1.
City
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A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
4.
Arizona
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Arizona is a state in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the Western United States and the Mountain West states and it is the sixth largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix, Arizona is one of the Four Corners states. It has borders with New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, California, and Mexico, Arizonas border with Mexico is 389 miles long, on the northern border of the Mexican states of Sonora and Baja California. Arizona is the 48th state and last of the states to be admitted to the Union. Historically part of the territory of Alta California in New Spain, after being defeated in the Mexican–American War, Mexico ceded much of this territory to the United States in 1848. The southernmost portion of the state was acquired in 1853 through the Gadsden Purchase, Southern Arizona is known for its desert climate, with very hot summers and mild winters. There are ski resorts in the areas of Flagstaff, Alpine, in addition to the Grand Canyon National Park, there are several national forests, national parks, and national monuments. To the European settlers, their pronunciation sounded like Arissona, the area is still known as alĭ ṣonak in the Oodham language. Another possible origin is the Basque phrase haritz ona, as there were numerous Basque sheepherders in the area, There is a misconception that the states name originated from the Spanish term Árida Zona. See also lists of counties, islands, rivers, lakes, state parks, national parks, Arizona is in the Southwestern United States as one of the Four Corners states. Arizona is the sixth largest state by area, ranked after New Mexico, of the states 113,998 square miles, approximately 15% is privately owned. The remaining area is public forest and park land, state trust land, Arizona is well known for its desert Basin and Range region in the states southern portions, which is rich in a landscape of xerophyte plants such as the cactus. This regions topography was shaped by volcanism, followed by the cooling-off. Its climate has hot summers and mild winters. The state is well known for its pine-covered north-central portion of the high country of the Colorado Plateau. Like other states of the Southwest United States, Arizona has an abundance of mountains, despite the states aridity, 27% of Arizona is forest, a percentage comparable to modern-day France or Germany. The worlds largest stand of pine trees is in Arizona
5.
Santa Cruz County, Arizona
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Santa Cruz is a county in southern Arizona. As of the 2015 census, its population is 46,461, the county was established in 1899. It borders between southern Arizona and northwestern Mexicos Sonora state, Santa Cruz County comprises the Nogales, AZ Micropolitan Statistical Area, which is also included in the Tucson-Nogales, AZ Combined Statistical Area. Santa Cruz County contains many vineyards, Santa Cruz County, formed on March 15,1899, out of what was then Pima County, is named after the Santa Cruz River, which was named in the late 17th century by Father Kino. Santa Cruz means holy cross in Spanish, after that Father Kino built the famous mission which still stands today at the Tumacácori National Historical Park. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,238 square miles. It is the smallest county by area in Arizona, the population density was 31 people per square mile. There were 13,036 housing units at a density of 10 per square mile. 80. 78% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,79. 71% of the population reported speaking Spanish at home, while 19. 51% speak English. 16. 50% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 3.23 and the average family size was 3.66. In the county, the population was out with 33. 60% under the age of 18,8. 20% from 18 to 24,26. 60% from 25 to 44,20. 80% from 45 to 64. The median age was 32 years, for every 100 females there were 91.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.20 males, the median income for a household in the county was $29,710, and the median income for a family was $32,057. Males had an income of $27,972 versus $21,107 for females. The per capita income for the county was $13,278, about 21. 40% of families and 24. 50% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29. 70% of those under age 18 and 23. 20% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 47,420 people,15,437 households, the population density was 38.3 inhabitants per square mile. There were 18,010 housing units at a density of 14.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 73. 5% white,0. 7% American Indian,0. 5% Asian,0. 4% black or African American,22. 9% from other races, and 2. 0% from two or more races
6.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
7.
Metropolitan area
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As social, economic and political institutions have changed, metropolitan areas have become key economic and political regions. The Greater São Paulo is a term for one of the multiple definitions the large metropolitan area located in the São Paulo state in Brazil. A metropolitan area combines an urban agglomeration with zones not necessarily urban in character and these outlying zones are sometimes known as a commuter belt, and may extend well beyond the urban zone, to other political entities. For example, El Monte, California is considered part of the Los Angeles metro area in the United States, in practice, the parameters of metropolitan areas, in both official and unofficial usage, are not consistent. Population figures given for one area can vary by millions. A polycentric metropolitan area is one not connected by continuous development or conurbation, in defining a metropolitan area, it is sufficient that a city or cities form a nucleus that other areas have a high degree of integration with. The Australian Bureau of Statistics defines statistical divisions as areas under the influence of one or more major towns or a major city. However, this definition has become obsolete with the conurbation of several statistical divisions into a larger metropolitan areas. In Brazil, metropolitan areas are called metropolitan regions, each State defines its own legislation for the creation, definition and organization of a metropolitan region. The creation of a region is not intended for any statistical purpose, although the Brazilian Institute of Geography. Their main purpose is to allow for a management of public policies of common interest to all cities involved. They dont have political, electoral or jurisdictional power whatsoever, so living in a metropolitan region do not elect representatives for them. Statistics Canada defines a metropolitan area as an area consisting of one or more adjacent municipalities situated around a major urban core. To form a CMA, the area must have a population of at least 100,000. To be included in the CMA, adjacent municipalities must have a degree of integration with the core. As of the Canada 2011 Census, there were 33 CMAs in Canada, including six with a population over one million—Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary and Edmonton. In Denmark the only area is Greater Copenhagen, consisting of the Capital Region of Denmark along with the neighboring regions Region Zealand. Greater Copenhagen has an population of 1.25 million people
8.
