was acquired by the Norwegian government in the late 19th century. By 1856 this service was obsolete, and the decided to form a new Norwegian infantry company to be part of the guard. The company moved from Stockholm to Kristiania in 1888, where, in addition to its guards duties, on Norways independence in 1905, the company became the new guards unit for the King of Norway, Haakon VII and was increased to battalion size. The battalion served with distinction during the Second World War, where it prevented the Wehrmacht from capturing the Royal Family and this gave the Guards its first battle honour. Later in the campaign, the Guards fought with distinction on Dovrefjell and at Lundehøgda, near Lillehammer, during the campaign in central Norway they were known among the German soldiers who fought them as die schwarzen Teufel or the black devils, due to their ferocity and dark uniforms. The HMKG is organized as an infantry battalion of six companies. The majority of Guardsmen are National Servicemen who are posted to the regiment after their basic training, the mission of the GSG is classified, but it was used during the 22 July attacks on Oslo in 2011. The changing of the ceremony in front of The Palace takes place at 1330–1400 hours every day and is a popular event with tourists. The dark blue uniforms have remained virtually unchanged throughout the regiments existence. The regiments cap badge is a rosette in the colours of Norway. In addition to performing guard duty, the Guards is also on parade whenever important state events take place in the capital. These include the opening of parliament by HM the King, visits by foreign heads of state. The regiments official mascot is a penguin named Nils Olav. The first penguin was adopted during the regiments first participation in the Edinburgh Military Tattoo in 1961 and was given the rank of visekorporal, Nils Olav was promoted each time the Kings Guard has returned to the Tattoo. In 1982 he was made corporal and was promoted to sergeant in 1987, Nils Olav died shortly after his promotion to sergeant, and his place of honour was taken by Nils Olav II, his two-year-old near-double. He was promoted in 1993 to the rank of sergeant major. On 18 August 2005 he was promoted to Colonel-in-Chief, Nils Olav was the first penguin to hold this rank in the Norwegian army
10.
Knight
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A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a monarch or other political leader for service to the monarch or country, especially in a military capacity. Historically, in Europe, knighthood was conferred upon mounted warriors, during the High Middle Ages, knighthood was considered a class of lower nobility. By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, often, a knight was a vassal who served as a fighter for a lord, with payment in the form of land holdings. The lords trusted the knights, who were skilled in battle on horseback, since the early modern period, the title of knight is purely honorific, usually bestowed by a monarch, as in the British honours system, often for non-military service to the country. The modern female equivalent in the United Kingdom is Dame, furthermore, Geoffroi de Charnys Book of Chivalry expounded upon the importance of Christian faith in every area of a knights life. This novel explored the ideals of knighthood and their incongruity with the reality of Cervantes world, in the late medieval period, new methods of warfare began to render classical knights in armour obsolete, but the titles remained in many nations. Some orders of knighthood, such as the Knights Templar, have become the subject of legend, each of these orders has its own criteria for eligibility, but knighthood is generally granted by a head of state or monarch to selected persons to recognise some meritorious achievement. This linkage is reflected in the etymology of chivalry, cavalier, the special prestige accorded to mounted warriors finds a parallel in the furusiyya in the Muslim world, and the Greek hippeus and Roman eques of classical antiquity. The word knight, from Old English cniht, is a cognate of the German word Knecht and this meaning, of unknown origin, is common among West Germanic languages. Middle High German had the phrase guoter kneht, which also meant knight, the Anglo-Saxon cniht had no connection to horsemanship, the word referred to any servant. A rādcniht, riding-servant, was a servant delivering messages or patrolling coastlines on horseback, a narrowing of the generic meaning servant to military follower of a king or other superior is visible by 1100. The specific military sense of a knight as a warrior in the heavy cavalry emerges only in the Hundred Years War. The verb to knight appears around 1300, and, from the same time, an Equestrian was a member of the second highest social class in the Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. This class is often translated as knight, the medieval knight, both Greek ἳππος and Latin equus are derived from the Proto-Indo-European word root ekwo-, horse. In the later Roman Empire, the classical Latin word for horse, equus, was replaced in common parlance by the vulgar Latin caballus, sometimes thought to derive from Gaulish caballos. From caballus arose terms in the various Romance languages cognate with the English cavalier, Italian cavaliere, Spanish caballero, French chevalier, Portuguese cavaleiro, the Germanic languages have terms cognate with the English rider, German Ritter, and Dutch and Scandinavian ridder. These words are derived from Germanic rīdan, to ride, in turn derived from the Proto-Indo-European root reidh-, in ancient Rome there was a knightly class Ordo Equestris from which European knighthood may have been derived. Some portions of the armies of Germanic peoples who occupied Europe from the 3rd century AD onward had been mounted, in the Early Medieval period any well-equipped horseman could be described as a knight, or miles in Latin
11.
