1.
MoD Lyneham
–
MoD Lyneham is a Ministry of Defence site located 6.3 miles north east of Chippenham, Wiltshire and 10.3 miles south west of Swindon, Wiltshire, England. Previously it was RAF Lyneham which was the home of all the Lockheed C-130 Hercules transport aircraft of the Royal Air Force before they were relocated to RAF Brize Norton. RAF Lyneham was the Royal Air Forces principal Transport hub, operating the modern Lockheed Martin C-130J Hercules, and the aging, the airfield was designated as a Master Diversion Airfield. It was one of the airfields to which aircraft divert in the eventuality of their home bases being closed due to weather, or other unforeseen events. The airfield became renowned for being the gateway between the United Kingdom and Afghanistan, the station was also where repatriation of British personnel killed in Iraq and Afghanistan took place. The bodies were transported through the town of Royal Wootton Bassett. The station closed on 31 December 2012 with the majority of its personnel, on 31 May 2011, a parade was held, attended by the Princess Royal, to mark the departure of the squadrons. The final Hercules left Lyneham on 1 July 2011, daily flying operations ceased on 30 September 2011. The airfield was built in 1939, necessitating the demolition of Lyneham Court manor house, the buildings of Cranley Farm, the airfield itself was initially a grass landing area although the RAF always planned to lay hard runways. Hangars and other buildings were dispersed around the site to avoid creating one large target for an aerial enemy, the station was opened on 18 May 1940 as No.33 Maintenance Unit, with no ceremony and few personnel. On the first day of operations, the strength was recorded as four officers. Nine vehicles were recorded, including two tractors, an ambulance and a Crossley fire engine. The station did not have any aircraft however, until the end of the month when a de Havilland Tiger Moth, a single enemy aircraft attacked the station on 19 September 1940, dropping an incendiary and two high explosive bombs before strafing part of the airfield. Lynehams first runways were constructed during 1940 and 1941, the longest being 4,375 ft, during the following years these were both extended, and in 1943 the 6,000 ft north-south runway was opened as well. On 14 October 1942, No.511 Squadron RAF was formed from No.1425 Flight RAF at RAF Lyneham, the squadron continued the work of the flight, operating regular transport schedules to Gibraltar using the Consolidated Liberator. To extend the route from Gibraltar to Malta the squadron operated the Armstrong Whitworth Albemarle. As the war progressed,511 Sqn expanded its long-range transport role and was the first squadron to operate the Avro York, at first the Liberators and Yorks were operated as separate flights, but the Liberator flight became No.246 Squadron RAF in 1944. The squadron continued to fly trooping flights, particularly between the United Kingdom and India until it was disbanded on 7 October 1946, with the increase in air transport operations in the RAF, as opposed to ferrying, Transport Command was formed in March 1943
2.
RAF Odiham
–
Royal Air Force Odiham or more simply RAF Odiham is a Royal Air Force station situated a little to the south of the historic village of Odiham in Hampshire, England. It is the home of the Royal Air Forces heavy lift helicopter and its current station commander is Group Captain Philip J Robinson OBE DFC** MA RAF. Aircraft operations began from the site in 1925 but it was not until October 1937 that it was opened as a permanent airfield, ironically by Erhard Milch, during the Second World War North American Mustangs and Hawker Typhoons were flown out of the base. After the Allied invasion of Europe the site became a prisoner of war camp,4 Squadron returned again with Supermarine Spitfire XI between 27 June 1944 and 16 August 1944 with a detachment at B 10/Plumelot. They left on 15 November 1942, No.53 Squadron RAF with the Hawker Hector and the Blenheim IV between 8 April 1938 and 20 September 1939. No.59 Squadron RAF operated the Blenheim IV between 6 June 1940 and 3 July 1940, No.63 Squadron RAF using the Mustang Mk I between 21 November 1942 and 27 July 1943 with a detachment at RAF Macmerry. No.82 Squadron RAF with the Blenheim IV between August 1939 and 21 March 1942 as an detachment from RAF Watton, No.96 Squadron RAF operated the de Havilland Mosquito XIII between 24 September 1944 and 12 December 1944 before being disbanded here. Following the end of the War RAF Fighter Command assumed control of the base and operated Supermarine Spitfires, Hawker Hunters and Gloster Javelins. Training began almost immediately, but it took until the end of October for the squadron to reach a strength of 12 NF12 or 14s and one Meteor 7 for training and categorisation. By June 1955, the squadron had received some Meteor 8s for target towing, by August, when the squadron went to Acklington for its armament practice station, there were 16 aircraft. Javelins of 46 squaudron In January 1956, the unit began converting to Javelins, and the first arrived in February, together with eight Meteor NF 11s, on 15 June, the squadron lost its commanding officer, Wing Commander Birchfield, in a Javelin crash. He was replaced by Wing Commander H. E. White, the problem of poor serviceability and lack of spares continued when the Mk 2 Javelins replaced the Mk1s in 1957. In April 1959, the squadron sent six Javelins to the French Air Force 1/30 Squadron at Tours, in June the squadron won the Ingpen Trophy after being third in 1957 and second in 1958. On 30 June 1961, the squadron was disbanded again and being relocated to RAF Stradishall in 1959, as part of her coronation celebrations Queen Elizabeth II reviewed the Royal Air Force at Odiham in 1953. After a short period in care and maintenance status the base was reopened as part of Transport Command, in this role Westland Whirlwind and then Bristol Belvedere helicopters were operated from the base. From 1961 to 1981 the Westland Wessex was based here, joined by the Aérospatiale Puma of 33 Squadron and 230 Squadron in 1970,230 Squadron moved to RAF Gutersloh in Germany in 1980. In 1981 the Wessex helicopters of 72 Squadron moved to RAF Aldergrove, the Wessex moved to RAF Benson and continued to support SHFNI at RAF Aldergrove. The first Chinook HC. 1s were delivered to the RAF in 1980, the first HC.2 arrived in 1993
3.
RAF Fairford
–
Royal Air Force Fairford or more simply RAF Fairford is a Royal Air Force station in Gloucestershire, England which is currently a standby airfield and therefore not in everyday use. Its most prominent use in recent years has been as an airfield for United States Air Force B-52s during the 2003 Iraq War, Operation Allied Force in 1999, and it is the US Air Forces only European airfield for heavy bombers. RAF Fairford was the only TransOceanic Abort Landing site for NASAs Space Shuttle in the UK, as well as having a sufficiently long runway for a shuttle landing, it also had NASA-trained fire and medical crews stationed on the airfield. The runway is rated with an unrestricted load-bearing capacity, meaning that it can support any aircraft with any type of load, RAF Fairford is also the home of the Royal International Air Tattoo, an annual air display. RIAT is one of the largest airshows in the world, with the 2003 show recognised by Guinness World Records as the largest military airshow ever and these units are assigned to airfields at RAF Fairford, RAF Croughton, RAF Alconbury, and RAF Molesworth. The 420 ABG reported directly to 3rd Air Force until 26 May 2004, on 12 May 2005, USAFE activated the 501st Combat Support Wing, with headquarters at RAF Alconbury, to provide support to its GSUs in the United Kingdom. The Airmen of the 501st CSW focus on units that, by their nature, are separated from main operating stations of RAFs Mildenhall, a command staff of about 30 people is assigned. From 2010 the 422nd ABG at RAF Croughton and the 420th Air Base Squadron at RAF Fairford are responsible for the operations of RAF Fairford. RAF Fairford was constructed in 1944 to serve as an airfield for British, in the early years of the Cold War the British and American governments reached an agreement under which elements of the USAF Strategic Air Command would be based in the UK. Four RAF airfields were selected to receive SAC units — RAF Brize Norton, RAF Fairford, RAF Greenham Common and RAF Upper Heyford. In 1948 the Americans occupied RAF stations including Fairford, Brize Norton, Burtonwood, Greenham Common, Mildenhall, Lakenheath and Woodbridge to build up a deterrent in Europe against the Soviets. RAF Lynehams position as the tactical transport base for the RAF was emphasised in February 1971 when Nos.30 and 47 Squadrons were transferred from their old base at RAF Fairford. In 1950, as a result of the beginning of the Cold War, a 10, 000-foot runway was constructed for long-range bomber operations. The runway was completed in 1953, and served as an airbase for the first Convair B-36 Peacemaker aircraft from Carswell Air Force Base. The airfield later received B-47s which were maintained at a state of alert because of increased tensions with the Soviet Union. Fairford was chosen in 1969 as the British test centre for the Concorde aircraft, the U. S. Air Force returned with Boeing KC-135 Stratotankers deployed on rotation from the many KC-135 bases in the USA. On 15 November 1978 the 11th Strategic Group was activated at RAF Fairford and it was not manned until the following February and used KC-135 aircraft and crews from SAC, Air National Guard, and AF Reserve units until the 11 SG received its own aircraft in September 1979. It soon began aerial refueling support for all USAF operations, deployments and redeployments, aircraft and crews operated from Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Keflavik, Iceland, Zaragosa, Spain, Lajes Field, Azores, Sigonella NAS, Italy, and Hellenikon, Greece
4.
Falkland Islands
–
The Falkland Islands are an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean on the Patagonian Shelf. The principal islands are about 300 miles east of South Americas southern Patagonian coast, the archipelago, with an area of 4,700 square miles, comprises East Falkland, West Falkland and 776 smaller islands. As a British overseas territory, the Falklands have internal self-governance, the islands capital is Stanley on East Falkland. Controversy exists over the Falklands discovery and subsequent colonisation by Europeans, at various times, the islands have had French, British, Spanish, and Argentine settlements. Britain reasserted its rule in 1833, although Argentina maintains its claim to the islands, in April 1982, Argentine forces temporarily occupied the islands. British administration was restored two months later at the end of the Falklands War, most Falklanders favour the archipelago remaining a UK overseas territory, but its sovereignty status is part of an ongoing dispute between Argentina and the United Kingdom. The population primarily consists of native-born Falkland Islanders, the majority of British descent, other ethnicities include French, Gibraltarian and Scandinavian. Immigration from the United Kingdom, the South Atlantic island of Saint Helena, under the British Nationality Act 1983, Falkland Islanders are British citizens. The islands lie on the boundary of the oceanic and tundra climate zones. They are home to bird populations, although many no longer breed on the main islands because of competition from introduced species. Major economic activities include fishing, tourism and sheep farming, with an emphasis on high-quality wool exports, oil exploration, licensed by the Falkland Islands Government, remains controversial as a result of maritime disputes with Argentina. The Falkland Islands take their name from the Falkland Sound, a strait separating the two main islands. The name Falkland was applied to the channel by John Strong, Strong named the strait in honour of Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount of Falkland, the Treasurer of the Navy who sponsored their journey. The name Falklands was not applied to the islands until 1765, the term Falklands is a standard abbreviation used to refer to the islands. The Spanish name for the archipelago, Islas Malvinas, derives from the French Îles Malouines — the name given to the islands by French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville in 1764, Bougainville, who founded the islands first settlement, named the area after the port of Saint-Malo. The port, located in the Brittany region of western France, was in turn named after St. Malo, in Spanish, the territory was designated as Islas Malvinas. The nomenclature used by the United Nations for statistical processing purposes is Falkland Islands, although Fuegians from Patagonia may have visited the Falkland Islands in prehistoric times, the islands were uninhabited at the time of their discovery by Europeans. Claims of discovery date back to the 16th century, but no consensus exists on whether these early explorers discovered the Falklands or other islands in the South Atlantic, whether or not the settlements were aware of each others existence is debated by historians
5.