Mountain Time Zone
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The clock time in this zone is based on the mean solar time at the 105th meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory. In the United States, the specification for the location of time zones. In the United States and Canada, this zone is generically called Mountain Time. Specifically, it is Mountain Standard Time when observing standard time, the term refers to the fact that the Rocky Mountains, which range from northwestern Canada to the US state of New Mexico, are located almost entirely in the time zone. In Mexico, this zone is known as the Pacific Zone. In the United States and Canada, the Mountain Time Zone is one ahead of the Pacific Time Zone and one hour behind the Central Time Zone. Sonora in Mexico and most of Arizona in the United States do not observe daylight saving time, and during the spring, summer, and autumn months they are on the same time as Pacific Daylight Time. The Navajo Nation, most of which lies within Arizona, does observe DST, although the Hopi Nation, as well as some Arizona state offices lying within the Navajo Nation, the largest city in the Mountain Time Zone is Phoenix, Arizona. TV broadcasting in the Mountain Time Zone is typically tape-delayed one hour, sonora – no daylight saving time, always on MST. Sinaloa Revillagigedo Islands, three of the four islands have the time as Mountain Time Zone, Isla Socorro, San Benedicto Island. The following states or areas are part of the Mountain Time Zone, Arizona – no daylight saving time, always on MST, except on the Navajo Nation. Colorado Idaho – southern half, south of the Salmon River Kansas – only the counties of Sherman, Wallace, Greeley and Hamilton, the remaining three counties that border Colorado, Cheyenne, Morton and Stanton, observe Central Time, as do all other Kansas counties. However, the state of Oklahoma is officially in the Central Time Zone. Additionally, northwestern Culberson County, Texas unofficially observes Mountain Time
9.
Daylight savings time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
10.
ZIP Code
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ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
11.
Area code 520
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North American area code 520 is a state of Arizona telephone area code serving Tucson and most of the southeastern part of the state. It was created in a split from area code 602 on March 19,1995, previously,602 had been the sole area code for the entire state of Arizona since the introduction of area codes in 1947. With Arizonas rapid expansion during the half of the 20th century. However, the split was hastened by the proliferation of cell phones, originally,520 encompassed the entire state outside the Phoenix metropolitan area, as well as a few outer portions of western and southern Maricopa County. It completely bordered 602, which was retained by most of the Phoenix area, within two years of its creation, however,520 was already close to exhaustion due to the rapid growth of the Tucson area as well as the proliferation of cell phones and pagers. In 2001, the northern and western portions of the old 520 split off as area code 928, cochise Maricopa Pima Pinal Santa Cruz NANPA Area Code Map of Arizona
12.
County seat
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A county seat is an administrative center, seat of government, or capital city of a county or civil parish. The term is used in the United States, Canada, Romania, China, in the United Kingdom and Ireland, county towns have a similar function. In the United States, counties are the subdivisions of a state. Depending on the state, counties may provide services to the public, impose taxes. Some types of subdivisions, such as townships, may be incorporated or unincorporated. The city, town, or populated place that houses county government is known as the seat of its respective county, a county seat is usually, but not always, an incorporated municipality. The exceptions include the county seats of counties that have no incorporated municipalities within their borders, such as Arlington County, Virginia, likewise, some county seats may not be incorporated in their own right, but are located within incorporated municipalities. For example, Cape May Court House, New Jersey, though unincorporated, is a section of Middle Township, in some of the colonial states, county seats include or formerly included Court House as part of their name. Most counties have only one county seat, an example is Harrison County, Mississippi, which lists both Biloxi and Gulfport as county seats. The practice of multiple county seat towns dates from the days when travel was difficult, there have been few efforts to eliminate the two-seat arrangement, since a county seat is a source of pride for the towns involved. There are 36 counties with multiple county seats in 11 states, Coffee County, for example, the official county seat is Greensboro, but an additional courthouse has been located in nearby High Point since 1938. For example, Clearwater is the county seat of Pinellas County, Florida, in New England, the town, not the county, is the primary division of local government. Historically, counties in this region have served mainly as dividing lines for the judicial systems. Connecticut and Rhode Island have no county level of government and thus no county seats, in Vermont, Massachusetts, and Maine the county seats are legally designated shire towns. County government consists only of a Superior Court and Sheriff, both located in the shire town. Bennington County has two towns, but the Sheriff is located in Bennington. In Massachusetts, most government functions which would otherwise be performed by county governments in other states are performed by town governments. As such, Massachusetts has dissolved many of its county governments, two counties in South Dakota have their county seat and government services centered in a neighboring county
13.
Nogales, Sonora
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Heroica Nogales, more commonly known as Nogales, is a city and the county seat of the Municipality of Nogales. It is located on the border of the Mexican state of Sonora. The city is abutted on its north by the city of Nogales, Arizona, United States, the independent Nogales Municipality, which included the town of Nogales, was established on July 11,1884. The Nogales Municipality covers an area of 1,675 km². Nogales was declared a city within the Municipality on January 1,1920, after the initial shooting, reinforcements from both sides rushed to the border. For the Americans, the reinforcements were the 10th Cavalry, off-duty 35th Regimental soldiers, hostilities quickly escalated and several soldiers were killed and others wounded on both sides. The mayor of Nogales, Sonora, Felix B, peñaloza was killed when waving a white truce flag/handkerchief with his cane. The main result of battle was the building of the first permanent border fence between the two cities of Nogales. Though largely unheard of in the U. S, early in March 1929, the Escobarista Rebellion exploded in Nogales, sponsored by Obregonistas, supporters of Mexican president Álvaro Obregón, who had been assassinated on July 17,1928. General Manuel Aguirre, commanding the rebellious 64th Regiment, took power without firing a shot and it dropped a few bombs over Nogales without doing any damage, while the rebels fought back with machine guns from the roofs without doing any damage to the airplane. There was only one casualty, a woman who was scared by an explosion and had a heart attack. That same month, a man appeared at night driving a tank on Morley Street on the U. S. side. It seems that the tank had been bought in 1927 for fighting the Yaquis, Nogales has a Mediterranean climate, with warm summers and cool winters, often presenting freezing temperatures. As of 2000, the census reported that the City of Nogales had a population of 159,103 people, by the 2005 census the official population of the city was 189,759, and that of Nogales Municipality was 193,517. At the latest census in 2010, the numbers were 212,533 for the City of Nogales. The city and the municipality both rank third in the state in population, after Hermosillo and Ciudad Obregón, the municipality includes many outlying but small rural communities. The only other localities with over 1,000 inhabitants are La Mesa 31°09′35″N 110°58′28″W, Nogales is served by Nogales International Airport. Manufacturing now accounts for 55% of the gross domestic product. Nogales is known for its recent enormous population growth which covers the hills along the central narrow north-south valley, dispersed among the houses, the visitor will find a mixture of factories, stores, etc
14.