Edinburgh Zoo
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Edinburgh Zoo, formerly the Scottish National Zoological Park, is an 82-acre non-profit zoological park in Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland. The land lies on the facing slopes of Corstorphine Hill. Edinburgh Zoo was the first zoo in the world to house and it is also the only zoo in Britain to house koalas and giant pandas. It has also granted four stars by the Scottish Tourism Board. The zoo gardens boast one of the most diverse collections in the Lothians. The Royal Zoological Society of Scotland was founded as a charity in 1909 by an Edinburgh lawyer. The Corstorphine Hill site was purchased by the Society with help from the Edinburgh Town Council in early 1913, the Scottish National Zoological Park was opened to the public in 1913 and was incorporated by Royal Charter later that year. In 1948, following a visit by His Majesty King George VI and it remains the only zoo with a Royal Charter in the United Kingdom. Edinburgh Zoos long association with penguins began in January 1914, with the arrival of three king penguins from the Christian Salvesen whaling expedition which docked in Leith, the subsequent successful hatching of a king penguin chick in 1919 was the first penguin to be hatched in captivity. These were the first penguins to be seen outside of the South Atlantic anywhere in the world, the now famous daily penguin parade started by accident in 1950 with the escape of several birds. This proved so popular with visitors and the penguins that it is a feature of the zoo today. After Tom Gillespie retired, Gilbert D. Fisher was appointed director-secretary of the zoo in 1956 and he held the post till he retired in 1971. In 1986, the Society acquired the Highland Wildlife Park at Kingussie,30 miles south of Inverness, the zoo and the park work together in providing the most appropriate captive habitat possible in Scotland. Public visitation trips between both sites are organised frequently by the RZSS, the zoo still retains the original charter, which drives its active breeding programme, and biodiversity, conservation and sustainability initiatives. The RZSS provides multiple ways for the public to support its mission, including a membership club, animal adoption, donations, legacies. Named after the Budongo Forest in Uganda, the Budongo Trail facility houses a troop of 18 common chimpanzees,9 males and 9 females. The main building features viewing galleries, a theatre and interactive games and displays designed to teach visitors about the chimpanzees lifestyle. Living Links is built around a station and research centre for the study of primate behaviour
12.
Roald Amundsen
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Roald Engelbregt Gravning Amundsen was a Norwegian explorer of polar regions. He led the Antarctic expedition of 1910–12 which was the first to reach the South Pole, in 1926, he was the first expedition leader for the air expedition to the North Pole. Amundsen is recognized as the first person, without dispute, as having reached both poles and he is also known as having the first expedition to traverse the Northwest Passage in the Arctic. In June 1928, while taking part in a mission for the airship Italia. Amundsen was a key leader during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration, in the class of Douglas Mawson, Robert Falcon Scott. Amundsen was born to a family of Norwegian shipowners and captains in Borge and his parents were Jens Amundsen and Hanna Sahlqvist. Roald was the son in the family. His mother wanted him to avoid the family trade and encouraged him to become a doctor. He promptly quit university for a life at sea, Amundsen had hidden a lifelong desire inspired by Fridtjof Nansens crossing of Greenland in 1888 and Franklins lost expedition. He decided on a life of exploration of wilderness places. Amundsen joined the Belgian Antarctic Expedition as first mate and this expedition, led by Adrien de Gerlache using the ship the RV Belgica, became the first expedition to winter in Antarctica. The Belgica, whether by mistake or design, became locked in the sea ice at 70°30′S off Alexander Island, the crew endured a winter for which they were poorly prepared. By Amundsens own estimation, the doctor for the expedition, the American Frederick Cook, probably saved the crew from scurvy by hunting for animals and feeding the crew fresh meat. In cases where citrus fruits are lacking, fresh meat from animals that make their own vitamin C contains enough of the vitamin to prevent scurvy and this was an important lesson for Amundsens future expeditions. In 1903, Amundsen led the first expedition to successfully traverse Canadas Northwest Passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and he planned a small expedition of six men in a 45-ton fishing vessel, Gjøa, in order to have flexibility. His ship had relatively shallow draft and his technique was to use a small ship and hug the coast. Amundsen had the ship outfitted with a gasoline engine. They traveled via Baffin Bay, the Parry Channel and then south through Peel Sound, James Ross Strait, Simpson Strait and they spent two winters at King William Island in the harbor of what is today Gjoa Haven, Nunavut, Canada
13.
Amundsen's South Pole expedition
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The first expedition to reach the geographic South Pole was led by the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen. He and four others arrived at the pole on 14 December 1911, Amundsen and his team returned safely to their base, and later learned that Scott and his four companions had died on their return journey. Amundsens initial plans had focused on the Arctic and the conquest of the North Pole by means of a drift in an icebound ship. He obtained the use of Fridtjof Nansens polar exploration ship Fram, preparations for this expedition were disrupted when, in 1909, the rival American explorers Frederick Cook and Robert E. Peary each claimed to have reached the North Pole. Amundsen made his Antarctic base, which he named Framheim, in the Bay of Whales on the Great Ice Barrier, after months of preparation, depot-laying and a false start that ended in near-disaster, he and his party set out for the pole in October 1911. In the course of their journey they discovered the Axel Heiberg Glacier, the partys mastery of the use of skis and their expertise with sledge dogs ensured rapid and relatively trouble-free travel. Other achievements of the expedition included the first exploration of King Edward VII Land, the expeditions success was widely applauded, though the story of Scotts heroic failure overshadowed its achievement in the United Kingdom. Amundsens decision to keep his plans secret until the last moment was criticised by some. Recent polar historians have more fully recognised the skill and courage of Amundsens party, Amundsen was born in Fredrikstad, Norway, in 1872, the son of a ship-owner. In 1893, he abandoned his studies at Christiania University. After several further voyages he qualified as a mate, when not at sea. In 1896, inspired by the exploits of his countryman Fridtjof Nansen, Amundsen joined the Belgian Antarctic Expedition as mate. Early in 1898 the ship trapped by pack ice in the Bellinghausen Sea. The expedition thus became, involuntarily, the first to spend a winter in Antarctic waters, a period marked by depression, near-starvation, insanity. Amundsen remained dispassionate, recording everything and using the experience as an education in all aspects of polar exploration techniques, particularly aids, clothing and diet. Belgicas voyage marked the beginning of what became known as the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration, however, on his return to Norway in 1899, Amundsen turned his attention northwards. Having earned his masters ticket, Amundsen acquired a small sloop, Gjøa and he secured the patronage of King Oscar of Sweden and Norway, the support of Nansen, and sufficient financial backing to set out in June 1903 with a crew of six. The voyage lasted until 1906 and was successful, the Northwest Passage
14.