RAF Mount Pleasant
–
RAF Mount Pleasant is a Royal Air Force station in the British Overseas Territory of the Falkland Islands. The airfield goes by the motto of Defend the right and is part of the British Forces South Atlantic Islands. Home to between 1,000 and 2,000 British military personnel, it is located about 33 miles southwest of Stanley, the capital of the Falklands—on the island of East Falkland. The worlds longest corridor, half a long, links the barracks, messes and recreational and welfare areas of the station. Mount Pleasant was opened by Prince Andrew on 12 May 1985, the station was constructed as part of British efforts to strengthen the defence of the Falkland Islands following the 1982 war with Argentine forces. It remains the newest purpose-built RAF station and replaced previous RAF facilities at Port Stanley Airport, RAF Mount Pleasant is the newest permanent airfield in the Royal Air Force. The RAF previously had an airfield at Stanley airfield after the end of the hostilities in 1982. The raids were successful, and on the first Black Buck mission one 1, 000-pound bomb hit the runway in the middle. However, temporary repairs by the Argentines did allow C-130 Hercules transport aircraft to bring in supplies, at the end of hostilities the runway was fully repaired by British military engineers. HMS Hermes was the first to guard duty, whilst HMS Invincible went north to change a main engine. Invincible then returned to relieve Hermes which urgently needed to return to the UK for boiler cleaning, Invincible returned until she was relieved by the newly built HMS Illustrious, which was quickly rushed south and commissioned during the journey. Once the Port Stanley runway was available for jets, Illustrious was relieved by four RAF F-4 Phantom FGR.2 and this was intended to deter any future Argentine attempts to take the islands by force. Mount Pleasant, to the west of Stanley, was chosen as the site for the new station, the construction, which had extraordinary challenges to get materials on site, was undertaken by a Laing-Mowlem-ARC consortium. The airfield was opened by Prince Andrew on 12 May 1985, flights of Phantoms were rotated through the airfield until 1992 when they were replaced with Tornado F3s. The Tornado was replaced by the Eurofighter Typhoon in September 2009 and these have been supported throughout by C-130s and, since 1996, VC10s, equipped for aerial refuelling, transport, search and rescue and maritime patrol. A flight of Westland Sea King helicopters for support and search, as of August 2010 it has the only cricket ground in the Falklands. There are two NAAFI shops, hairdressers, a centre, and an education centre on the station. BFBS Radio also maintains a local station on the site
6.
Split, Croatia
–
Split is the second-largest city of Croatia and the largest city of the region of Dalmatia. It lies on the shore of the Adriatic Sea, centered on the Roman Palace of the Emperor Diocletian. Spread over a peninsula and its surroundings, Splits greater area includes the neighboring seaside towns as well. An intraregional transport hub and popular tourist destination, the city is a link to numerous Adriatic islands, Split is one of the oldest cities in the area. Split became a Byzantine city, to gradually drift into the sphere of the Byzantine vassal, the Republic of Venice. For much of the High and Late Middle Ages, Split enjoyed autonomy as a free city, Venice eventually prevailed and during the early modern period Split remained a Venetian city, a heavily fortified outpost surrounded by Ottoman territory. Eventually, its hinterland was won from the Ottomans in the Morean War of 1699, and in 1797, as Venice fell to Napoleon, the Treaty of Campo Formio rendered the city to the Habsburg Monarchy. In 1805, the Peace of Pressburg added it to the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy, during World War II, the city was annexed by Italy, then liberated by the Partisans after the Italian capitulation in 1943. It was then re-occupied by Germany, which granted it to its puppet Independent State of Croatia, the city was liberated again by the Partisans in 1944, and was included in the post-war Federal Yugoslavia, as part of its republic of Croatia. In 1991 Croatia seceded from Yugoslavia amid the Croatian War of Independence, the city draws its name from the spiny broom, a common shrub in the area, after which the Greek colony of Aspálathos or Spálathos was named. The Serbo-Croatian term became Split or Spljet, while the Italian-language version, Spalato, in the late 19th century, the Croatian name increasingly came to prominence, and officially replaced Spalato in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia after World War I. For a significant period, the origin of the name was thought to be related to the Latin word for palace. Various theories were developed, such as the notion that the name derives from S. Palatium, the erroneous palace etymologies were notably due to Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, and were later mentioned by Thomas the Archdeacon. The city, however, is several centuries older than the palace and it was a colony of the polis of Issa, the modern-day town of Vis on the island of the same name. Issa, itself a colony of the Sicilian city of Syracuse, had acquired sovereignty and started founding its own colonies in 367 BCE, the exact year the city was founded is not known, but its estimated to have been in the 3rd or 2nd century BCE. The Greek settlement lived off trade with the surrounding Illyrian tribes, in time, the Roman Republic became the dominant power in the region, conquering the Illyrians in the Illyrian Wars of 229 and 219 BCE. Upon establishing permanent rule, the Romans founded the Province of Dalmatia, the city of Salona, only a short distance from Spálathos, became the capital of the province and evolved into a significant city in the Roman state. The history of Spálathos becomes obscure for a while at this point, being overshadowed by that of nearby Salona, the Roman Emperor Diocletian reformed the government in the late Roman Empire and established the Tetrarchy
7.
Basra International Airport
–
Basrah International Airport is the second largest international airport in Iraq, and is located in the southern city of Basra. The airport was built in the 1980s and then developed in the 1980s by the Iraqi Government department State Organisation for Roads and Bridges as a gateway to the only port in Iraq. This second phase of development was completed by a joint venture comprising Strabag Bau AG of Cologne and it is claimed that the airport was built only as a facility for VIPs and was only used rarely. Renovation of the airport was supposed to proceed with the construction of a new terminal under German contract, actual development proceeded in the airport only after the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Some facilities were refurbished under a contract by United States Agency for International Development, the project is broad as it includes building air traffic control towers and other navigational facilities, as well as the construction of transportation and communications facilities. The airport was reopened in June 2004. The event was marked by the traditional sheep sacrifice as an Iraqi Airways Boeing 727 jet landed from Baghdad and it was the beginning of a new domestic service in Iraq between Baghdad and Basrah. However, many of the passengers complained about the lack of basic facilities, problems included air conditioning and toilets. Reconstruction of the airport is still under way to improve the facilities, Iraqi Airways has already operated routes from this airport, and was its second hub. The airport is currently in the process of civilianisation as part of the rebuilding of the country as part of Operation Telic of the Multi-National Force – Iraq. Http, //www. ia. gov. iq/index. php. name=PortalNews&file=article&sid=473 Airport information for ORMM at World Aero Data, Data current as of October 2006
8.
Kandahar International Airport
–
Kandahar International Airport is located 10 miles south-east of Kandahar City in Afghanistan. It serves as the second main international airport and as one of the largest military bases. The airport was designed and built by the United States in the late 1950s and it was occupied by the Soviets during the 1980s Soviet war in Afghanistan. Following their withdrawal the airport remained in control of Najibullahs government until he stepped down in 1992, thereafter, local warlords and the Taliban took control of the airport until the U. S. -led invasion in late 2001. Since 2007, the airport has been repaired and expanded and it is used for both military and civilian flights. The airport is maintained by the Resolute Support Mission and the Afghan National Security Forces, the 2nd Wing of the Afghan Air Force has a separate base within the airport ground. The Afghan National Police provides security inside the passenger terminal, the airfield itself was built between 1954 and 1962 by American consultants, for a cost of USD15 million. However, with the advent of jet aircraft, such stops were no longer necessary, and the airport saw little use. Since the airport was designed as a base, it is likely that the United States intended to use it in case there was a show-down of war between the United States and former USSR. While the United States was busy building Kandahar International Airport, the USSR was busy in the north, fighting in the Kandahar area was particularly intense. However, Kandahar airport was relatively untouched and its main building was largely intact at the end of the war. The airstrip did suffer extensive damage that was repaired by the United Nations in the mid-1990s to support humanitarian flights. Ariana Afghan Airlines also flew infrequent flights out of Kandahar to Pakistan, during Operation Enduring Freedom in late 2001, Kandahar Airport was one of the first coalition bases established in Afghanistan. The airport was captured by an air insertion coinciding with a rapid overland push from troops based at Camp Rhino, a perimeter was quickly secured around the terminal building and airstrip, and initially all troops worked and lived in and around the main terminal building itself. The first spartan ablutions were established in the middle of a rose garden out front. The accommodation area began to enlarge down along the airfield to where the current military base is located, the 159th Combat Aviation Brigade became the main U. S. Army Aviation unit at the airport while the 451st Air Expeditionary Wing became the main USAF unit. After June 2009 under Operation Herrick they were replaced by a squadron of Panavia Tornado GR4 aircraft, carrying out air support. 904 Expeditionary Air Wing, the home was RAF Lyneham, Wiltshire until the end of 2011 when the squadrons home station was changed to RAF Brize Norton
9.
Hamid Karzai International Airport
–
Hamid Karzai International Airport, is located 5 kilometers from the city center of Kabul in Afghanistan. It serves as one of the main international airports and as one of the largest military bases. The airport was given the new name in 2014 in honor of former President Hamid Karzai, the decision was made by the National Assembly of Afghanistan and the Cabinet of President Ashraf Ghani. It was previously named Kabul International Airport, the airport has been expanded and modernized in the last decade. A new international terminal was added and the terminal is now used for domestic flights. A number of bases were also built around the airport. The military of Afghanistan also has a base there, while the Afghan National Police provide security inside the passenger terminals. As of June 2016 the most frequently serviced destination from the airport was Dubai-International with no less than four passenger airlines flying the route, Kabul Airport was originally built in the early 1960s by Soviet engineers. Around this time in history, Afghanistan was becoming a modernized nation, many tourists from places such as North America, Europe, India and the Soviet Union started flocking to the country via Kabul International Airport. This era ended after the 1978 Saur Revolution, especially after the 1979 Soviet invasion, the airport was used by the Soviet Army during the Soviet War in Afghanistan, from 1979 to 1989. It was also used by the forces of the former President of Afghanistan, Mohammad Najibullah. By November 1996, the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan governed by Mullah Muhammad Omar was in possession of the airport, due to international sanctions during the Taliban government, the airport was closed in the late 1990s, with very limited international flights. Following NATOs invasion of Afghanistan after the September 11,2001 attacks, Kabul International Airport was bombed by United States, after the International Security Assistance Force took over control, the airport began to be developed slowly over the years. A new radar system was installed in 2005, which was upgraded by the U. S. Federal Aviation Administration in 2010, a new $35 million terminal for international flights was added in 2009. Afghan President Hamid Karzai and other high-profile figures attended the inauguration ceremony, the new terminal was officially opened to international flights in June 2009. The existing terminal has been refurbished and is currently being used for domestic flights, passenger movements reached 100,000 per year by 2010 or 300 per day. In early 2012, the system was strengthened to cover Afghanistans entire air space. The construction work for a new runway began on 23 May 2012 at Kabul International Airport
10.