Sonora
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Sonora, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Sonora, is one of 31 states that, with Mexico City, comprise the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It is divided into 72 municipalities, the city is Hermosillo. Sonora is located in Northwest Mexico, bordered by the states of Chihuahua to the east, Baja California to the northwest and Sinaloa to the south. To the north, it shares the U. S. –Mexico border with the states of Arizona and New Mexico, and on the west has a significant share of the coastline of the Gulf of California. Sonoras natural geography is divided into three parts, the Sierra Madre Occidental in the east of the state, plains and rolling hills in the center, and the coast on the Gulf of California. It is primarily arid or semiarid deserts and grasslands, with only the highest elevations having sufficient rainfall to support other types of vegetation, Sonora is home to eight indigenous peoples, including the Mayo, the Yaqui, and Seri. It has been important for its agriculture, livestock, and mining since the colonial period. With the Gadsden Purchase, Sonora lost more than a quarter of its territory, from the 20th century to the present, industry, tourism, and agribusiness have dominated the economy, attracting migration from other parts of Mexico. Several theories exist as to the origin of the name Sonora and they encountered the Opata, who could not pronounce Señora, instead saying Senora or Sonora. A third theory, written by Father Cristóbal de Cañas in 1730, states that the name comes from the word for a water well, sonot. The first record of the name Sonora comes from explorer Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, Francisco de Ibarra also traveled through the area in 1567 and referred to the Valles de Señora. Evidence of human existence in the dates back over 10,000 years. The first humans were hunter gatherers who used tools made from stones, seashells. During much of the period, the environmental conditions were less severe than they are today, with similar. The oldest Clovis culture site in North America is believed to be El Fin del Mundo in northwestern Sonora and it was discovered during a 2007 survey. It features occupation dating around 13,390 calibrated years BP, in 2011, remains of Gomphothere were found, the evidence suggests that humans did in fact kill two of them here. Agriculture first appeared around 400 BCE and 200 CE in the river valleys, the lowland central coast, however, seems never truly to have adopted agriculture. Because Sonora and much of the northwest does not share many of the traits of that area
15.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
16.
Interstate 19
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Interstate 19 is an intrastate Interstate Highway located entirely within the U. S. state of Arizona. I-19 travels from Nogales, roughly 300 feet from the Mexican border, to Tucson, the highway also travels through the cities of Rio Rico, Green Valley, and Sahuarita. Having a total length of just over 63 miles, I-19 is the fourth-shortest primary Interstate Highway in the contiguous 48 states, where only I-97, I-86, and I-2 are shorter. While the highway is short, it is an important corridor, serving as a fast route from Tucson. The highway is a portion of the United States section of the CANAMEX Corridor and it has interchanges with two other state highways near the southern end of the route, State Route 189 at exit 4 and SR289 at exit 12. For several miles near Amado and Green Valley, the view from I-19 provides scenic views of Madera Canyon. Just before entering Tucson, I-19 passes through the section of the San Xavier Indian Reservation where it makes its only crossing of the Santa Cruz River. As I-19 enters the Tucson city limits, it has an interchange with SR86 at exit 99 before reaching its terminus at an interchange with I-10. Most of the time, much of the river is dry, the first sections of Interstate 19 to be opened to traffic were a three-mile stub, from I-10 to Valencia Road, in 1962 and a two-mile stretch in Green Valley in 1963. The freeway between Rio Rico and Nogales, Arizona was completed in 1974, the major section between Green Valley and Rio Rico was finished in 1978. The official completion date of the I-19 segment between Tucson and Green Valley was February 12,1972, a 1978 project report for the Arizona Department of Transportation lists entire I-19 project as completed, which includes segments between Green Valley and Nogales, Arizona. I-19 is unique among US Interstates, because signed distances are given in meters or kilometers, however, the speed limit signs give speeds in miles per hour. I-19 had originally signed as it was constructed, in a series of small signing contracts that used customary units. The signing scheme used in 1980 provided explicit units on advance guide signs, the expressions on advance guide signs were of the form 2 km for distances over 1 kilometer and 500 m for distances under 1 kilometer, with no provision for fractional kilometrages. The exception was a handful of advance guide signs for the SR86 exit and these speed signs all had explicit units, with km/h below the circle enclosing the limit value. However, the signs were cancelled by change order and not installed. Information signs, to three designs, were also placed at various locations on or near I-19 to advise motorists that the highway was signed in metric. Notwithstanding the metric legends, the plans were dimensioned entirely in feet
17.
Arizona Sun Corridor
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The Arizona Sun Corridor, shortened Sun Corridor, is a megaregion, or megapolitan area, in the southern area of the U. S. state of Arizona. The Sun Corridor is equivalent to Indiana in both size and population and it is one of the fastest growing conurbations in the country and is speculated to double its population by 2040. The largest metropolitan areas are the Phoenix metropolitan area - Valley of the Sun -, the regions populace is nestled in the valley of a desert environment. Similar to Southern California, the area extends into Mexico, reaching the communities of Nogales. Its population is composed of a total of five areas, Phoenix, Tucson, Prescott, Sierra Vista-Douglas. Out of these, two are metropolitan areas with over 1,000,000 residents, the Phoenix metropolitan area with 4,192,887 residents and the Tucson metropolitan area with 1,020,200 residents. The Arizona Sun Corridor is made up of all of Maricopa, Pinal and Pima counties, along parts of Yavapai, Santa Cruz. It is home to over 86 percent of Arizonas population, the Megaregion has an area a population that is about the same as the state of Indiana, and it is expected to grow to nearly 7.8 million by 2025. By 2050, it is projected to grow to more than twice its original size. It comprises about 2% of the population of the entire United States, the Southern California Megaregion is to west and is the nearest other Megaregion to the Arizona Sun Corridor. The Arizona Sun Corridor lies in the American Southwest, about halfway between the Southern California and Front Range Megaregions and it is shown on the map in deep blue. Intercity in the region is provided by the I-8, I-10, I-17, and I-19 freeways, as well as US60, SR87, SR90, Phoenix area arterials are set up in a grid pattern, which helps simplify transportation within the region. Tucsons streets have a similar system, amtraks Sunset Limited operates three times a week, connecting Maricopa, Arizona and Tucson. There is no other intercity rail in the region, however a high-speed rail corridor is also being studied between Phoenix and Tucson. Recently, Phoenix-Mesa Gateway Airport, previously being a base, has also become an option for low-cost carriers to fly into the Phoenix area as well. US Airways, now owned by Fort Worth company American Airlines, was headquartered and based in Tempe. However, American Airlines maintains a presence in the state due to the history with US Airways
18.