Royal Edinburgh Military Tattoo
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The event is held each August as part of the Edinburgh Festival. The first public military tattoo in Edinburgh was entitled Something About a Soldier and took place at the Ross Bandstand, Princes Street Gardens, the first official Edinburgh Military Tattoo was held in 1950 with eight items in the programme. It drew some 6,000 spectators seated in simple bench and scaffold structures around the north, south, in 1952, the capacity of the stands was increased to accommodate a nightly audience of 7,700, allowing 160,000 to watch the multiple live performances. Since the 1970s on average, just over 217,000 people see the Tattoo live on the esplanade of Edinburgh Castle each year, 30% of the audience are from Scotland and 35% from the rest of the United Kingdom. The remaining 35% of the consists of 70,000 visitors from overseas. The temporary grandstands on the esplanade, used between 1975 and 2010, had a capacity of 8,600. New £16 million spectator stands and corporate hospitality boxes came into use in 2011, the new temporary stands reduced the time taken to erect and dismantle them from the original two months to one month, allowing the esplanade to host events at other times of the year. The Tattoo performance takes place every evening and twice on Saturdays throughout August and has never been cancelled due to inclement weather. The Edinburgh Military Tattoo has also toured overseas, visiting New Zealand in 2000 as part of the Tattoos 50th anniversary celebrations and it visited Australia in 2005 and returned to the Sydney Football Stadium in February 2010 as part of the Tattoos 60th anniversary celebrations. It has been announced that the Royal Edinburgh Military Tattoo will be heading to Melbourne and Wellington, New Zealand in February 2016, as of 2014 the Princess Royal is the patron of the event, with the main corporate sponsor being the Royal Bank of Scotland. In 2010 the event became the Royal Edinburgh Military Tattoo after HM Queen Elizabeth awarded the Royal title in celebration of its six decades of existence, the Tattoo is televised in 30 countries and a further 100 million people see the event on television worldwide. In Britain the BBC broadcasts the event annually, with commentary in 2009 and 2010 provided by BBC Radio Scotland presenter Iain Anderson, bill Paterson has provided commentary since 2011, before 2009, Tom Fleming commentated, not missing a year between 1966 and 2008. These changes were made so the ABC could expand its news coverage of local New Year celebrations, the Tattoo is run for charitable causes and over the years has given over £5 million to military and civilian charities and organisations, such as the Army Benevolent Fund. However, the benefit has been that, by independent count. The official magazine of the Edinburgh Military Tattoo, Salute, is distributed free to sponsors, Friends of the Tattoo, international military regiments and even African tribes have performed at the Tattoo over the years. The first regiment from outside the UK to take part was the Band of the Royal Netherlands Grenadiers in 1952, so far, over 30 countries from nearly all continents have been represented at the Tattoo. Popular visiting performers include the Swiss Top Secret Drum Corps, who performed at the 2003,2006,2009,2012 and 2015 Tattoos and were the first non-military drum corps to participate, in recent years, performances have included cultural dances and items from different countries. Each year has a service from the British Armed Forces
15.
Edinburgh
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Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
16.
King of Norway
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The Norwegian monarch is the monarchical head of state of Norway, which is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy with a parliamentary system. The present monarch is King Harald V, who has reigned since 17 January 1991, succeeding his father, the heir apparent is his only son, Crown Prince Haakon. The crown prince undertakes various public functions, as does the kings wife. The crown prince also acts as regent in the kings absence, there are several other members of the Royal Family, including the kings daughter, grandchildren and siblings. Whilst the Constitution of Norway grants important executive powers to the King, formally the King appoints the government according to his own judgement, but parliamentary practice has been in place since 1884. Constitutional practice has replaced the meaning of the word King in most articles of the constitution from the king personally to the elected government. The powers vested in the monarch are significant, but are treated only as reserve powers, the King does not, by convention, have direct participation in government. He ratifies laws and royal resolutions, receives and sends envoys from and to foreign countries and he has a more tangible influence as the symbol of national unity. The annual New Years Eve speech is one occasion when the King traditionally raises negative issues, the King is also Supreme Commander of the Norwegian Armed Forces and Grand Master of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav and of the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit. The King has no role in the Church of Norway. The position of King of Norway has been in existence since the unification of Norway in 872. In recent years members of the Socialist Left party have proposed the abolition of the monarchy during each new session of parliament and this gives the Norwegian monarchy the unique status of being a popularly elected royal family and receiving regular formal confirmations of support from the Storting. Prior to and in the phase of the Viking Age Norway was divided into several smaller kingdoms. Harald Fairhair was the first king of Norway, the boundaries of Fairhairs kingdom were not identical to those of present-day Norway, and upon his death the kingship was shared among his sons. Some historians emphasise the actual control over the country and assert that Olaf II, alias Saint Olaf. Olaf is generally held to have been the force behind Norways final conversion to Christianity. In the 12th and 13th centuries the Norwegian kingdom was at its geographical and cultural peak, the kingdom included Norway, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Shetland, Orkney and other smaller areas in the British Isles. The king had diplomatic relations with most of the European kingdoms and formed alliances with Scotland and Castile, large castles such as Haakons Hall and cathedrals, the foremost being Nidaros Cathedral, were built
17.