Avro Anson
–
Developed from the Avro 652 airliner, the Anson, named after British Admiral George Anson, was developed for maritime reconnaissance, but found to be obsolete in this role. It was then found to be suitable as a multi-engined aircrew trainer, by the end of production in 1952, a total of 8,138 had been built by Avro in nine variants, with a further 2,882 built by Federal Aircraft Ltd in Canada from 1941. The Air Ministry requested tenders for aircraft to meet this requirement, with Avro responding with the Avro 652A, a modified version of the Avro 652 twin-engined, six-seat monoplane airliner. The Avro 652A first flew on 24 March 1935 at Avros Woodford factory, the Avro aircraft proved superior, and was selected as the winner of the competition on 25 May. Air Ministry Specification 18/35 was written around the Type 652A, the first production Anson made its maiden flight on 31 December 1935, changes from the prototype included an enlarged horizonal tailplane and reduced Elevator span to improve stability. Deliveries to the RAF began on 6 March 1936, the Anson Mk I was a low-wing cantilever monoplane with a retractable undercarriage, the first type with this configuration to enter service with the RAF. It had a wing, of plywood and spruce construction, while the fuselage was constructed of steel tubing, mainly clad in fabric. It was powered by two Armstrong Siddeley Cheetah IX seven-cylinder air-cooled radial engines, rated at 350 horsepower each, driving two-bladed metal propellers, the aircrafts retractable Conventional landing gear undercarriage was manually operated, requiring 144 turns of a crank handle situated by the pilots seat. To forgo this process, early aircraft often made short flights with the landing gear extended at the expense of 30 mph of cruising speed. Initially, the Anson was flown with a crew in the maritime reconnaissance role. Up to 360 pounds of bombs, consisting of two 100 pounds and eight 20 pounds bombs, could be carried in the aircrafts wings. A total of 11,020 Ansons were built by the end of production in 1952, the Anson entered service on 6 March 1936 with 48 Squadron equipped with the Anson. At the start of the Second World War, the RAF had received 824 Ansons, all of the squadrons in Bomber Command in 1939 with Anson Is were operational training squadrons that prepared crews for frontline service. 12 of the squadrons were in No.6 Group, after training in the frontline aircraft type, crews would advance to the frontline bomber squadrons with those aircraft types. At the start of the war, the Lockheed Hudson was beginning to replace the Ansons in Coastal Command with one squadron of Hudsons, Limited numbers of Ansons continued to serve in operational roles such as coastal patrols and air/sea rescue. Early in the war, an Anson scored a hit on a German U-boat. In June 1940, a flight of three Ansons was attacked by nine Luftwaffe Messerschmitt Bf 109s, remarkably, before the dogfight ended, without losing any of their own, one of the Ansons destroyed two German aircraft and damaged a third. The aircrafts true role, however, was to train pilots for flying multi-engined bombers such as the Avro Lancaster, the Anson was also used to train the other members of a bombers aircrew, such as navigators, wireless operators, bomb aimers and air gunners
11.
Avro York
–
The Avro York was a British transport aircraft developed by Avro during the Second World War. The design was derived from the famed Avro Lancaster heavy bomber that was being produced at the time for the Royal Air Force, several sections of the York and Lancaster were identical. Due to priority being placed on the Lancaster instead, production of the York proceeded at a pace until 1944. The York saw service in military and civilian roles with various operators between 1943 and 1964. In civilian service, the British Overseas Airways Corporation was the most prolific user of the type, in military service, large numbers of Yorks were used during the high-profile air-supply missions during the Berlin Blockade 1948–49. During 1941, Avro elected to begin development of a new civil-orientated transport aircraft, roy Chadwick, Avros chief designer, had foreseen a need for a transport aircraft that was powered by four-engines and would be capable of flying for long ranges. The design, which was designated as the Type 685, had its origins in the companys then-newly developed four-engined bomber, the Avro Lancaster, the two aircraft also substantially differed in external appearance. In February 1942, Chadwick submitted his drawings to Avros experimental department, within five months, the company refined the design and had quickly assembled an initial prototype. On 5 July 1942, the York prototype, LV626, conducted its maiden flight from Ringway Airport, Flight trials of LV626 were quickly transferred to RAF Boscombe Down. 1/42, part of Operational Requirement OR.113 for a new transport aircraft. The prototypes were used to test various adaptions and potential roles for the aircraft, LV626, the first prototype, was rebuilt to the C. Production of the York proved difficult to speed up due to shortages of key materials, Avro was also obligated to place a priority on the manufacturing. Officials had also judged that there was no requirement for large numbers of Yorks at that time, by the end of 1943, only the four prototypes and three production aircraft had been manufactured, however production was scheduled to rise to three aircraft per month throughout 1944. Early production Yorks were principally used as a VIP transport aircraft, notably, the first RAF production order consisted of 200 aircraft, while a further 100 were ordered under a second order placed shortly after. Throughout 1944, the majority of Yorks produced were passenger transport aircraft, only eight aircraft of the second order for 100 aircraft were produced, in April 1948, the final York, PE108, was completed. A single pattern aircraft was completed by Victory Aircraft in Canada, however, Victory had tooled up for the manufacture of 30 aircraft and had built parts for five aircraft, ultimately, one would be completed around the time that the war came to an end. This aircraft would later be purchased by Swedish airline Skyways, the Avro York is a high-wing cantilever monoplane using an all-metal construction, bearing many similarities to the Lancaster from which it was derived. The wings use a structure, which internally housed seven fuel tanks contained 2,478 gallons between the spars. The outboard panels of the wings are tapered on both edges and are furnished with detachable tips, the wings feature all-metal hydraulically-actuated split trailing edge flaps and carry the four Rolls-Royce Merlin engines in four underslung nacelles attached to the front wing spar
12.
Westland Whirlwind (helicopter)
–
The Westland Whirlwind helicopter was a British licence-built version of the U. S. Sikorsky S-55/H-19 Chickasaw. It primarily served with the Royal Navys Fleet Air Arm in anti-submarine and search and this was followed by ten Whirlwind HAR. 1s, which entered service shortly afterwards. They served in roles, including search and rescue and communications functions. The HAR.3 had a larger 700 hp Wright R-1300-3 Cyclone 7 engine and this was followed by the similarly powered HAS.7, which became the first British helicopter designed for anti-submarine warfare in the front-line when it entered service in 1957. The HAS.7 was powered by a 750 hp Alvis Leonides Major 755/1 radial engine and it had a hovering ceiling at 9,400 ft and a range of 334 miles at 86 mph. In 1960 Westland introduced a Whirlwind powered by the 1,000 hp Bristol Siddeley Gnome turboshaft, the Gnome featured an early computer controlled fuel system that removed variations in engine power and made for much easier handling by the pilot. Later in their lives, some HAS. 7s were converted to use the Gnome turboshaft engine. After entering service with the Royal Navy, the Whirlwind came to be used by the British Army, more than 400 Whirlwinds were built, of which nearly 100 were exported to foreign customers. The French Navy received 37 Whirlwind HAR.2 between 1954 and 1957, HAS.2215 built by Sikorsky, anti-submarine. Whirlwind Series 3 G-APWN, Midland Air Museum, Coventry, England, Whirlwind HAR.9 XL875 at Scone Airfield, Perth, Scotland. Air Service Training Whirlwind HAR.9 XN258 At the North East Aircraft Museum, Whirlwind HAR.10 XD163 at The Helicopter Museum, Weston-super-Mare, England. Whirlwind HAR.10 XP345 At Aeroventure, South Yorkshire Aircraft Museum, owned by the Yorkshire Helicopter Preservation Group. Whirlwind HAR.10 XP355 At the City of Norwich Aviation Museum, Norwich Airport, Whirlwind XG576 / CU-590 Named Princess Olivia. Originally delivered to the Royal Navy as XG576 in 1955, at Alten, Germany.5 lb/ft2 Power/mass,0. com database
13.
Scottish Aviation Twin Pioneer
–
The Scottish Aviation Twin Pioneer was a British STOL transport aircraft built by Scottish Aviation Limited at Prestwick Airport, Scotland, during the 1950s. It was designed for civil and military operators. It was conceived as a version of the Pioneer light transport. Both aircraft required an area only 30m by 275m in which to operate, powered by two Alvis Leonides 531 radial engines, the Twin Pioneer was a high-wing cabin monoplane with a triple fin and rudder assembly and fixed tailwheel undercarriage. The prototype Twin Pioneer, registered G-ANTP, first flew at Prestwick Airport on 25 June 1955, Flight trials proved that the aircraft had a very short landing run and the aircraft was displayed at the September 1955 Society of British Aircraft Constructors Show at Farnborough. Three pre-production aircraft were built for trials, and sales and demonstrations, in 1958, the 33rd aircraft was used as a prototype for the Series 2 with Pratt & Whitney Wasp R-1340 radial engines which had been ordered by Philippine Air Lines. A Series 3 aircraft was developed to use the improved Alvis Leonides 531 radial engine. The military version could carry external stores such as bombs under the stub wings, one aircraft became the first aircraft for the newly formed Royal Malaysian Air Force when it was delivered on 16 January 1962, the type served with the air force for 12 years. The Royal Air Force ordered 39 aircraft, which were built between 1958 and 1959, deployed in Aden and the Far East and it was used extensively by British forces in the Malayan Emergency and the later confrontation in Borneo. In August 1959, No.78 Squadron RAF at Khormaksar received some Twin Pioneers to supplement its single engine Pioneers, the Twin Pioneers were employed in moving troops and supplies around the wilderness and on occasions lending support to the Sultan of Oman. A series of engine failures caused problems with the squadron losing two aircraft on the same day. Unsuitable soft and hard landing strips were also causes of failures during landings, other squadrons that operated the Twin Pioneers were No.152 Squadron RAF based at Muharraq in Bahrain, No.21 Squadron RAF, which reformed with the type at Benson in May 1959. The squadron then moved to Kenya and in June 1965 to Aden, No.152 operated around the Persian Gulf and in 1959, No.209 Squadron RAF based at Seletar began to receive Twin Pioneers. These operated in Borneo and Malaya, the SRCU at RAF Odiham also flew three Twin Pioneers for aircrew training. RAF No.230 Squadron in the UK was the last military operator of the Twin Pioneer, the squadron operated the type in an interesting sand-colour camouflage scheme. Three were used by the Kroonduif in Dutch New Guinea, one Twin Pioneer served as a STOL training aircraft with the Empire Test Pilot School at RAE Farnborough for many years. Twin Pioneer, Prototype aircraft with Alvis Leonides 503 radial engines, Twin Pioneer Series 1, Production aircraft with Alvis Leonides 514 radial engines. Twin Pioneer CC. Mk 1, Military version of the Series 1 for the Royal Air Force,32 built, Twin Pioneer Series 2, Production aircraft with Pratt & Whitney R-1340 radial engines
14.