Prescott, Arizona
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Prescott is a city in Yavapai County, Arizona, United States. According to the 2010 Census, the population of the city is 39,843, the city is the county seat of Yavapai County. In 1864 Prescott was designated as the capital of the Arizona Territory, the Territorial Capital was moved to Tucson in 1867. Prescott again became the Territorial Capital in 1877, until Phoenix became the capital in 1889. The towns of Prescott Valley,7 miles east, Chino Valley,16 miles north, Dewey-Humboldt,13 miles east and this also sometimes refers to central Yavapai County in general, which would include the towns of, Mayer, Paulden, Wilhoit, and Williamson Valley. Combined with these communities the area had a population of 103,260 as of 2007. Prescott is the center of the Prescott Metropolitan Area, defined by the U. S. Census Bureau as all of Yavapai County, the Yavapai-Prescott Indian Tribe reservation is located adjacent to and partially within the borders of Prescott. Arizona Territorial Governor John Noble Goodwin selected the site of Prescott following his first tour of the new territory. Goodwin replaced Governor John A. Gurley, appointed by Abraham Lincoln, downtown streets in Prescott are named in honor of each of them. Goodwin selected a site 20 miles south of the capital on the east side of Granite Creek near a number of mining camps. The territorial capital was moved to the new site along with Fort Whipple. Robert W. Groom surveyed the new community, and an initial auction sold 73 lots on June 4,1864, by July 4,1864, a total of 232 lots had been sold within the new community. Prescott was officially incorporated in 1880, Prescott served as capital of Arizona Territory until November 1,1867, when the capital was moved to Tucson by act of the 4th Arizona Territorial Legislature. The capital was returned to Prescott in 1877 by the 9th Arizona Territorial Legislature, the capital was finally moved to Phoenix on February 4,1889, by the 15th Arizona Territorial Legislature. The Sharlot Hall Museum houses much of Prescotts territorial history, Whiskey Row in downtown Prescott boasts many historic buildings, including The Palace, Arizonas oldest restaurant and bar is still the oldest frontier saloon in Arizona. Many other buildings that have converted to boutiques, art galleries, bookstores. Prescott is home to the Arizona Pioneers Home and Hospital for Disabled Miners, the Home opened during territorial days, February 1,1911. The city was named after author William H. Prescott, whose writings were popular during the Civil War
19.
Tucson, Arizona
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Tucson is a city and the county seat of Pima County, Arizona, United States, and home to the University of Arizona. The 2010 United States Census put the population at 520,116, the Tucson MSA forms part of the larger Tucson-Nogales combined statistical area, with a total population of 1,010,025 as of the 2010 Census. Tucson is the second-largest populated city in Arizona behind Phoenix, both of which anchor the Arizona Sun Corridor, the city is located 108 miles southeast of Phoenix and 60 mi north of the U. S. –Mexico border. Tucson is the 33rd largest city and the 53rd largest metropolitan area in the United States, Major incorporated suburbs of Tucson include Oro Valley and Marana northwest of the city, Sahuarita south of the city, and South Tucson in an enclave south of downtown. Communities in the vicinity of Tucson include Casas Adobes, Catalina Foothills, Flowing Wells, Midvale Park, Tanque Verde, Tortolita, towns outside the Tucson metro area include Benson to the southeast, Catalina and Oracle to the north, and Green Valley to the south. The Spanish name of the city, Tucsón, is derived from the Oodham Cuk Ṣon, meaning base of the black, Tucson is sometimes referred to as The Old Pueblo. Tucson was probably first visited by Paleo-Indians, known to have been in southern Arizona about 12,000 years ago, recent archaeological excavations near the Santa Cruz River have located a village site dating from 2100 BC. The floodplain of the Santa Cruz River was extensively farmed during the Early Agricultural Period and these people constructed irrigation canals and grew corn, beans, and other crops while gathering wild plants and hunting. The Early Ceramic period occupation of Tucson saw the first extensive use of vessels for cooking. The groups designated as the Hohokam lived in the area from AD600 to 1450 and are known for their vast irrigation canal systems and their red-on-brown pottery. Jesuit missionary Eusebio Francisco Kino visited the Santa Cruz River valley in 1692, a separate Convento settlement was founded downstream along the Santa Cruz River, near the base of what is now A mountain. Hugo OConor, the father of the city of Tucson, Arizona authorized the construction of a military fort in that location, Presidio San Agustín del Tucsón. During the Spanish period of the presidio, attacks such as the Second Battle of Tucson were repeatedly mounted by Apaches, eventually the town came to be called Tucson and became a part of Sonora after Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821. Tucson was not included in the Mexican Cession and Cookes road through Tucson became one of the important routes into California during the California Gold Rush, Arizona, south of the Gila River, was obtained via treaty from Mexico in the Gadsden Purchase on June 8,1854. Tucson became a part of the United States of America, although the American military did not formally take control until March 1856. In 1857, Tucson became a station on the San Antonio-San Diego Mail Line. The Overland Mail Corporation attempted to continue running, however, following the Bascom Affair, devastating Apache attacks on the stations, from August 1861 to mid-1862, Tucson was the western capital of the Confederate Arizona Territory, the eastern capital being Mesilla. In 1862, the California Column drove the Confederate forces out of Arizona, Tucson and all of what is now Arizona were part of New Mexico Territory until 1863, when they became part of the new Arizona Territory
20.