Olav V of Norway
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Olav V was King of Norway from 1957 until his death. Olav was the child of Haakon VII and Maud of Wales. He became heir apparent to the Norwegian throne when his father was elected King of Norway in 1905. He was the first heir to the Norwegian throne to be brought up in Norway since Olav IV, in preparation for his future role, he attended both civilian and military schools. In 1929, he married his first cousin Princess Märtha of Sweden, during World War II his leadership was much appreciated and he was appointed Norwegian Chief of Defence in 1944. At his death in 1991, he was the last surviving grandchild of Edward VII of the United Kingdom, due to his considerate, down-to-earth style, King Olav was immensely popular, resulting in the nickname Folkekongen. In a 2005 poll by the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation, Olav was voted Norwegian of the century, Olav was a Danish prince born in Appleton House on the royal Sandringham Estate, Flitcham, United Kingdom. He was named Alexander Edward Christian Frederik, when his father was elected king of Norway, he took the Norwegian name Haakon VII, and on the day he was inaugurated, he gave his son the Norwegian name Olav. Olav was the first heir to the throne since medieval times to have raised in Norway. Unlike his father, who was an officer, Olav chose to complete his main military education in the army. He graduated from the three-year Norwegian Military Academy in 1924, with the fourth best score in his class, Olav then went on to study jurisprudence and economics for two years at Balliol College, Oxford. During the 1930s, Crown Prince Olav was a naval cadet serving on the training ship Olav Tryggvason. Olav moved upwards in the ranks of the Norwegian armed forces, rising in the army from a rank of first lieutenant, to captain in 1931. Olav jumped from the Holmenkollen ski jump in Oslo, and also competed in sailing regattas and he won a gold medal in sailing at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam and remained an active sailor into old age. On 21 March 1929 in Oslo, he married his first cousin Princess Märtha of Sweden with whom he had two daughters, Ragnhild and Astrid and one son, Harald. As exiles during World War II, Crown Princess Märtha and the children lived in Washington. She died in 1954, before her husband ascended the throne, as Crown Prince, Olav had received extensive military training and had participated in most major Norwegian military exercises. Because of this he was one of the most knowledgeable Norwegian military leaders and was respected by other Allied leaders for his knowledge
18.
Lance corporal
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Lance corporal is a military rank, used by many armed forces worldwide, and also by some police forces and other uniformed organizations. It is below the rank of corporal, and is typically the lowest non-commissioned officer and it can be translated as one who has broken a lance in combat, and is therefore a leader. Lance or lances fournies was also a used in Medieval Europe to denote a unit of soldiers. In Commonwealth forces, a corporal is usually the second in command of a section. Lance corporals are commonly addressed as corporal, with lance jack or half-screw being common colloquialisms for the rank, much like the use of bombardier instead of corporal in artillery units, lance corporals are known as lance-bombardiers in the UK, Australia and New Zealand. The badge of rank is a 1-bar chevron worn on both sleeves or on an epaulette, Lance corporal is the lowest of the non-commissioned officer ranks in the Australian Army and New Zealand Army, falling between private and corporal. It is the appointed rank, and thus demotion is easier than with other ranks. A lance corporal is usually the second in command of a section, there is no equivalent rank within the Royal Australian Air Force or Royal Australian Navy. Second corporal was formerly used in Australia in the same way that it was used in the British Army. The Canadian Forces abolished the Canadian Army rank of corporal on their creation as a unified force in 1968. The rank of trained private equates to OR-3 and wears the single chevron, Lance corporal is the lowest ranking non-commissioned officer in the British Army and Royal Marines, between private and corporal. The badge of rank is a one-bar chevron worn on both sleeves, or on an epaulette on the front of the Combat Soldier 95 dress standard, the Royal Artillery uses the term lance-bombardier instead. The designation chosen man, used during the Napoleonic Wars, was a precursor to the rank, the date of introduction of lance corporals to the British Army is unclear. The first reference to a corporal in the London Gazette is in 1831. However, the first mention of the rank in The Times is in 1819, the first mention in the London Gazette of a lance corporal in the Royal Marines is in 1838. The Royal Engineers and Army Ordnance Corps also used the rank of second corporal. Until 1920, bombardiers in the Royal Artillery were equivalent to second corporals, in the infantry, a lance corporal usually serves as second-in-command of a section and commander of its delta fire team. It is also a commonly held by specialists such as clerks, drivers, signallers, machine-gunners
19.