Boeing Chinook (UK variants)
–
The Boeing Chinook is a tandem rotor helicopter operated by the Royal Air Force. A series of variants based on the United States Armys Boeing CH-47 Chinook, in March 1967 an order was placed for fifteen Chinook HC Mk1s, standing for Helicopter, Cargo Mark 1, for the Royal Air Force to replace the Bristol Belvedere. This original MK1 variant was to be based on the CH-47B, UK Chinook procurement ambitions were revived in 1978 with an announced requirement for a new heavy-lift helicopter to replace the Westland Wessex. Thirty Chinooks were ordered at a price of US$200 million and these helicopters, comparable to the CH-47C with Lycoming T55-L-11E engines, were again designated Chinook HC Mk1, and entered service in December 1980. Eight more Mk1s were delivered from 1984 to 1986 with the CH-47Ds Lycoming T55-L-712 turboshafts, the replacement of the Mk1s metal rotor blades with aluminium and glass fibre composite rotor blades saw these aircraft designated Chinook HC Mk1B. All surviving aircraft were returned to Boeing and updated to the Chinook HC Mk2 standard for further service within the RAF. The US Armys next generation Chinook, the CH-47D, entered service in 1982, the RAF returned their original Mk1s to Boeing for upgrading to CH-47D standard, the first of which returned to the UK in 1993. Three additional HC Mk2 Chinooks were ordered with delivery beginning in 1995, one Argentine CH-47C was captured during the Falklands War, and used by the RAF as a training aid. The rear fuselage was used to repair a crashed RAF Chinook in 2003. In 2006, the retirement dates for the Mk2 and Mk2A fleets were scheduled for 2015 and 2025 respectively, eight Chinook HC Mk3s were ordered in 1995 as dedicated special forces helicopters, which were intended to be low-cost variants of the US Armys MH-47E. The Mk3s include improved range, night vision sensors and navigation capability, the eight aircraft were to cost £259 million and the forecast in-service date was November 1998. Although delivered in 2001, the Mk3 could not receive airworthiness certificates as it was not possible to certify the avionics software. Unfortunately the procurement was a profoundly inept piece of procurement, Sir Peter Spencer, who as head of Defence Procurement inherited the project, said that, I mean, there were 100 essential requirements. One of them said to give protection against any missile coming from any direction, Spencer later commented, it is always hard to imagine why people think you would be able cost effectively to buy a bespoke requirement for a very small production run. The avionics were unsuitable due to risk analysis and necessary requirements omitted from the procurement contract. The Times claimed that the Ministry of Defence planned to perform software integration itself, without Boeings involvement, while lacking certification, the helicopters were only permitted to fly in visual meteorological conditions and subsequently stored in climate controlled hangars. The programme was estimated to cost £50–60 million, on 6 July 2009 the first of the eight modified Chinook HC Mk3s made its first test flight at MoD Boscombe Down as part of the flight testing and evaluation phase of the HC Mk3 reversion program. A programme to upgrade 46 Chinook Mk2/2A and Mk3 helicopters was initiated in December 2008, upgraded Mk2/2A and Mk3 aircraft will be redesignated Mk4 from Mk2/2a, and Mk5 from Mk3
15.
Royal Air Force
–
The Royal Air Force is the United Kingdoms aerial warfare force. Formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918, following victory over the Central Powers in 1918 the RAF emerged as, at the time, the largest air force in the world. The RAF describe its mission statement as, an agile, adaptable and capable Air Force that, person for person, is second to none, and that makes a decisive air power contribution in support of the UK Defence Mission. The mission statement is supported by the RAFs definition of air power, Air power is defined as the ability to project power from the air and space to influence the behaviour of people or the course of events. Today the Royal Air Force maintains a fleet of various types of aircraft. The majority of the RAFs rotary-wing aircraft form part of the tri-service Joint Helicopter Command in support of ground forces, most of the RAFs aircraft and personnel are based in the UK, with many others serving on operations or at long-established overseas bases. It was founded on 1 April 1918, with headquarters located in the former Hotel Cecil, during the First World War, by the amalgamation of the Royal Flying Corps, at that time it was the largest air force in the world. The RAFs naval aviation branch, the Fleet Air Arm, was founded in 1924, the RAF developed the doctrine of strategic bombing which led to the construction of long-range bombers and became its main bombing strategy in the Second World War. The RAF underwent rapid expansion prior to and during the Second World War, under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan of December 1939, the air forces of British Commonwealth countries trained and formed Article XV squadrons for service with RAF formations. Many individual personnel from countries, and exiles from occupied Europe. By the end of the war the Royal Canadian Air Force had contributed more than 30 squadrons to serve in RAF formations, additionally, the Royal Australian Air Force represented around nine percent of all RAF personnel who served in the European and Mediterranean theatres. In the Battle of Britain in 1940, the RAF defended the skies over Britain against the numerically superior German Luftwaffe, the largest RAF effort during the war was the strategic bombing campaign against Germany by Bomber Command. Following victory in the Second World War, the RAF underwent significant re-organisation, during the early stages of the Cold War, one of the first major operations undertaken by the Royal Air Force was in 1948 and the Berlin Airlift, codenamed Operation Plainfire. Before Britain developed its own nuclear weapons the RAF was provided with American nuclear weapons under Project E and these were initially armed with nuclear gravity bombs, later being equipped with the Blue Steel missile. Following the development of the Royal Navys Polaris submarines, the nuclear deterrent passed to the navys submarines on 30 June 1969. With the introduction of Polaris, the RAFs strategic nuclear role was reduced to a tactical one and this tactical role was continued by the V bombers into the 1980s and until 1998 by Tornado GR1s. For much of the Cold War the primary role of the RAF was the defence of Western Europe against potential attack by the Soviet Union, with many squadrons based in West Germany. With the decline of the British Empire, global operations were scaled back, despite this, the RAF fought in many battles in the Cold War period
16.
Western Australia
–
Western Australia is a state occupying the entire western third of Australia. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Great Australian Bight and Southern Ocean to the south, the state has about 2.6 million inhabitants, around 11% of the national total. 92% of the lives in the south-west corner of the state. The first European visitor to Western Australia was the Dutch explorer Dirk Hartog, the first European settlement of Western Australia occurred following the landing by Major Edmund Lockyer on 26 December 1826 of an expedition on behalf of the New South Wales colonial government. This was followed by the establishment of the Swan River Colony in 1829, including the site of the present-day capital, york was the first inland settlement in Western Australia. Situated 97 kilometres east of Perth, it was settled on 16 September 1831, Western Australia achieved responsible government in 1890, and federated with the other British colonies in Australia in 1901. Today its economy relies on mining, agriculture and tourism. The state produces 46% of Australias exports, Western Australia is the second-largest iron ore producer in the world. The International Hydrographic Organization designates the body of water south of the continent as part of the Indian Ocean, the total length of the states eastern border is 1,862 km. There are 20,781 km of coastline, including 7,892 km of island coastline, the total land area occupied by the state is 2.5 million km2. Most of the state is a low plateau with an elevation of about 400 metres, very low relief. This descends relatively sharply to the plains, in some cases forming a sharp escarpment. The extreme age of the landscape has meant that the soils are remarkably infertile, even soils derived from granitic bedrock contain an order of magnitude less available phosphorus and only half as much nitrogen as soils in comparable climates in other continents. Soils derived from extensive sandplains or ironstone are even less fertile, nearly devoid of soluble phosphate and also deficient in zinc, copper, molybdenum, the infertility of most of the soils has required heavy application by farmers of chemical fertilisers, particularly superphosphate, insecticides and herbicides. These have resulted in damage to invertebrate and bacterial populations, the grazing and use of hoofed mammals and, later, heavy machinery through the years have resulted in compaction of soils and great damage to the fragile soils. Large-scale land clearing for agriculture has damaged habitats for native flora, large areas of the states wheatbelt region have problems with dryland salinity and the loss of fresh water. The southwest coastal area has a Mediterranean climate and it was originally heavily forested, including large stands of karri, one of the tallest trees in the world. This agricultural region is one of the nine most bio-diverse terrestrial habitats, thanks to the offshore Leeuwin Current, the area is one of the top six regions for marine biodiversity and contains the most southerly coral reefs in the world
17.
British Guiana
–
British Guiana was the name of the British colony on the northern coast of South America, since 1966 known as the independent nation of Guyana. Its indigenous people are the Arawak-speaking Lucayan, part of the Taino people, the first European to discover Guiana was Sir Walter Raleigh, an English explorer. The Dutch were the first Europeans to settle there, starting in the early 17th century, in 1796, Great Britain took over these three colonies during hostilities with the French, who had occupied the Netherlands. Britain returned control to the Batavian Republic in 1802, but captured the colonies a year later during the Napoleonic Wars, the colonies were officially ceded to the United Kingdom in 1814, and consolidated into a single colony in 1831. The colonys capital was at Georgetown, as the British developed the colony for sugarcane plantations, they imported many Africans as slave labour. The economy became more diversified since the late 19th century, but has relied on resource exploitation, Guyana became independent of the United Kingdom on 26 May 1966. The Dutch West India Company founded a colony, Demerara. During the French Revolutionary Wars of the late 18th century, when the Netherlands were occupied by the French, a British expeditionary force was dispatched from its colony of Barbados to seize the colonies from the French-dominated Batavian Republic. The colonies surrendered without a struggle, initially very little changed, as the British agreed to allow the long-established laws of the colonies to remain in force. In 1802 Britain returned the colonies to the Batavian Republic under the terms of the Treaty of Amiens, but, after resuming hostilities with France in the Napoleonic Wars in 1803, Britain seized the colonies again less than a year later. The three colonies were ceded to the United Kingdom in the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814. The UK continued separate administration of the colonies until 1822. In 1831, the administration Essequibo-Demerara and Berbice was combined, the economy of British Guiana was completely based on sugarcane production until the 1880s, when falling cane sugar prices stimulated a shift toward rice farming, mining and forestry. However, sugarcane remained a significant part of the economy, under the Dutch, settlement and economic activity was concentrated around sugarcane plantations lying inland from the coast. Under the British, cane planting expanded to coastal lands. Until the abolition of slavery in the British Empire, sugar planters depended almost exclusively on slave labour to produce sugar, Georgetown was the site of a significant slave rebellion in 1823. In the 1880s gold and diamond deposits were discovered in British Guiana, bauxite deposits proved more promising and would remain an important part of the economy. The colony did not develop any significant manufacturing industry, other than sugar factories, rice mills, sawmills, the London-based Booker Group of companies dominated the economy of British Guiana
18.