Phoenix, Arizona
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Phoenix is the capital and most populous city of the U. S. state of Arizona. Phoenix is the anchor of the Phoenix metropolitan area, also known as the Valley of the Sun, the metropolitan area is the 12th largest by population in the United States, with approximately 4.3 million people as of 2010. Settled in 1867 as a community near the confluence of the Salt and Gila Rivers. Located in the reaches of the Sonoran Desert, Phoenix has a subtropical desert climate. Despite this, its canal system led to a farming community, many of the original crops remaining important parts of the Phoenix economy for decades, such as alfalfa, cotton, citrus. The city averaged a four percent annual growth rate over a 40-year period from the mid-1960s to the mid-2000s. This growth rate slowed during the Great Recession of 2007–09, and has rebounded slowly, Phoenix is the cultural center of the Valley of the Sun, as well as the entire state. For more than 2,000 years, the Hohokam people occupied the land that would become Phoenix, the Hohokam created roughly 135 miles of irrigation canals, making the desert land arable. Paths of these canals would later used for the modern Arizona Canal, Central Arizona Project Canal. The Hohokam also carried out trade with the nearby Anasazi, Mogollon and Sinagua. It is believed that between 1300 and 1450, periods of drought and severe floods led to the Hohokam civilizations abandonment of the area. After the departure of the Hohokam, groups of Akimel Oodham, Tohono Oodham and Maricopa tribes began to use the area, as well as segments of the Yavapai and Apache. The Oodham were offshoots of the Sobaipuri tribe, who in turn were thought to be the descendants of the formerly urbanized Hohokam and their crops included corn, beans, and squash for food, while cotton and tobacco were also cultivated. Mostly a peaceful group, they did together with the Maricopa for their mutual protection against incursions by both the Yuma and Apache tribes. The Tohono Oodham lived in the region as well, but their concentration was to the south. Living in small settlements, the Oodham were seasonal farmers who took advantage of the rains and they also hunted local game such as deer, rabbit, and javalina for meat. When the Mexican–American War ended in 1848, Mexico ceded its northern zone to the United States, the Phoenix area became part of the New Mexico Territory. In 1863 the mining town of Wickenburg was the first to be established in what is now Maricopa County, at the time Maricopa County had not yet been incorporated, the land was within Yavapai County, which included the major town of Prescott to the north of Wickenburg
21.
Nogales-Morley Gate Port of Entry
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The Nogales Port of Entry evolved over time, rather than being planned. A small tile-roofed inspection station was built in the 1920s and remained until substantial renovations were performed in 2010, in 2011, the Morley Gate facility was renovated to improve throughput and to provide more space and better lighting. On busy days, over 10,000 people enter the United States through Morley Gate and it is one of only two land border pedestrian-only crossing in the United States, the other is Boquillas Crossing in Big Bend National Park in Texas. List of Mexico–United States border crossings List of Canada–United States border crossings
22.
Nogales-Grand Avenue Port of Entry
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The Nogales Arizona Port of Entry on Grand Avenue has been in existence since the early 20th century. It connects Interstate 19 with Mexican Federal Highway 15, photo predates the boundary fence as well as border inspection facilities. The port of entry is named after former Arizona Senator Dennis DeConcini, the border station was completely rebuilt in 1966 and upgrades to the pedestrian gates were made by the General Services Administration in 2012. Since its inception, vehicles, pedestrians and trains have been inspected here
23.
Nogales-Mariposa Port of Entry
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The Nogales-Mariposa Arizona Port of Entry was built in 1973 to divert truck traffic away from the busy downtown Grand Avenue border crossing. It connects Arizona State Route 189 directly with Mexican Federal Highway 15, all commercial traffic entering the United States at Nogales now enters through the Mariposa port of entry. The port facilities are undergoing substantial renovation to accommodate increasing traffic and to support new equipment. List of Mexico–United States border crossings List of Canada–United States border crossings
24.
Guaymas
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Guaymas is a city located in Guaymas Municipality in the southwest part of the state of Sonora in northwestern Mexico. The city is located 117 km south of the capital of Hermosillo, and 242 miles from the U. S. border. The municipality is located in the Sonora Desert and has a hot, the municipality’s formal name is Guaymas de Zaragoza and the city’s formal name is the Heróica Ciudad de Guaymas. The city proper is mostly an industrial port, with nearby San Carlos being the major tourist attraction for its beaches, the city also has a well-attended annual carnival, which has been held since 1888. Before the arrival of the Europeans, the now known as Guaymas was dominated by the Guaymas, Seri. In 1539, two Spanish ships, the Santa Agueda and El Trinidad, arrived in Guaymas Bay. They were commanded by Francisco de Ulloa, who called the area “the port of ports. ”Some small Jesuit missions in the area were founded in the 1610s and 1620s, the Seri strongly opposed the settlement of Europeans and resisted fiercely until 1769. Juan María de Salvatierra and Eusebio Kino asked for permission to evangelize the area, in 1701, Salvatierra came to this area and established the Loreto mission somewhat inland from where Guaymas is now. To receive supplies by ship and evangelize the Guaymas Indians, the Jesuits founded another small mission on the bay and it was headed by Manuel Diaz. The Seri repeatedly attacked the San José mission, forcing it to be abandoned, the last time this mission was abandoned was in 1759. In 1767, Viceroy Marqués de Croix ordered a military offensive. After doing so, the Spanish colonials built a fort with four towers in Guaymas. No traces of the fort today, but the San José mission is marked by a church located on the road leading to Empalme. Around the same time, the colonists formally mapped the Guaymas Bay, despite the decree, no colonists settled there until the early 19th century. In the late 18th and early 19th century, there was only one inhabitant in Guaymas, called “Tio Pepe”, who was said to be a drunk. At the beginning of the 19th century, the village began to be populated by farmers and ranchers, farming was on a subsistence level. In 1811, commercial traffic was authorized, and customs were established later in 1823. Guaymas received the name San Fernando de Guaymas in 1820, ships visited the bay intermittently but only one house was here for customs purposes
25.