Corporal
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Corporal is a military rank in use in some form by many militaries and by some police forces or other uniformed organizations. Within NATO, each member nations corresponding military rank of corporal is combined under the NATO-standard rank scale code OR-4, however, there are often differences in how each nation employs Corporals. Some militaries dont have Corporals, but may instead have a Junior Sergeant, in some militaries, the rank of corporal nominally corresponds to commanding a section or squad of soldiers. The lateral promotion is used to make the soldier a non-commissioned officer without changing the soldiers pay, as the Table of Organization & Equipment rank of a fire team leader is sergeant and that of squad leader is staff sergeant. In most countries that derive their military structure from the British military system, the word is derived from the medieval Italian phrase capo corporale. It may also be derived from an appointment as an officers bodyguard, all three branches of the Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic use two or three ranks of corporal, or cabo. Corporals in the Argentine military are considered suboficiales subalternos, superior only to all ranks of Volunteers, in the Argentine Army, there are two ranks of corporal, junior and senior, Cabo and cabo primero. While the Argentine Navy has three ranks, from junior to senior, Cabo segundo, Cabo primero and cabo principal. The Air Force has the number of corporal ranks as the navy. The rank is used by the Argentine National Gendarmerie and the Argentine Federal Police. Corporal is the second lowest of the officer ranks in the Australian Army. A corporal is usually appointed as a commander, and is in charge of 7-14 soldiers of private rank. They are assisted by a second-in-command, usually a lance-corporal or senior private, a Corporal within Artillery is known as a bombardier. Corporal is also a rank of the Royal Australian Air Force, with the exception Belgian Naval Component, the branches of the Belgian Armed Forces use three ranks of corporal, corporal, master corporal and 1st master corporal. Corporal is equivalent to NATO Rank Code OR-3, whereas master corporal, the rank immediately below corporal is 1st private and the rank directly above 1st master corporal is sergeant. The equivalent of these ranks in the Naval Component are quartermaster, chief quartermaster, Corporal is the first NCO rank of the Army, Navy, Air Force and states military polices. Soldiers who successfully complete the course may be promoted to the rank of corporal should they excel in the course. A corporal in the Brazilian Army will lead the smallest fractions of units as machine gun squads, mortar, Corporal is an Army and Air Force non-commissioned member rank of the Canadian Forces
20.
Sergeant
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Sergeant is a rank in many uniformed organizations, principally military and policing forces. Its origin is the Latin serviens, one who serves, through the French term sergent, the term sergeant refers to a non-commissioned officer placed above the rank of a corporal and a police officer immediately below a lieutenant. In most armies the rank of sergeant corresponds to command of a squad, in Commonwealth armies, it is a more senior rank, corresponding roughly to a platoon second-in-command. In the United States Army, sergeant is a junior rank corresponding to a four-soldier fireteam leader. More senior non-commissioned ranks are often variations on sergeant, for example staff sergeant, many countries use sergeant rank, whether in English or using a cognate with the same origin in another language. The equivalent rank in Arab armies is raqeeb, meaning overseer or watcher, in medieval European usage, a sergeant was simply any attendant or officer with a protective duty. Any medieval knight or military order of knighthood might have sergeants-at-arms, the etymology of the term is from Anglo-French sergant, serjant servant, valet, court official, soldier, from Middle Latin servientem servant, vassal, soldier. Later, a sergeant was a man of what would now be thought of as the middle class. Sergeants could fight either as heavy to light cavalry, or as well trained professional infantry, most notable medieval mercenaries fell into the sergeant class, such as Flemish crossbowmen and spearmen, who were seen as reliable quality troops. The sergeant class was deemed to be half of a knight in military value. A specific kind of military sergeant was the serjeant-at-arms, one of a body of armed men retained by English lords, the title is now given to an officer in modern legislative bodies who is charged with keeping order during meetings and, if necessary, forcibly removing disruptive members. The responsibilities of a sergeant differ from army to army, there are usually several ranks of sergeant, each corresponding to greater experience and responsibility for the daily lives of the soldiers of larger units. Sergeant is a rank in both the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force, the ranks are equivalent to each other and the Royal Australian Navy rank of petty officer. The Australian Army rank of sergeant is now redundant and is no longer awarded, due to being outside the rank equivalencies. Chief petty officers and flight sergeants are not required to call a warrant officer class two sir in accordance with Australian Defence Force Regulations 1952. The rank of sergeant exists in all Australian police forces and is more senior than a constable or senior constable, New South Wales Police Force, for example, has the additional rank of incremental sergeant. This is a progression, following appointment as a sergeant for seven years. An incremental sergeant rank is less senior than a senior sergeant but is more senior than a sergeant, upon appointment as a sergeant or senior sergeant, the sergeant is given a warrant of appointment under the commissioners hand and seal
21.
Harald V of Norway
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Harald V is the King of Norway, having ascended the throne following the death of his father on 17 January 1991. Harald was the child and only son of Olav V of Norway. He was second in the line of succession at the time of his birth, in 1940, as a result of the German occupation during World War II, the royal family went into exile. Harald spent part of his childhood in Sweden and the United States and he returned to Norway in 1945, and subsequently studied for periods at the University of Oslo, the Norwegian Military Academy, and Balliol College, Oxford. In 1957, following the death of his grandfather, Haakon VII, a keen sportsman, he represented Norway in sailing at the 1964,1968, and 1972 Olympic Games, and later became patron of World Sailing. Harald married Sonja Haraldsen in 1968, with their relationship initially being controversial due to her status as a commoner, the couple had two children, Märtha and Haakon. Harald succeeded his father as king in 1991, with Haakon becoming his heir apparent, Prince Harald was born in Skaugum and was baptized in the Royal Chapel in the Royal Palace in Oslo on 31 March 1937 by Bishop Johan Lunde. His parents already had two daughters, Princess Ragnhild and Princess Astrid, in 1940 the entire royal family had to flee Oslo because of the German invasion. It was deemed safer for the family to split up, the King and Crown Prince Olav would remain in Norway and the Crown Princess was to make her way to Sweden with the three children. The latter party reached Sweden on the night of 10 April, according to Princess Astrid and others who were present, they were admitted only after the driver threatened to ram the border gate. Another account does not describe the escape so dramatically, however, when the King and Crown Prince inquired of Swedish foreign minister Christian Günther whether they could sleep one night in Sweden without being interned, they were denied. Harald spent the days in Sälen before moving to Prince Carl Bernadottes home in Frötuna on 16 April. On 26 April the group moved to Drottningholm in Stockholm, King Gustaf V has been accounted to have had an amicable relationship with his Norwegian guests, but the topic of the war in Norway was not to be raised. However, influential Swedish politicians, including Minister of Justice Westman, wanted the Crown Princess and Prince Harald to be sent back to Norway so he could be proclaimed King by the Germans. After the King and Crown Prince had to leave Norway on 7 June they felt Sweden might not be the best place for the rest of the family, and started planning for them to go to the United States. On 17 August the Crown Princess and her left for the United States from Petsamo, Finland. One of the events he remembers from that time is standing behind Franklin D. Roosevelt when he was sworn in for his fourth term on the South Portico of the White House in 1945. Such childhood experiences are reflected in a trace of an American accent when he speaks English, Harald visited Norwegian servicemen training in the United States
22.