Cheddi Jagan International Airport
–
Cheddi Jagan International Airport, formerly Timehri International Airport, is the national airport of Guyana. The airport is located on the bank of the Demerara River in the city of Timehri,41 kilometres south of Guyanas capital. On 14 June 1941, the first United States Army forces arrived to survey land for an airfield near Georgetown. Atkinson Field was built 28 miles from Georgetown on 68 acres of land known as Hyde Park. The forest was cleared and hills were levelled and a concrete runway was constructed. On 20 June 1941 the airfield officially opened with the activation of a weather station, the station was named after Lieutenant Colonel Bert M. Atkinson, a United States Army Air Service World War I aviator. Colonel Atkinson was the commander of the 1st Pursuit Wing on the front in 1918. Colonel Atkinson retired from the Army in 1922 after a distinguished career, the mission of the station was the defense of the colony against German U-Boats. The airfield was also a staging point for American aircraft crossing the Atlantic Ocean heading to the European Theatre on the South Atlantic transport route. Aircraft supplied to the British forces by the United States were flown to Atkinson where they were turned over, the 430th was replaced by a detachment of the 35th Bombardment Squadron from 1 November 1942 to 7 October 1943. At the end of the war, Atkinson Field was reduced in scope to a skeleton staff, the facility was opened for all air travel, including commercial air flights on 1 October 1946. The military airfield was designated Atkinson Air Force Base on 26 March 1948 by Department of the Air Force General Order Number 10, the base was ordered closed on 31 July 1949 due to budgetary cutbacks. The final military cadre was 3 officers and 25 enlisted men upon closure, a modern terminal building was built and opened on 15 March 1952. When the new building was ravaged by fire on 5 August 1959 the old building was renovated and used again until the destroyed building was replaced. The lease of the facility by the United States was formally terminated on 26 May 1966. Because the lease was terminated 74 years before its due end, in 1965 and 1968 additions were made to the airport facilities. The airport featured murals employing Amerindian motifs by Guyanese painter Aubrey Williams, in March 1997, following the death of President Dr. Cheddi Jagan, then-President Samuel Hinds decided to rename the airport the Cheddi Jagan International Airport. A plaque bearing the new name was unveiled on 21 May 1997 by the Prime Minister, the Cheddi Jagan International Airport is currently undergoing a 150 million dollar modernization and expansion
19.
Army Air Corps (United Kingdom)
–
The Army Air Corps is a component of the British Army, first formed in 1942 during the Second World War. There are eight regiments of the AAC as well as four Independent Flights and they are located in Britain, Brunei, Canada, and Germany. The AAC provides the air elements of 16 Air Assault Brigade through Joint Helicopter Command. The British Army first took to the sky during the 19th century with the use of observation balloons, in 1911 the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers was the first heavier-than-air British military aviation unit. Between the wars, the Army used RAF co-operation squadrons, at the beginning of the Second World War, Royal Artillery officers, with the assistance of RAF technicians, flew Auster observation aircraft under RAF-owned Air Observation Post Squadrons. Twelve such squadrons were raised —three of which belonged to the RCAF—, early in the war, Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, announced the establishment of a new branch of army aviation, the Army Air Corps, formed in 1942. The corps initially comprised the Glider Pilot Regiment and the Parachute Battalions, in 1944, the SAS Regiment was added to the Corps. One of their most successful exploits during the war was Operation Deadstick, including the attack on Pegasus Bridge, once the three gliders landed, some roughly which incurred casualties, the pilots joined the glider-borne troops to act as infantry. The bridge was taken within ten minutes of the battle commencing and they were soon reinforced and relieved by soldiers from Lord Lovats 1 Special Service Brigade, famously led by piper Bill Millin. It was subsequently reinforced by units of the British 3rd Division. The pilots who had flown the gliders soon had to transfer to flying powered aircraft, becoming part of the RAF Air Observation Post Squadrons. In 1957 the Glider Pilot and Parachute Corps was renamed to The Parachute Regiment, while the Glider Pilot Regiment and the Air Observation Squadrons amalgamated into a new unit, from 1970, nearly every army brigade had at least one Aviation Squadron that usually numbered twelve aircraft. The main rotor aircraft during the 1970s were the Westland Scout, the Sioux was replaced from 1973 by the Westland Gazelle used for Airborne recce, initially unarmed, they were converted to carry 68mm SNEB rocket pods in 1982, during the Falklands War. The Scout was replaced from 1978 by the Westland Lynx, which was capable of carrying additional firepower in the form of door gunners. Basic rotary flying training was carried out on the Bell Sioux in the 1970s, fixed-wing types in AAC service have included the Auster AOP.6 and AOP.9 and DHC-2 Beaver AL.1 in the observation and liaison roles. Since 1989, the AAC have operated a number of Britten-Norman Islander and Defender aircraft for surveillance, the corps operated the DHC-1 Chipmunk T.10 in the training role until its replacement by the Slingsby T67 Firefly in the 1990s. The Firefly was replaced by the Grob Tutor in 2010, a further boost in the Army Air Corps capability came in the form of the Westland Apache AH.1 attack helicopter. In 2006, British Apaches deployed to Afghanistan as part of the NATO International Security Assistance Force, the strength of the Army Air Corps is believed to be some 2,000 Regular personnel, of which 500 are officers
20.
British Army
–
The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
21.
Falklands War
–
It began on Friday,2 April 1982, when Argentina invaded and occupied the Falkland Islands in an attempt to establish the sovereignty it had claimed over them. On 5 April, the British government dispatched a naval force to engage the Argentine Navy. The conflict lasted 74 days and ended with the Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982, in total,649 Argentine military personnel,255 British military personnel, and three Falkland Islanders died during the hostilities. The conflict was an episode in the protracted confrontation over the territories sovereignty. Argentina asserted that the islands are Argentine territory, and the Argentine government thus characterised its military action as the reclamation of its own territory, the British government regarded the action as an invasion of a territory that had been a Crown colony since 1841. Falkland Islanders, who have inhabited the islands since the early 19th century, are descendants of British settlers. The conflict has had an effect in both countries and has been the subject of various books, articles, films, and songs. Patriotic sentiment ran high in Argentina, but the outcome prompted large protests against the military government. In the United Kingdom, the Conservative Party government, bolstered by the outcome, was re-elected the following year. The cultural and political weight of the conflict has had less effect in Britain than in Argentina, diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Argentina were restored in 1989 following a meeting in Madrid, Spain, at which the two governments issued a joint statement. No change in either countrys position regarding the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands was made explicit, in 1994, Argentinas claim to the territories was added to its constitution. In December 1981 there was a change in the Argentine military regime, bringing to office a new junta headed by General Leopoldo Galtieri, Brigadier Basilio Lami Dozo. Anaya was the architect and supporter of a military solution for the long-standing claim over the islands. Such action would also bolster its dwindling legitimacy, the newspaper La Prensa speculated in a step-by-step plan beginning with cutting off supplies to the islands, ending in direct actions late in 1982, if the UN talks were fruitless. The Royal Navy ice patrol vessel HMS Endurance was dispatched from Stanley to South Georgia in response, the Argentine military junta, suspecting that the UK would reinforce its South Atlantic Forces, ordered the invasion of the Falkland Islands to be brought forward to 2 April. Britain was initially taken by surprise by the Argentine attack on the South Atlantic islands, despite repeated warnings by Royal Navy captain Nicholas Barker, on 2 April 1982, Argentine forces mounted amphibious landings off the Falkland Islands. The invasion was met with a defence organised by the Falkland Islands Governor Sir Rex Hunt. Word of the invasion first reached Britain from Argentine sources, a Ministry of Defence operative in London had a short telex conversation with Governor Hunts telex operator, who confirmed that Argentines were on the island and in control
22.
No. 7 Squadron RAF
–
No.7 Squadron of the Royal Air Force operates the Boeing Chinook HC.6 from RAF Odiham, Hampshire. The squadron spent most of the First World War in observation and interception roles and was responsible for the first ever interception of an aircraft over Britain. It deployed to France in April 1915, flying Royal Aircraft Factory R. E. 5s for reconnaissance, although he successfully recovered the R. E.5 to allied lines, saving his observer, he died of his wounds a month later. The squadron re-equipped with B. E. 2s in 1916 and it disbanded at the end of 1919. It re-formed at RAF Bircham Newton on 1 June 1923 with the Vickers Vimy as a heavy bomber squadron. It started to receive the Vickers Virginia bomber on 22 May 1924, being the first RAF Squadron to operate Virginias, in 1927 it moved to RAF Worthy Down, commanded by Charles Portal, later to become Chief of the Air Staff during the Second World War. In 1932, Frederick Higginson, who became an ace in the Second World War, was assigned as a mechanic-gunner to the squadron. By this time, the elderly Virginia was obsolete, and in April 1935 they were replaced by the more modern Handley Page Heyford, which it won the Lawrence Minot trophy yet again in 1935. Part of the squadron was split off in October 1935 to form No.102 Squadron, in April 1937 the squadron received four Vickers Wellesleys to equip a flight which was again split off to form 76 Squadron. In March 1938 it replaced its Heyford biplanes with Armstrong Whitworth Whitley monoplanes and it re-equipped again in April 1939, with Handley Page Hampdens bombers replacing the Whitleys. In June 1939 it became a unit, preparing crews for the Hampden equipped 5 Group. On the outbreak of the Second World War, it continued to be used for training bomber crews and it flew on the 1000 bomber raids to Cologne, Essen and Bremen in May and June 1942. It was transferred to the Pathfinder Force in October 1942, with the job of finding and marking targets for the Main Force of Bomber Command bombers and it re-equipped with the Avro Lancaster from 11 May 1943, flying its first mission with the Lancaster on 12 July 1943. It continued in the Pathfinder role until the end of the war in Europe and it flew its last bomber mission on 25 April 1945 against Wangerooge, and dropped food to starving civilians in the Netherlands in May. While it was planned to fly 7 Squadron out to the Far East to join Tiger Force for air attacks against Japan, the squadron carried out 5,060 operational sorties with the loss of 165 aircraft. Fraser Barron After World War II it was equipped with Avro Lincoln bombers, based at RAF Upwood, the Lincoln was for several years the front line cold war bomber aircraft. It was used in the Malayan emergency, the Middle East, in 1970,7 Squadron again reformed, this time as a target squadron, flying the English Electric Canberra until January 1982. The squadron quickly reformed in the Support Helicopter role, receiving Chinooks HC. 1s in September 1982, the Chinook HC.2, equivalent to the US Army CH-47D standard, began to enter RAF service in 1993
23.
No. 18 Squadron RAF
–
No.18 Squadron of the Royal Air Force operates the Boeing Chinook HC.2 from RAF Odiham. No.18 Squadron was the first and is currently the largest RAF operator of the Chinook, owing to its heritage as a bomber squadron, it is also known as No.18 Squadron. The squadron was formed on 11 May 1915 at Northolt as part of the Royal Flying Corps. It arrived in France on 19 November 1915, principally equipped with the Vickers FB5 Gunbus, supplemented by a few Airco DH. 2s and Bristol Scouts, by April 1916 the squadron had re-equipped with FE2bs. Victor Huston became a flying ace piloting one of these. E. 2bs became more vulnerable during daylight operations. The squadron re-equipped with Airco DH. 4s from June 1917,18 Squadron was among many units deployed to stop the German attacks, resorting to low level attacks as well as more conventional medium level operations. George Darvill became an ace on DH. 4s, scoring nine victories, in September 1918, the squadron began to re-equip with Airco DH. 9As, this process continuing until November that year. By the end of the war, the squadron had claimed 200 air-to-air victories, the squadron returned to Britain in September 1919 and disbanded at Weston-on-the-Green on 31 December 1919. The squadron reformed at RAF Upper Heyford in Oxfordshire on 20 October 1931, in January 1936, the squadron moved to RAF Bircham Newton in Norfolk, with part of the squadron being detached to form No.49 Squadron on 10 February. In April 1936, the squadrons Harts were replaced by the improved Hawker Hind derivative, the squadron joined the newly established No.1 Group RAF in July 1936, and moved back to Upper Heyford in September 1936. 18 Squadron transferred to 2 Group on 1 January 1939, re-equipping with Bristol Blenheim I monoplane twin-engined bombers in May 1939. On the outbreak of the Second World War, No.18 Squadron along with 57 Squadron comprised No.70 Wing and was based at Upper Heyford. The wing was allocated for deployment to France as part of the BEF Air Component,18 Squadron reached France by the end of September 1939, commencing operations in October and re-equipping with Blenheim IVs in February 1940. When Germany invaded France and the Low Countries,18 Squadron took part in bombing missions against German troops as well as their envisioned reconnaissance missions. After the squadron was forced to change airfields three times in three days, it was ordered to back to England on 19 May, moving to RAF Watton in Norfolk. The Squadron was then assigned to anti-shipping duties, but during one raid over France in August 1941 and it was a spare for Wing Commander Douglas Bader. The Squadron then moved to North Africa with the Blenheim V, during an unescorted raid on Chouigui airfield in December 1942 led by Wing Commander Hugh Malcolm, his aircraft was shot down and he was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross. During 1943–45, No.18 Squadron supported the advance through Italy before moving to Greece in September 1945
24.