Opuntia
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Opuntia is a genus in the cactus family, Cactaceae. The most common species is the Indian fig opuntia. Most culinary uses of the prickly pear refer to this species. Prickly pears are also known as tuna, sabra, nopal from the Nahuatl word nōpalli for the pads, or nostle, from the Nahuatl word nōchtli for the fruit, or paddle cactus. The genus is named for the Ancient Greek city of Opus, where, according to Theophrastus, like all true cactus species, prickly pears are native only to the Americas, but they have been introduced to other parts of the globe. Prickly pear species are found in abundance in Mexico, especially in the central and western regions, Prickly pear cactus is also native to coastal beach scrub environments and low open areas of the East Coast from Florida to Connecticut/Long Island. Prickly pears also produce a fruit, commonly eaten in Mexico and in the Mediterranean region, known as tuna, the fruit can be red, wine-red, green, or yellow-orange. The first introduction of prickly pears into Australia is ascribed to Governor Philip, brought from Brazil to Sydney, prickly pear grew in Sydney, New South Wales, where they were rediscovered in a farmers garden in 1839. They appear to have spread from New South Wales and caused great damage in the eastern states. In the Galápagos Islands, six different species are found, O. echios, O. galapageia, O. helleri, O. insularis, O. saxicola and these species are divided into 14 different varieties, most of these are confined to one or a few islands. For this reason, they have described as an excellent example of adaptive radiation. On the whole, islands with tall, trunked varieties have giant tortoises, Prickly pears are a prime source of food for the common giant tortoises in the Galápagos islands so they are important in the food web. Charles Darwin was the first to note that these cacti have thigmotactic anthers and this movement can be seen by gently poking the anthers of an open Opuntia flower. The same trait has evolved convergently in other cacti, chollas, now recognized to belong to the distinct genus Cylindropuntia, are distinguished by having cylindrical, rather than flattened, stem segments with large barbed spines. The barbed spines can remain embedded in the skin, causing discomfort, collectively, opuntias, chollas, and related plants are sometimes called opuntiads. When Carl Linnaeus published Species Plantarum in 1753 – the starting point for botanical nomenclature – he placed all the species of cactus known to him in one genus, Cactus. In 1754, the Scottish botanist Philip Miller divided cacti into several genera and he distinguished the genus largely on the form of its flowers and fruits. Also, not all species listed here may actually belong in this genus, – quipá Opuntia insularis Opuntia invicta syn. O. leptocarpa MacKensen, O. tenuispina Engelm
26.
United States Census Bureau
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The United States Census Bureau is a principal agency of the U. S. Federal Statistical System, responsible for producing data about the American people and economy. The Census Bureaus primary mission is conducting the U. S. Census every ten years, in addition to the decennial census, the Census Bureau continually conducts dozens of other censuses and surveys, including the American Community Survey, the U. S. Economic Census, and the Current Population Survey, furthermore, economic and foreign trade indicators released by the federal government typically contain data produced by the Census Bureau. The Bureaus various censuses and surveys help allocate over $400 billion in federal funds every year and help states, local communities, the Census Bureau is part of the U. S. Department of Commerce and its director is appointed by the President of the United States. The Census Bureau now conducts a population count every 10 years in years ending with a 0. Between censuses, the Census Bureau makes population estimates and projections, the Census Bureau is mandated with fulfilling these obligations, the collecting of statistics about the nation, its people, and economy. The Census Bureaus legal authority is codified in Title 13 of the United States Code, the Census Bureau also conducts surveys on behalf of various federal government and local government agencies on topics such as employment, crime, health, consumer expenditures, and housing. Within the bureau, these are known as surveys and are conducted perpetually between and during decennial population counts. The Census Bureau also conducts surveys of manufacturing, retail, service. Between 1790 and 1840, the census was taken by marshals of the judicial districts, the Census Act of 1840 established a central office which became known as the Census Office. Several acts followed that revised and authorized new censuses, typically at the 10-year intervals, in 1902, the temporary Census Office was moved under the Department of Interior, and in 1903 it was renamed the Census Bureau under the new Department of Commerce and Labor. The department was intended to consolidate overlapping statistical agencies, but Census Bureau officials were hindered by their role in the department. An act in 1920 changed the date and authorized manufacturing censuses every 2 years, in 1929, a bill was passed mandating the House of Representatives be reapportioned based on the results of the 1930 Census. In 1954, various acts were codified into Title 13 of the US Code, by law, the Census Bureau must count everyone and submit state population totals to the U. S. President by December 31 of any year ending in a zero. States within the Union receive the results in the spring of the following year, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau regions are widely used. for data collection, the Census Bureau definition is pervasive. Title 13 of the U. S. Code establishes penalties for the disclosure of this information, all Census employees must sign an affidavit of non-disclosure prior to employment. The Bureau cannot share responses, addresses or personal information with anyone including United States or foreign government, only after 72 years does the information collected become available to other agencies or the general public
27.