Bronze
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These additions produce a range of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such as stiffness, ductility, or machinability. The archeological period where bronze was the hardest metal in use is known as the Bronze Age. In the ancient Near East this began with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC, with India and China starting to use bronze around the same time, everywhere it gradually spread across regions. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age starting from about 1300 BC and reaching most of Eurasia by about 500 BC, the discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects which were harder and more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone. It was only later that tin was used, becoming the major ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BC. Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the process could be more easily controlled. Also, unlike arsenic, metallic tin and fumes from tin refining are not toxic, the earliest tin-alloy bronze dates to 4500 BCE in a Vinča culture site in Pločnik. Other early examples date to the late 4th millennium BC in Africa, Susa and some ancient sites in China, Luristan, ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found together, so serious bronze work has always involved trade. Tin sources and trade in ancient times had a influence on the development of cultures. In Europe, a source of tin was the British deposits of ore in Cornwall. In many parts of the world, large hoards of bronze artefacts are found, suggesting that bronze also represented a store of value, in Europe, large hoards of bronze tools, typically socketed axes, are found, which mostly show no signs of wear. With Chinese ritual bronzes, which are documented in the inscriptions they carry and from other sources and these were made in enormous quantities for elite burials, and also used by the living for ritual offerings. Pure iron is soft, and the process of beating and folding sponge iron to wrought iron removes from the metal carbon. Careful control of the alloying and tempering eventually allowed for wrought iron with properties comparable to modern steel, Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, and has continued in use for many purposes to the modern day. Among other advantages, it does not rust, the weaker wrought iron was found to be sufficiently strong for many uses. Archaeologists suspect that a disruption of the tin trade precipitated the transition. The population migrations around 1200–1100 BC reduced the shipping of tin around the Mediterranean, limiting supplies, there are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin
23.
Statue
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A statue is a sculpture representing one or more people or animals, normally full-length, as opposed to a bust, and at least close to life-size, or larger. A small statue, usually enough to be picked up, is called a statuette or figurine. Statues have been produced in many cultures from prehistory to the present, the worlds tallest statue, Spring Temple Buddha, is 128 metres, and is located in Lushan County, Henan, China. Many statues are built on commission to commemorate a historical event, many statues are intended as public art, exhibited outdoors or in public buildings. Some statues gain fame in their own right, separate from the person or concept they represent, Ancient statues often survive showing the bare surface of the material of which they are made. For example, many people associate Greek classical art with white marble sculpture, most of the colour was weathered off over time, small remnants were removed during cleaning, in some cases small traces remained which could be identified. Richter goes so far as to say of classical Greek sculpture, All stone sculpture, whether limestone or marble, was painted, medieval statues were also usually painted, with some still retaining their original pigments. The colouring of statues ceased during the Renaissance, as excavated classical sculptures, the Löwenmensch figurine from the Swabian Alps in Germany is the oldest known statue in the world, and dates to 30, 000-40,000 years ago. The Venus of Hohle Fels, from the area, is somewhat later. Throughout history, statues have been associated with images in many religious traditions, from Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece. Egyptian statues showing kings as sphinxes have existed since the Old Kingdom, the oldest statue of a striding pharaoh dates from the reign of Senwosret I and is the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The Middle Kingdom of Egypt witnessed the growth of block statues which then became the most popular form until the Ptolemaic period, the oldest statue of a deity in Rome was the bronze statue of Ceres in 485 BC. The oldest statue in Rome is now the statue of Diana on the Aventine, the wonders of the world include several statues from antiquity, with the Colossus of Rhodes and the Statue of Zeus at Olympia among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. While Byzantine art flourished in various forms, sculpture and statue making witnessed a general decline, an example was the statue of Justinian which stood in the square across from the Hagia Sophia until the fall of Constantinople in the 15th century. While making statues was not subject to a ban, it was hardly encouraged in this period. Starting with the work of Maillol around 1900, the human figures embodied in statues began to move away from the schools of realism that had held them bound for thousands of years. The Futurist and Cubist schools took this even further until statues, often still nominally representing humans, had lost all. By the 1920s and 1930s statues began to appear that were abstract in design
24.
Huseby Leir
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Huseby Leir is the base of the Norwegian Hans Majestet Kongens Garde. Huseby Leir is located on the old Oslo farm, Nordre Huseby gård and it is a modern base, but has decayed because of construction errors which led to mold and damp damage in walls and roofs. From 2002 to 2005 the base underwent a total renovation, Huseby Leir is a very special base in military terms, since it is constructed in two levels. Offices and barracks are located on ground level, parts of the 0-level has a photography restriction and the layout of some areas of the structure is classified, yet some parts of the 0-level can be seen from ground level
25.