No. 1564 Flight RAF
–
No.1564 Flight was first formed at RAF Mellaha, near Tripoli, Libya, on 1 February 1943, flying Hawker Hurricanes and Supermarine Spitfires, and was disbanded at Istres, France on 15 June 1946. No.1564 Flight was re-formed at RAF El Adem, Libya on 14 August 1963, flying Bristol Sycamores and Westland Whirlwinds, from an element of 103 Squadron, disbanding on 31 December 1966 at El Adem. The flight was re-formed at El Adem again on 1 May 1969, from D Flight of 202 Squadron, the unit had a variety of designations before formally adopting No.1564 Flight as its title in 1983. When the Sea King and Chinook units in the Falkland Islands were combined on the opening of RAF Mount Pleasant,1564 Flight was reformed in November 2007, by re-designating 78 Squadron on the departure of the Chinook aircraft from the Falklands. The Flight operated two Sea King HAR3 helicopters, with crews provided on rotation from Nos.22 and 202 Squadrons in the UK, the Sea Kings, however, were replaced due to the SAR privatization process. AAR Corp was awarded a contract for helicopter search and rescue services in the Falkland Islands to replace 1564 Flight, in March 2015, the UK announced that a pair of Chinooks would be stationed in the Falklands again. 1564 Flight disbanded on 31 March 2016 with a ceremony and flypast. List of Royal Air Force aircraft independent flights Military of the Falkland Islands Notes Bibliography Royal Air Force,1564 Flt
25.
No. 78 Squadron RAF
–
No.78 Squadron of the Royal Air Force operated the Merlin HC3/3A transport helicopter from RAF Benson. Until December 2007 it was the operator of two Westland Sea King HAR3s from RAF Mount Pleasant, Falkland Islands,78 Squadron was stood down on 30 September 2014 as the Merlin Force transferred to the Commando Helicopter Force of the Royal Navys Fleet Air Arm at RNAS Yeovilton. No.78 Squadron was formed as part of the Royal Flying Corps on 1 November 1916 for home defence at Harrietsham and it was originally equipped with obsolescent BE2 and more modern BE12 fighters. On the night of 25 September 1917 a Captain Bell of the squadron encountered a German Gotha and attacked it over RAF Joyce Green. John Rawlings, writing in Fighter Squadrons of the Royal Air Force, stated that it was believed that he damaged it for one of the German raiders failed to return that night, the squadron received Sopwith 1½ Strutters in late 1917, followed by Sopwith Camels in mid-1918. It arrived at Suttons Farm, under the command of Major Cuthbert Rowden, in September 1917 and was there until December 1919, the squadron disbanded on 31 December 1919 following the Armistice. The new squadron moved to RAF Dishforth in Yorkshire early in 1937, in July 1937 it was equipped with Armstrong Whitworth Whitley night bombers. On the outbreak of the Second World War, the squadron was designated as a training squadron and it moved to RAF Linton-on-Ouse on 15 October 1939, returning to Dishforth in July when it returned to front-line duties as a night bomber squadron. In April 1941, the moved to RAF Middleton St. George. In September, the squadron flew its first bombing raid against Berlin and it moved again, to RAF Croft, in October 1941. On the night of 30/31 May 1942,78 Squadron contributed 22 Halifaxes to Operation Millennium, the squadron moved back to Middleton St. George in June 1942 and to Linton-on-Ouse in September 1942. In June 1943, the moved to RAF Breighton to free up Linton-on Ouse for the Canadian bomber force of No.6 Group RAF. In January 1944 the squadron replaced its Merlin-powered Halifax B. IIs with Halifax B. IIIs, in total, the squadron had dropped 17000 t of bombs and mines during 6,337 operational sorties, losing 182 aircraft but claiming 28 enemy fighters shot down. It remained active in the period as a transport squadron, converting to Valettas in April 1950. The squadron was reformed on 24 April 1956 at RAF Khormaksar in Aden and these were replaced by larger, twin-engined, Twin Pioneers in November 1958. In 1965 these were transferred to No.21 Squadron and the converted to a helicopter unit operating the Wessex. It transferred to RAF Sharjah in 1967, continuing to fly in the support and Search. The Squadron reformed on 22 May 1986 when No.1310 Flight, operating Boeing Chinooks, originally operating the Chinook HC.1, these were later replaced with HC. 2s
26.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
–
Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, in short, often known informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe located on the Balkan Peninsula. Sarajevo is the capital and largest city, in the central and eastern interior of the country the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and the northeast is predominantly flatland. The inland is a larger region and has a moderate continental climate, with hot summers and cold. The southern tip of the country has a Mediterranean climate and plain topography, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a region that traces permanent human settlement back to the Neolithic age, during and after which it was populated by several Illyrian and Celtic civilizations. Culturally, politically, and socially, the country has a rich history, the Ottomans brought Islam to the region, and altered much of the cultural and social outlook of the country. This was followed by annexation into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which lasted up until World War I. In the interwar period, Bosnia was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and after World War II, following the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the country proclaimed independence in 1992, which was followed by the Bosnian War, lasting until late 1995. The country is home to three ethnic groups or, officially, constituent peoples, as specified in the constitution. Bosniaks are the largest group of the three, with Serbs second and Croats third, a native of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regardless of ethnicity, is identified in English as a Bosnian. The terms Herzegovinian and Bosnian are maintained as a rather than ethnic distinction. Moreover, the country was simply called Bosnia until the Austro-Hungarian occupation at the end of the 19th century, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is itself complex and consists of 10 cantons, additionally, the country has been a member of the Council of Europe since April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment in July 2008. The name is believed to have derived from the hydronym of the river Bosna coursing through the Bosnian heartland. According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could be derived from Illyrian Bass-an-as which would be a diversion of the Proto-Indo-European root bos or bogh, meaning the running water. According to English medievalist William Miller the Slavic settlers in Bosnia adapted the Latin designation Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna, the name Herzegovina originates from Bosnian magnate Stephen Vukčić Kosačas title, Herceg of Hum and the Coast. Hum, formerly Zahumlje, was a medieval principality that was conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia to the north and west, Serbia to the east and it has a coastline about 20 kilometres long surrounding the city of Neum. It lies between latitudes 42° and 46° N, and longitudes 15° and 20° E, the countrys name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them
27.
Implementation Force
–
NATO was responsible for carrying out the Dayton Peace Accords. The Dayton Peace Accords were started on November 22,1995 by the presidents of Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia, on behalf of Serbia, the actual signing happened in Paris on December 14,1995. The peace accords contained a General Framework Agreement and eleven supporting annexes with maps, iFORs specific role was to implement the military Annexes of The General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. IFOR relieved the UN peacekeeping force UNPROFOR, which had arrived in 1992. Almost 60,000 NATO soldiers in addition to forces from non-NATO nations were deployed to Bosnia, Operation Decisive Endeavor, beginning 6 December 1995, was a subcomponent of Joint Endeavor. The Dayton Agreement resulted from a series of events. Admiral Leighton W. Smith, Jr. acted as the Joint Force Commander for the operation and he commanded the operation from HQs in Zagreb and later from March 1996 from the Residency in Sarajevo. This was NATOs first ever out-of-area land deployment, the Land Components part of the operation was known as Operation Firm Endeavour. At its height, IFOR involved troops from 32 countries and numbered some 54,000 soldiers in-country, the tasks of the Land Component were carried out by three Multi National Divisions, Multi-National Division, Mostar - French led. Also known as the Division salamandre, mND-SE included two French brigades, one Spanish brigade, one Italian brigade, and Egyptian, Jordanian and Ukrainian units, as well as a Moroccan task force. The divisional headquarters was provided in rotation by divisions including the 7th Armoured Division, Multi-National Division, Banja Luka - British led. The British codename for their armed forces involvement in IFOR was Operation Resolute, mND-SW included a British brigade as well as Canadian and Dutch units. Division headquarters was provided by 3 Division then 1st Armoured Division, Multi-National Division, Tuzla - American led. The US Army 1st Armored Division under the command of Major General William L. Nash and they began to deploy on 18 December 1995. MND-N was composed of two U. S. Brigades, a Russian brigade, a Turkish brigade, and the Nordic-Polish Brigade, a Russian brigade, initially under the command of Colonel Aleksandr Ivanovich Lentsov, was part of the Task Force Eagle effort. The 1AD 1st Brigade was commanded by Colonel Gregory Fontenot and covered the northwest, the 1AD 2d Brigade, led by Col John Batiste, constituted the southern flank of the US sector, based in Camp Lisa, about 20 km east of Kladanj. Task Force 2-68 Armor, based in Baumholder, Germany, was based in Camp Linda and this was the Southern boundary of the US Sector. The 1AD returned in late 1996 to Germany, one of MND-Ns components was the Nordic-Polish Brigade which was a multinational brigade of Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Sweden and USA
28.
Stabilisation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina
–
The Stabilisation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina was a NATO-led multinational peacekeeping force deployed to Bosnia and Herzegovina after the Bosnian war. Although SFOR was led by NATO, several non-NATO countries contributed troops and it was replaced by EUFOR Althea in December 2004. SFOR was established in Security Council Resolution 1088 on December 12,1996 and it succeeded the much larger Implementation Force IFOR which was deployed to Bosnia and Herzegovina on 20 December 1995 with a one-year mandate. During NATOs 2004 Istanbul Summit the end of the SFOR mission was announced and it was replaced by the European Unions EUFOR Althea, on 2 December 2004 at NATO HQ, Camp Butmir, Sarajevo, B-H. SFOR was divided into three zones of operation, Mostar MNB - Italian, Franco-German, Spanish Banja Luka MND - British, Canadian, the British code name for their activities in IFOR was Operation Resolute and SFOR was Operation Lodestar. Tuzla MND - American, Turkish, Polish, Russian, Norwegian, the three AOs were known collectively as Multi-National Divisions until the end of 2002 where they were reduced in scope to Multi-National Brigades. SFOR operated under peace enforcement, not peacekeeping, rules of engagement, for example, it was cleared, in 1997, to neutralize Serb radio-television facilities. During its mandate, SFOR arrested 29 individuals who were charged with war crimes and those arrested were transferred to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in the Netherlands. US service members serving in SFOR were awarded the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal, SFOR operated as part of Operation Joint Guard and Operation Joint Forge. As time progressed, the numbers of troops allotted to SFOR declined, on December 2,2004, SFOR disbanded and its functions were assumed by military units from the European Union. SFOR operated under the code names Operation Joint Guard and Operation Joint Forge, NATO nations providing troops included, Non-NATO nations providing troops included, Phillips, R. Cody. Bosnia-Herzegovina, The U. S. Armys Role in Peace Enforcement Operations 1995-2004, united States Army Center of Military History. Measuring the success of the NATO operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina 1995–2000, official website US Air Force News article on Operation Joint Forge
29.