Semi-arid climate
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A semi-arid climate or steppe climate is the climate of a region that receives precipitation below potential evapotranspiration, but not extremely. There are different kinds of climates, depending on such variables as temperature. Semi-arid climates tend to short or scrubby vegetation, with semi-arid areas usually dominated by either grasses or shrubs. To determine if a location has a climate, the precipitation threshold must first be determined. If the areas precipitation is less than the threshold but more than half the threshold. Hot semi-arid climates tend to be located in the tropics and subtropics and these climates tend to have hot, sometimes extremely hot, summers and warm to cool winters, with some to minimal precipitation. Hot semi-arid climates are most commonly found around the fringes of subtropical deserts, hot semi-arid climates are most commonly found in Africa, Australia and South Asia. In Australia, a portion of the Outback surrounding the central desert regions lies within the hot semi-arid climate regime. Hot semi-arid climates can also be found in North America, primarily in Mexico, areas of Texas near Mexico, cold semi-arid climates tend to be located in temperate zones or elevated portions in subtropical zones. They are typically found in continental interiors some distance from bodies of water. Cold semi-arid climates usually feature warm and dry summers, though their summers are not quite as hot as those of hot semi-arid climates. Unlike hot semi-arid climates, areas with cold semi-arid climates tend to have cold winters and these areas usually see some snowfall during the winter, though snowfall is much lower than at locations at similar latitudes with more humid climates. These large diurnal temperature variations are seen in hot semi-arid climates. Cold semi-arid climates are most commonly found in Asia and North America, however, they can also be found in Northern Africa, South Africa, Europe, sections of South America and sections of interior southern Australia and New Zealand. As a result of this, some areas can have climates that are classified as hot or cold depending on the isotherm used. One such location is San Diego, California, which has cool summers for the due to prevailing winds off the ocean. Arid Forest Research Institute Continental climate Dust Bowl Goyders Line Pallisers Triangle Köppen climate classification Wave height Ustic
28.
Arid
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A region is arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life. Environments subject to arid climates tend to lack vegetation and are called xeric or desertic, most arid climates surround the equator, these places include most of Africa and parts of South America, Central America and Australia. The distribution of aridity observed at any one point in time is largely the result of the circulation of the atmosphere. The latter does change significantly over time through climate change, for example, temperature increase across the Nile Basin over the next 30–40 years could change the region from semi-arid to arid, resulting in a significant reduction in agricultural land. In addition, changes in use can result in greater demands on soil water. Durrenberger, R. W. Arid Climates, article in The Encyclopedia of Climatology, p. 92-101, Edited by J. E. Oliver and R. W. Fairbridge, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, ISBN 0-87933-009-0. J Aridity Indexes, article in The Encyclopedia of Climatology, p. 102-107, Edited by J. E. Oliver and R. W. Fairbridge, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, blue Peace for the Nile Report,2009, Strategic Foresight Group
29.
Precipitation
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In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
30.
Juan Bautista de Anza
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Juan Bautista de Anza Bezerra Nieto was a New-Spanish explorer of Basque descent, and Governor of New Mexico for the Spanish Empire. Juan Bautista de Anza was born in Fronteras, Sonora, New Spain in 1736 and he was the son of Juan Bautista de Anza I. In 1752 he enlisted in the army at the Presidio of Fronteras and he advanced rapidly and was a captain by 1760. His wife was the daughter of Spanish mine owner Francisco Pérez Serrano and his military duties mainly consisted of forays against hostile Native Americans, such as the Apache, during the course of which he explored much of what is now Arizona. The Spanish began colonizing Alta California with the Portolá expedition of 1769-1770, the two-pronged Portolá effort involved both a long sea voyage against prevailing winds and the California Current, and a difficult land route from Baja California. Colonies were established at San Diego and Monterey, with a presidio, a more direct land route and further colonization were desired, especially at present-day San Francisco, which Portolá saw but was not able to colonize. By the time of Juan Bautista de Anzas expedition, three missions had been established, including Mission San Antonio de Padua in the Salinas Valley. In 1772, Anza proposed an expedition to Alta California to the Viceroy of New Spain, Anza heard of a California Native American called Sebastian Tarabal who had fled from Mission San Gabriel to Sonora, and took him as guide. The expedition took a route along the Rio Altar, then paralleled the modern Mexico/California border. This was in the domain of the Yuma tribe, with which he established good relations, Anza reached Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, near the California coast, on March 22,1774, and Monterey, California, Alta Californias capital, on April 19. He returned to Tubac by late May,1774 and this expedition was closely watched by Viceroy and King, and on October 2,1774, Anza was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and ordered to lead a group of colonists to Alta California. The expedition got under way on October 23,1775, and arrived at Mission San Gabriel Arcángel in January,1776, today this route is marked as the Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail. The expedition continued on to Monterey with the colonists, in Anzas diary on March 25,1776, he states that he arrived at the arroyo of San Joseph Cupertino, which is useful only for travelers. Here we halted for the night, having come eight leagues in seven, from this place we have seen at our right the estuary which runs from the port of San Francisco. Pressing on, Anza located the sites for the Presidio of San Francisco and Mission San Francisco de Asis in present-day San Francisco and he did not establish the settlement, it was established later by José Joaquín Moraga. While returning to Monterey, he located the sites for Mission Santa Clara de Asis and the town of San José de Guadalupe. On August 24,1777, the Viceroy of New Spain appointed Anza as the Governor of the Province of Nuevo México, Governor Anza led a punitive expedition against the Comanche group of Native Americans, who had been repeatedly raiding Taos during 1779. With his Ute and Apache Native American allies, and around 800 Spanish soldiers, Anza went north through the San Luis Valley, entering the Great Plains at what is now Manitou Springs, circling El Capitan, he surprised a small force of the Comanche near present-day Colorado Springs
31.