William Windsor (goat)
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William Billy Windsor I is a cashmere goat who served as a lance corporal in the 1st Battalion, the Royal Welsh, an infantry battalion of the British Army. He retired to Whipsnade Zoo in May 2009 and his young replacement is known as William Windsor II. Another Welsh military goat, Taffy IV, served in the First World War, Taffy, of 2nd Battalion, Welsh Regiment, is officially recorded as The Regimental Goat. He embarked for the war on 13 August 1914 and saw action in the Retreat from Mons, the First Battle of Ypres and he was posthumously awarded the 1914 Star, British War Medal and the Victory Medal. The royal goat herd was obtained from Mohammad Shah Qajar, Shah of Persia from 1834 to 1848. The herd thrived on Llandudnos Great Orme, by 2001 they reached a population of 250, following complaints about goats wandering into peoples gardens, the council rejected proposals for a cull, deciding to use a combination of rehoming and birth control. RSPCA marksmen tranquilised nannies and inserted contraceptive progesterone implants to control the numbers of the unique breed. By 2007,85 goats had been relocated to areas including Kent, Yorkshire, the Brecon Beacons and Somerset, but further efforts were interrupted by an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease. Billy, a Kashmir goat, is descended from the royal bloodline as the original herd. He was presented to the regiment by Queen Elizabeth II in 2001, the tradition is not new, since 1844, the British monarchy has presented an unbroken series of Kashmir goats to the Royal Welch Fusiliers from the Crowns own royal herd. Billy—Army number 25232301—is not a mascot, but a member of the regiment. Since joining in 2001, he has performed overseas, and has paraded before royalty. His primary duty was to march at the head of the battalion on all ceremonial duties and he was present for every parade in which the regiment participated. Billys full-time handler was Lance Corporal Ryan Arthur, who carried the title of Goat Major, on 16 June 2006, a parade was held to celebrate Queen Elizabeth IIs 80th birthday, at the Episkopi base near Limassol, Cyprus on the Mediterranean islands south coast. Invited dignitaries included the ambassadors of Spain, the Netherlands and Sweden, the deployment to Cyprus with the 1st Battalion was Billys first overseas posting, and despite being ordered to keep in line, he refused to obey. He failed to keep in step, and tried to headbutt a drummer, the goat major, Lance Corporal Dai Davies,22, from Neath, South Wales, was unable to keep him under control. Billy was charged with behaviour, lack of decorum and disobeying a direct order. Following a disciplinary hearing, he was demoted to fusilier, the change meant that other fusiliers in the regiment no longer had to stand to attention when Billy walked past, as they had to when he was a lance corporal
26.
Wojtek (bear)
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Wojtek was a Syrian brown bear purchased, as a young cub, at a railroad station in Hamadan, Iran by Polish II Corps soldiers who had been evacuated from the Soviet Union. In order to provide for his rations and transportation, he was eventually enlisted officially as a soldier with the rank of private and he accompanied the bulk of the Polish Second Corps to Italy, serving with the 22nd Artillery Supply Company. During the Battle of Monte Cassino, in Italy in 1944, Wojtek helped move crates of ammunition and became a celebrity with visiting Allied generals and statesmen. After the war, mustered out of the Polish Army, he was billeted, the name Wojtek is a hypocorism of Wojciech, an old Slavic name that is still common in Poland today and means he who enjoys war or joyful warrior. Wojteks Polish Army comrades referred to his species-of-origin as Persian bear, in August the bear was donated to the 2nd Transport Company, which later became the 22nd Artillery Supply Company, and he was given the name Wojtek by the soldiers. Wojtek initially had problems swallowing and was fed with condensed milk from an old vodka bottle and he was subsequently given fruit, marmalade, honey and syrup, and was often rewarded with beer, which became his favourite drink. He later also enjoyed smoking cigarettes and he loved wrestling with the soldiers and was taught to salute when greeted. Wojtek became quite an attraction for soldiers and civilians alike, with the 22nd Company he moved to Iraq and then through Syria, Palestine and Egypt. Henryk Zacharewicz and Dymitr Szawlugo were assigned as his caretakers, as an enlisted soldier of the company, with his own paybook, rank and serial number, he lived with the other men in tents or in a special wooden crate, which was transported by truck. According to numerous accounts, during the Battle of Monte Cassino Wojtek helped by carrying ammunition – never dropping a single crate, in recognition of the bears popularity, the HQ approved a depiction of a bear carrying an artillery shell as the official emblem of the 22nd Company. Following the end of World War II in 1945, Wojtek was transported to Berwickshire in Scotland with the rest of the 22nd Company and they were stationed at Winfield Airfield on Sunwick Farm, near the village of Hutton, Scottish Borders. Wojtek soon became popular among civilians and the press. Media attention contributed to Wojteks popularity and he was a frequent guest on BBC televisions Blue Peter programme for children. Wojtek died in December 1963, at the age of 21, at the time of his death he weighed nearly 35 stone and was over 1.8 meters tall. On 25 April 2013, Kraków city council decided to erect a statue of Wojtek in Park Jordana and it was unveiled on 18 May 2014 – the 70th anniversary of the Battle of Monte Cassino. On 16 September 2013 the City of Edinburgh Council approved the erection of a statue of Wojtek to stand in the citys Princes Street Gardens. It is by the sculptor Alan Beattie Herriot and was unveiled on 7 November 2015 and represents Wojtek, a 4 m long relief documents his journey from Egypt to Scotland alongside the Polish Army. On 30 December 2011, a film, Wojtek – The Bear That Went to War, was broadcast on BBC Two Scotland, british songwriter Katy Carr released a music video called Wojtek, on 17 September 2014 – the 75th anniversary of the Soviet invasion of Poland
27.