Iraq
–
The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations
30.
Afghanistan
–
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia. It has a population of approximately 32 million, making it the 42nd most populous country in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north and its territory covers 652,000 km2, making it the 41st largest country in the world. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khiljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, the political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, King Amanullah unsuccessfully attempted to modernize the country and it remained peaceful during Zahir Shahs forty years of monarchy. A series of coups in the 1970s was followed by a series of wars that devastated much of Afghanistan. The name Afghānistān is believed to be as old as the ethnonym Afghan, the root name Afghan was used historically in reference to a member of the ethnic Pashtuns, and the suffix -stan means place of in Persian. Therefore, Afghanistan translates to land of the Afghans or, more specifically in a historical sense, however, the modern Constitution of Afghanistan states that he word Afghan shall apply to every citizen of Afghanistan. An important site of historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and it has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire. Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, in more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well, after 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan, among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, the region at the time was referred to as Ariana
31.
Helmand Province
–
Helmand or Hillmand The ancient names of of Helmand were is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan, in the south of the country. It is the largest province by area, covering 58,584 square kilometres area, the province contains 13 districts, encompassing over 1,000 villages, and roughly 879,500 settled people. Lashkar Gah serves as the provincial capital, Helmand was part of the Greater Kandahar region until made into a separate province by the Afghan government in the 20th century. The province has an airport, in the city of Lashkar Gah. The British Camp Bastion and U. S, Camp Leatherneck are a short distance southwest of Lashkar Gah. The Helmand River flows through the desert region of the province. The Kajaki Dam, which is one of Afghanistans major reservoirs, is located in the Kajaki district, Helmand is believed to be one of the worlds largest opium-producing regions, responsible for around 42% of the worlds total production. This is believed to be more than the whole of Burma, which is the second largest producing nation after Afghanistan. The region also produces tobacco, sugar beets, cotton, sesame, wheat, mung beans, maize, nuts, sunflowers, onions, potato, tomato, cauliflower, peanut, apricot, grape, and melon. Helmand culture of western Afghanistan was a Bronze Age culture of the 3rd millennium BC and it is exemplified by such major sites as Shahr-i Sokhta, Mundigak, and Bampur. The term Helmand civilization was proposed by M. Tosi and this civilization flourished between 2500 BC and 1900 BC, and may have coincided with the great flourishing of the Indus Valley Civilisation. This was also the phase of Periods III and IV of Shahr-i Sokhta. Jiroft culture is related to Helmand culture. Jiroft culture flourished in the eastern Iran, and the Helmand culture in western Afghanistan at the same time, in fact, they may represent the same cultural area. Mehrgarh culture, on the hand, is far earlier. Some Vedic scholars also believe the Helmand valley corresponds to the Sarasvati area mentioned in the Rig Veda as the homeland for the Indo-Aryan migrations into India, helmland was inhabited by ancient peoples and governed by the Medes before falling to the Achaemenids. Later, the area was part of the ancient Arachosia polity, and a frequent target for conquest because of its location in Asia. The Helmand river valley is mentioned by name in the Avesta as Haetumant, one of the centers of the Zoroastrian faith
32.
Kandahar Province
–
Kandahar / is one of the thirty-four provinces of Afghanistan, located in the southern part of the country next to Pakistan. It is surrounded by Helmand in the west, Uruzgan in the north and its capital is the city of Kandahar, which is located on the Arghandab River. The province contains about 18 districts, over 1,000 villages, and approximately 1,151,100 people, which is mostly tribal and a rural society. The main inhabitants of Kandahar province are the native ethnic Pashtuns, although smaller communities of Tajiks, Hazaras, Uzbeks, the current governor of the province is Humayoon Azizi. There is speculation about the origin of the name Kandahar and it is believed that Kandahar bears Alexanders name, and derives from the Pashto rendering of Iskandariya or Alexandria. A temple to the deified Alexander as well as an inscription in Greek and Aramaic by the emperor Ashoka, deh Morasi Ghundai, the first prehistoric site to be excavated in Afghanistan, lies 27 km southwest of Kandahar. Another Bronze Age village mound site with multiroomed mud-brick buildings dating from the same period sits nearby at Said Qala, Bronze Age pottery, copper and bronze horse trappings and stone seals were found in the lowermost levels in the nearby cave called Shamshir Ghar. In the Seistan, southwest of these Kandahar sites, two teams of American archaeologists discovered sites relating to the 2nd millennium B. C. The area was called Arachosia and was a frequent target for conquest because of its location in Asia. It was part of the Medes territory before falling to the Achaemenids, in 330 BC it was invaded by Alexander the Great and became part of the Seleucid Empire following his death. Later it came under the influence of the Indian emperor Ashoka, the territory was ruled by the Zunbils before Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate arrived in the 7th century. The Arabs advanced through Sistan and conquered Sindh early in the eighth century, even then a Hindu dynasty the Hindushahis, held Gandhara and eastern borders. The greatest of the Ghaznavids was Mahmud, who ruled between 998 and 1030 and he expelled the Hindus from Ghandhara. Mahmud of Ghazni made the part of the Ghaznavids in the 10th century. After the destructions caused by Genghis Khan in the 13th century, from about 1383 until his death in 1407, Kandahar was governed by Pir Muhammad, a grandson of Timur. By the early 16th century, it fell to Babur briefly and he rebelled against the Safavids and established the Hotaki dynasty which became a powerful Afghan empire until 1729 when Nader Shah declared war on the Ghilzai rulers. By 1738 the last Hotaki ruler Shah Hussain was defeated in what is now Old Kandahar, ahmad Shah Durrani, the founding father of Afghanistan, gained control of the province in 1747 and made the city of Kandahar the capital of his new Afghan Empire. In the 1770s, the capital of the empire was transferred to Kabul, ahmad Shah Durranis mausoleum is located in the center of the city
33.
International Security Assistance Force
–
From 2006 to 2011, ISAF had become increasingly involved in more intensive combat operations in southern and eastern Afghanistan. Troop contributors included the United States, United Kingdom and Canada, other NATO member states, the intensity of the combat faced by contributing nations varied greatly, with the United States sustaining the most casualties overall. In early 2010, there were at least 700 military bases inside Afghanistan, about 400 of these were used by American‑led NATO forces and 300 by ANSF. ISAF ceased combat operations and was disbanded in December 2014, with some troops remaining behind in a role as part of ISAFs successor organization. For almost two years, the ISAF mandate did not go beyond the boundaries of Kabul, according to General Norbert Van Heyst, such a deployment would require at least ten thousand additional soldiers. The responsibility for security throughout the whole of Afghanistan was to be given to the newly reconstituted Afghan National Army, however, on October 13,2003, the Security Council voted unanimously to expand the ISAF mission beyond Kabul with Resolution 1510. Shortly thereafter, Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien said that Canadian soldiers would not deploy outside Kabul, on October 24,2003, the German Bundestag voted to send German troops to the region of Kunduz. Approximately 230 additional soldiers were deployed to that region, marking the first time that ISAF soldiers operated outside of Kabul. On July 31,2006, the NATO‑led International Security Assistance Force assumed command of the south of the country, ISAF Stage 3, and by October 5, also of the east of Afghanistan, ISAF Stage 4. ISAF was mandated by UN Security Council Resolutions 1386,1413,1444,1510,1563,1623,1659,1707,1776, the last of these extended the mandate of ISAF to March 23,2011. The mandates given by the different governments to their forces varied from country to country and this meant that ISAF suffered from a lack of united aims. The initial ISAF headquarters was based on 3rd UK Mechanised Division and this force arrived in December,2001. Until ISAF expanded beyond Kabul, the force consisted of a roughly division-level headquarters and one covering the capital. The brigade was composed of three groups, and was in charge of the tactical command of deployed troops. ISAF headquarters served as the control center of the mission. Eighteen countries were contributors to the force in February,2002, Turkey assumed command of ISAF in June,2002. During this period, the number of Turkish troops increased from about 100 to 1,300, in November,2002, ISAF consisted of 4,650 troops from over 20 countries. Around 1,200 German troops served in the force alongside 250 Dutch soldiers operating as part of a German-led battalion, Turkey relinquished command in February,2003, and assumed command for a second time in February,2005
34.
Air assault
–
Invariably the assaulting troops are highly dependent on aerial fire support provided by the armed helicopters or fixed-wing aircraft escorting the VTOL. Air assault should not be confused with air attack, air strike, or air raid, Air assault and air mobility are related concepts. However, air assault is distinctly a combat insertion rather than transportation to an area in the vicinity of combat, Air assault operations are not merely movements of soldiers, weapons, and materiel by Army aviation units and must not be construed as such. Air assault units can vary in organization, using not only in transport but also as close air fire support, medical evacuation helicopters. Airmobile artillery is often assigned to air assault deployments, units vary in size, but are typically company- or brigade-sized units. Airmobile units are designed and trained for air insertion and vertical envelopment, air resupply, one specific type of air assault unit is the US Army air cavalry. It differs from regular air assault units only in fulfilling a traditional cavalry reconnaissance, similarly, the US 101st Airborne Division was originally classed as airborne, then airmobile and now air assault. Air mobility has been a key concept in offensive operations since the 1930s, initial approaches to air mobility focused on airborne and glider-borne troops. During World War II many assaults were done by military gliders, the World War Two era German Fallschirmjäger and Brandenburgers glider borne paras laid the foundation for modern day Air Assault operations. In 1941 the U. S. Army quickly adopted this concept of offensive operations initially utilizing wooden gliders before the development of helicopters, following the war faster aircraft led to the abandonment of the flimsy wooden gliders with the then new helicopters taking their place. Another example being the German Brandenburgers glider borne operation at Ypenburg during World War Two, in 1946, U. S. Marine General Roy S. During this time, The Commandant of the Marine Corps, Alexander Vandegrift and this board recommended that the USMC develop transport helicopters in order to allow a diffused attack on enemy shores. It also recommended that the USMC form an experimental helicopter squadron. HMX-1 was commissioned in 1947 with Sikorsky HO3S-1s, in 1948 the Marine Corps Schools came out with Amphibious Operations—Employment of Helicopters, or Phib-31, which was the first manual for helicopter airmobile operations. The Marines used the vertical envelopment instead of air mobility or air assault. HMX-1 performed its first vertical envelopment from the deck of a carrier in an exercise in 1949. American forces later used helicopters for support and transport to great effect during the Korean War showing that the helicopter could be a versatile, the first helicopter airlift and helicopter sling load mission was conducted on September 13,1951 during the Korean War. Operation Windmill I was conducted by the United States Marine Corps in support of a clearing the enemy from a series of ridges around an extinct volcano called The Punchbowl. In total seven HRS-1 Marine helicopters made 28 flights that delivered 8,550 kg of supplies and evacuated 74 seriously wounded men
35.