BBC News
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BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs. The department is the worlds largest broadcast news organisation and generates about 120 hours of radio and television output each day, the service maintains 50 foreign news bureaux with more than 250 correspondents around the world. James Harding has been Director of News and Current Affairs since April 2013, the departments annual budget is in excess of £350 million, it has 3,500 staff,2,000 of whom are journalists. BBC News domestic, global and online news divisions are housed within the largest live newsroom in Europe, parliamentary coverage is produced and broadcast from studios in Millbank in London. Through the BBC English Regions, the BBC also has regional centres across England, as well as national news centres in Northern Ireland, Scotland, all nations and English regions produce their own local news programmes and other current affairs and sport programmes. As with all media outlets, though, it has been accused of political bias from across the political spectrum. The British Broadcasting Company broadcast its first radio bulletin from radio station 2LO on 14 November 1922, on Easter weekend in 1930, this reliance on newspaper wire services left the radio news service with no information to report. The BBC gradually gained the right to edit the copy and, in 1934, however, it could not broadcast news before 6 PM until World War II. Gaumont British and Movietone cinema newsreels had been broadcast on the TV service since 1936, a weekly Childrens Newsreel was inaugurated on 23 April 1950, to around 350,000 receivers. The network began simulcasting its radio news on television in 1946, televised bulletins began on 5 July 1954, broadcast from leased studios within Alexandra Palace in London. The publics interest in television and live events was stimulated by Elizabeth IIs coronation in 1953 and it is estimated that up to 27 million people viewed the programme in the UK, overtaking radios audience of 12 million for the first time. Those live pictures were fed from 21 cameras in central London to Alexandra Palace for transmission and that year, there were around two million TV Licences held in the UK, rising to over three million the following year, and four and a half million by 1955. This was then followed by the customary Television Newsreel with a commentary by John Snagge. It was revealed that this had been due to producers fearing a newsreader with visible facial movements would distract the viewer from the story. On-screen newsreaders were finally introduced a year later in 1955 – Kenneth Kendall, Robert Dougall, mainstream television production had started to move out of Alexandra Palace in 1950 to larger premises – mainly at Lime Grove Studios in Shepherds Bush, west London – taking Current Affairs with it. It was from here that the first Panorama, a new programme, was transmitted on 11 November 1953. On 28 October 1957, the Today programme, a radio programme, was launched in central London on the Home Service. In 1958, Hugh Carleton Greene became head of News and Current Affairs and he set up a BBC study group whose findings, published in 1959, were critical of what the television news operation had become under his predecessor, Tahu Hole
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MSNBC
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MSNBC is an American basic cable and satellite television network that provides news coverage and political commentary from NBC News on current events. The network also carries a nightly programming block during prime time hours. It is owned by the NBCUniversal News Group, a unit of the NBCUniversal Television Group division of NBCUniversal, MSNBC and msnbc. com were founded in 1996 as a partnership between Microsoft and General Electrics NBC unit, hence the networks naming. As of February 2015, approximately 94,531,000 households have the ability to receive MSNBC within the United States of America, in the late summer of 2015, MSNBC revamped its programming. The moves were in sharp contrast to previous programming decisions at the network, along with this, moves were made to sharpen the channels news image through a dual editorial relationship with its organizational parent NBC News. MSNBC Live, the flagship daytime news platform was expanded to cover over eight hours of the day. Phil Griffin currently serves as the president and director of operations at the cable network. Pat Burkey, Janelle Rodriguez, and Jonathan Wald oversee programming and news operations at the network, MSNBC was established by NBC executive Tom Rogers. Rogers was instrumental in developing the partnership with Microsoft, which invested $221 million for a 50% share of the cable channel. MSNBC and Microsoft would share the cost of a $200 million newsroom in Secaucus, New Jersey, the network took over the channel space of NBCs 18-month-old Americas Talking network, though in most cases cable carriage had to be negotiated with providers who never carried AT. MSNBC was launched on July 15,1996, the first show, which was anchored by Jodi Applegate, broadcast a lineup of news, interviews, and opinions. Stories were generally longer and more detailed than the running on CNN at the time. NBC also highlighted their broadcast connections by airing stories direct from the NBC network affiliates, gradually, MSNBC began to put more emphasis on politics. The Project for Excellence in Journalism found in 2007 after a survey of cable channels that MSNBC is moving to make politics a brand, with a large dose of opinion. In January 2001, Mike Barnicle got a show on MSNBC, in June, in a sign of continuing trouble at MSNBC, Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer said that he would not have started MSNBC if he knew then what he knows now. After the September 11,2001 attacks, MSNBC served as an outlet for NBC News to provide up-to-the-minute coverage, CNBC and CNBC Europe, with little financial news to report, ran MSNBC for many hours of the day following the attacks. The year also boosted the profile of Ashleigh Banfield, who was present during the collapse of Building 7 while covering the World Trade Center on September 11 and her Region In Conflict program capitalized on her newfound celebrity and showcased exclusive interviews from Afghanistan. NBC would have the option, which it exercised, to buy the remaining 18% share of the television from Microsoft after two years
Norway
Norwegian Army
Brigadier, Colonel-in-Chief and mascot