Forward operating base
–
A forward operating base is any secured forward military position, commonly a military base, that is used to support tactical operations. A FOB may or may not contain an airfield, hospital, the base may be used for an extended period of time. FOBs are traditionally supported by Main Operating Bases that are required to provide support to them. A FOB also improves reaction time to local areas as opposed to having all troops on the operating base. In its most basic form, a FOB consists of a ring of barbed wire around a position with an entry control point. More advanced FOBs include an assembly of earthen dams, concrete barriers, gates, watchtowers, bunkers and they are often built from Hesco bastions. In Afghanistan during 2011 there were 137 British bases during Operation Herrick, all closing down while the operation ends in 2014
36.
Casualty evacuation
–
Casualty evacuation, also known as CASEVAC or by the callsign Dustoff or colloquially Dust Off, is a military term for the emergency patient evacuation of casualties from a combat zone. Casevac can be done by ground and air. DUSTOFF is the specific to U. S. Army Air Ambulance units. DUSTOFF is an backronym meaning Dedicated Unhesitating Service To Our Fighting Forces, the primary difference between a CASEVAC and a medical evacuation is that a MEDEVAC uses a standardized and dedicated vehicle providing en route care. On the other hand, CASEVAC uses non-standardized and non-dedicated vehicles that may or may not provide en route care, cASEVACs are commonly referred to as a lift/flight of opportunity. If a Corpsman/Medic on the calls for a CASEVAC, the closest available unit with space could be called to assist. These could include U. S. Marine Corps aircraft such as the MV-22 Osprey or U. S. Navy SH-60 Seahawk helicopters. The guiding principles in a CASEVAC is to transport casualties that are in dire need for evacuation from the battlefield, MEDEVAC aircraft and ground transport are mandated by the Geneva Convention to be unarmed and well marked. CASEVAC transport are allowed to be armed since they are used for other purposes. Dust Off was the call sign for medical evacuation missions first used in 1963 by Major Lloyd E. Spencer, Commander of the U. S. Army 57th Medical Detachment. The name lasted the rest of the war, typically Air ambulances transport wounded soldiers categorized as urgent patients from point of injury to a medical facility within an hour of soldier being wounded. Flying into a landing zone to pick up wounded was a dangerous job. Peter Dorland and James Nanney wrote in Dust Off, Army Aeromedical Evacuation in Vietnam, slightly more a third of the aviators became casualties in their work, and the crew chiefs and medical corpsmen who accompanied them suffered similarly. The danger of their work was borne out by the high rate of air ambulance loss to hostile fire,3.3 times that of all other forms of helicopter missions in the Vietnam War. All members of the US Armed Forces today are trained in some form of basic first aid, while lacking advanced life saving equipment and medical personnel in regular vehicles, all personnel today enter the combat zone with an Improved First Aid Kit on their equipment. The IFAK has basic medical supplies such as bandages, a tourniquet, most units have stretchers and burn blankets in their vehicles. In addition each unit is staffed by a Corpsman or Medic and these professionals are trained in Tactical Combat Casualty Care. Military has worked tirelessly to ensure dedicated MEDEVAC platforms with trained personnel are available in the event of a casualty
37.
Kabul
–
Kabul is the capital of Afghanistan as well as its largest city, located in the eastern section of the country. According to a 2015 estimate, the population of the city was around 3,678,033 which includes all the ethnic groups. Rapid urbanization had made Kabul the worlds 64th largest city and the fifth fastest-growing city in the world, Kabul is said to be over 3,500 years old, mentioned since at least the time of the Achaemenid Empire. The city is at a location along the trade routes of South and Central Asia. It has been part of the Achaemenids, Seleucids, Mauryans, Kushans, Kabul Shahis, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Later, it was controlled by the Mughal Empire until finally becoming part of the Durrani Empire in 1747. The city is located high up in a valley between the Hindu Kush mountains. Kabul became the capital of Afghanistan during the reign of Timur Shah Durrani, in the early 19th century, the British occupied the city but were compelled to abandon it. Relations between Afghanistan and Great Britain were later established, the city was occupied by the Soviets in 1979 but they too abandoned it after the 1988 Geneva Accords were signed. A civil war in the 1990s between various rebel groups destroyed much of the city, resulting in many casualties, since the removal of the Taliban from power in late 2001, the city gradually began rebuilding itself with assistance by the international community. Despite the many terrorist attacks by elements, the city is growing and developing. The city is divided into about 18 districts, the Kabul International Airport is located in the Wazir Akbar Khan district a few miles from the foreign embassies. The Parliament of Afghanistan, built by India, is located in the Kārte Seh district, Kabul, also spelled Cabool, Caubul, Kabol, or Cabul. The word Kubhā is mentioned in the Rigveda, one of the four sacred texts of Hinduism, and the Avesta. The Rigveda praises it as a city, a vision of paradise set in the mountains. The area in which the Kabul valley sits was ruled by the Medes before falling to the Achaemenids, there is a reference to a settlement called Kabura by the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire, It became a center of Zoroastrianism followed by Buddhism and Hinduism. The region became part of the Seleucid Empire but was given to the Indian Maurya Empire. The Greco-Bactrians captured Kabul from the Mauryans in the early 2nd century BC, indo-Scythians expelled the Indo-Greeks by the mid 1st century BC, but lost the city to the Kushan Empire about 100 years later. Some historians ascribe Kabul the Sanskrit name of Kamboja and it is mentioned as Kophes or Kophene in some classical writings
38.
Stamford, Lincolnshire
–
Stamford is a town on the River Welland in Lincolnshire, England,92 miles north of London on the A1. The population at the 2001 census was 21,800 including the adjacent parish of St Martins Without, the town has 17th and 18th-century stone buildings, older timber-framed buildings and five medieval parish churches. In 2013, Stamford was rated the best place to live by the Sunday Times, in AD61 Boudica followed the Roman 9th Legion across the river. The Anglo-Saxons later chose Stamford as their town, being on a more important river than the Gwash. In 972 King Edgar made Stamford a borough, the Anglo-Saxons and Danes faced each other across the river. The town originally grew as a Danish settlement at the lowest point that the Welland could be crossed by ford or bridge, Stamford was the only one of the Danelaw Five Burghs not to become a county town. Stamford was a town but only a very small portion of the walls now remain. Stamford became a port on the Great North Road, the latter superseding Ermine Street in importance. Notable buildings in the include the mediaeval Brownes Hospital, several churches and the buildings of Stamford School. A Norman castle was built about 1075 and apparently demolished in 1484, the site stood derelict until the late twentieth century when it was built over and now includes a bus station and a modern housing development. A small part of the wall survives at the junction of Castle Dyke. Stamford has been hosting a fair since the Middle Ages. Stamford fair is mentioned in Shakespeares Henry IV part 2, the mid-Lent fair is the largest street fair in Lincolnshire and one of the largest in the country. On 7 March 1190, crusaders at the fair led a pogrom, for over 600 years Stamford was the site of the Stamford Bull Run festival, held annually on 13 November, St Brices day, until 1839. According to local tradition, the custom was started by William de Warenne, 5th Earl of Surrey, some butchers came to part the combatants and one of the bulls ran into the town. Stamford Museum was in a Victorian building in Broad Street from 1980 to 2011, in June 2011 it closed because of Lincolnshire County Council budget cuts. Some of the exhibits have been relocated to the Discover Stamford area at the towns library. Stamford is part of the Parliamentary constituency of Grantham and Stamford, the incumbent Member of Parliament is the Conservative, Nick Boles
39.
Lincolnshire
–
Lincolnshire is a county in the east of England. It also borders Northamptonshire in the south for just 20 yards, Englands shortest county boundary, the county town is Lincoln, where the county council has its headquarters. The ceremonial county of Lincolnshire is composed of the county of Lincolnshire. Therefore, part of the county is in the Yorkshire and the Humber region of England. The county is the second-largest of the English ceremonial counties and one that is predominantly agricultural in land use, the county is fifth largest of the two-tier counties, as the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire are not included. The county can be broken down into a number of geographical sub-regions including, Lincolnshire derived from the merging of the territory of the ancient Kingdom of Lindsey with that controlled by the Danelaw borough of Stamford. For some time the county was called Lindsey, and it is recorded as such in the 11th-century Domesday Book. In 1888 when county councils were set up, Lindsey, Holland and these survived until 1974, when Holland, Kesteven, and most of Lindsey were unified into Lincolnshire. A local government reform in 1996 abolished Humberside, and the south of the Humber was allocated to the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire. These two areas became part of Lincolnshire for ceremonial such as the Lord-Lieutenancy, but are not covered by the Lincolnshire police and are in the Yorkshire. The remaining districts of Lincolnshire are Boston, East Lindsey, Lincoln, North Kesteven, South Holland, South Kesteven and they are part of the East Midlands region. Lincolnshire is home to Woolsthorpe Manor, birthplace and home of Sir Isaac Newton and he attended The Kings School, Grantham and its library has preserved his signature, applied to a window sill when he was a teenager. Lincolnshire is an area, growing large amounts of wheat, barley, sugar beet. In South Lincolnshire, where the soil is rich in nutrients, some of the most common crops include potatoes, cabbages, cauliflowers. Most such companies are long gone, and Lincolnshire is no longer an engineering centre, however, as a result of the current economic climate some food production facilities have closed down, this has caused some reduction in the levels of migrant workers. The large number of people from Portugal is still obvious in the town of Boston. A coalition of Conservatives, Liberal Democrats and Independents currently controls Lincolnshire County Council, the Conservative Party comfortably controlled the County Council following the 2009 local elections, in which they increased their majority to 43 seats. The Labour Party lost a total of 15 seats including 7 in Lincoln, the Lincolnshire Independents gained a total of four seats, although one of their number moved to the Conservative group during 2010, increasing the number of Conservative seats to 61
40.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
41.
Key Publishing
–
Key Publishing is a magazine publishing company specialising in aviation titles, based in Stamford, Lincolnshire, England. Airliner World was launched in 1999, in 2005 it launched Airports of the World. And in the year it bought PC Pilot. PC Pilot is the worlds best selling flight simulation magazine, in December 2006, their offices were burgled, with ten computers being stolen. In October 2009, it bought Spains leading aviation magazine Avion Revue, formerly owned by Motor Presse - Ibérica. This magazine, along with Avion & Piloto, is published by Key Publishing Spain, in March 2010, it bought the title Aviation News. Aviation News is Britains longest established monthly aviation journal, Airfix Model World launched on 4 November 2010. in partnership with Airfix. In March 2012, Key Publishing acquired several magazines previously published by Ian Allan, titles included Modern Railways, Railways Illustrated, Vintage Roadscene, Hornby Magazine, Combat Aircraft, Classic Aircraft, and Buses. As well as its core titles, which are some of the best known in the aviation world and it produces the directories for the Society of British Aircraft Companies and the British Aviation Group. Archant Bourne Publishing Group EMAP Janes Information Group Official website Special publications Aviation forums AirForces Intelligence Key Aero
42.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