New Spain
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New Spain was a colonial territory of the Spanish Empire, in the New World north of the Isthmus of Panama. It was established following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521, after 1535 the colony was governed by the Viceroy of New Spain, an appointed minister of the King of Spain, who ruled as monarch over the colony. The capital of New Spain was Mexico City and it developed highly regional divisions, which reflect the impact of climate, topography, the presence or absence of dense indigenous populations, and the presence or absence of mineral resources. The areas of central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations with complex social, political, silver mining not only became the engine of the economy of New Spain, but vastly enriched Spain, and transformed the global economy. New Spain was the New World terminus of the Philippine trade, although New Spain was a dependency of Spain, it was a kingdom not a colony, subject to the presiding monarch on the Iberian Peninsula. Every privilege and position, economic political, or religious came from him and it was on this basis that the conquest, occupation, and government of the New World was achieved. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was established in 1535 in the Kingdom of New Spain and it was the first New World viceroyalty and one of only two in the Spanish empire until the 18th century Bourbon Reforms. The Spanish Empire comprised the territories in the north overseas Septentrion, from North America, to the west of the continent, New Spain also included the Spanish East Indies. To the east of the continent, it included the Spanish West Indies and this was not occupied by many Spanish settlers and were considered more marginal to Spanish interests than the most densely populated and lucrative areas of central Mexico. To shore up its claims in North America starting in the late 18th century, Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest explored and claimed the coast of what is now British Columbia and Alaska. The indigenous societies of Mesoamerica brought under Spanish control were of unprecedented complexity, the societies could provide the conquistadors, especially Hernán Cortés, a base from which the conquerors could become autonomous, or even independent, of the Crown. As a result, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, since the time of the Catholic Monarchs, central Iberia was governed through councils appointed by the monarch with particular jurisdictions. Thus, the creation of the Council of the Indies became another, the crown had set up the Casa de Contratación in 1503 to regulate contacts between Spain and its overseas possessions. A key function was to gather information about navigation to make trips less risky and they were accompanied by maps of the area discussed, many of which were drawn by indigenous artists. The Francisco Hernández Expedition, the first scientific expedition to the New World, was sent to gather information medicinal plants, an earlier Audiencia had been established in Santo Domingo in 1526 to deal with the Caribbean settlements. That Audiencia, housed in the Casa Reales in Santo Domingo, was charged with encouraging further exploration, management by the Audiencia, which was expected to make executive decisions as a body, proved unwieldy. Therefore, in 1535, King Charles V named Don Antonio de Mendoza as the first Viceroy of New Spain. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532 opened up the vast territories of South America to further conquests, the Crown established an independent Viceroyalty of Peru there in 1540
32.
Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail
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The Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail is a 1, 210-mile National Park Service unit in the United States National Historic Trail and National Millennium Trail programs. The trail route extends from Nogales on the U. S. -Mexico border in Arizona, through the California desert and coastal areas in Southern California and the Central Coast region to San Francisco. The friendly Quechan Indians they encountered there were growing most of their food using irrigation systems and had already imported pottery, horses, wheat, the Pueblo de Los Angeles would be established in 1781 by eleven families recruited mostly from Sonora y Sinaloa Province. It took Anza about 74 days to do this initial reconnaissance trip to establish a route into California. The return trip only took 23 days as he now had found a trail with sufficient water to land access to California possible. On the Gila river he encountered several villages of Pima Indians. These were a peaceful and populous tribe with extensive crops. In Anza’s second trip he returned to California via the Gila River path he had discovered with 240 friars, soldiers and they took 695 horses and mules,385 Texas Longhorn bulls and cows with them —starting the cattle and horse industry in California. In California the cattle and horses had few enemies and plentiful grass in all but drought years and essentially grew and they started from Tubac Arizona on October 22,1775 and arrived at San Francisco Bay on March 28,1776. Both these pueblos and missions were on the California side of the Colorado River near the mouth of the Gila River but were administered by the Arizona authorities, the settlement of Los Angeles, California involved two groups totaling 44 persons including 22 children. They passed through the new missions on the Colorado River, Mission Puerto de Purísima Concepción, the group arrived at the Colorado River in June 1781. Rivera y Moncada sent most of his party ahead, but he stayed behind to rest the livestock before continuing their drive across the desert and his party would never reach San Gabriel. In July Rivera was killed along with the missionaries, settlers. The Quechan and Mojave Indians rose up against the party for encroaching on their farmlands, included in the casualties were Fernando Rivera y Moncada military commander and former governor of California and Father Francisco Garcés founder of the missions on the Colorado River. In four well supported punitive expeditions in 1782 and 1783 against the Quechans the Spanish managed to gather their dead and ransom nearly all the prisoners, the Yuma Crossing and the Anza trail were closed for Spanish traffic and it would stay closed till the late 1820s. California was nearly isolated again from land based travel, about the only way into California from Mexico would now be a 40- to 60-day voyage by sea. The goal of the 1775–1776 trip was to establish a mission, the trail was an attempt to ease the course of Spanish colonization of California by establishing a major land route north for many to follow. It was used for five years before being closed by the Quechan Indians in 1781
33.
Gadsden Purchase
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The U. S. Senate voted in favor of ratifying it with amendments on April 25,1854, and then transmitted it to 14th President Franklin Pierce. Mexicos government and its General Congress or Congress of the Union took final approval action on June 8,1854, the purchase was the last substantial territorial acquisition in the contiguous United States. The U. S. sought a route for the construction of the southern transcontinental railway line. The financially-strapped government of Antonio López de Santa Anna agreed to the sale, the purchase also aimed to reconcile outstanding border issues between the U. S. and Mexico following the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the earlier Mexican–American War of 1846–1848. As the railroad age evolved, business-oriented Southerners saw that a railroad linking the South with the Pacific Coast would expand trade opportunities and they thought the topography of the southern portion of the original boundary line to the Mexican Cession of 1848 was too mountainous to allow a direct route. Projected southern railroad routes tended to veer to the north as they proceeded eastward, Southerners saw that to avoid the mountains, a route with a southeastern terminus might need to swing south into what was still Mexican territory. In the end, territory for the railroad was purchased for $10 million, in the United States, the debate over the treaty became involved in the dispute over slavery, ending progress before the American Civil War. In January 1845 Asa Whitney of New York state presented the United States Congress with the first plan to construct a transcontinental railroad, although Congress took no action on his proposal, a commercial convention of 1845 in Memphis took up the issue. Clay, Sr. John Bell, William Gwin, and Edmund P. Gaines, the route was to begin in Texas and end in San Diego or Mazatlán. Southerners hoped that such a route would ensure southern prosperity while opening the “West to southern influence and settlement. ”Southern interest in railroads in general, during that war, topographical officers William H. Emory and James W. Abert had conducted surveys that demonstrated the feasibility of a railroads originating in El Paso or western Arkansas, deBow, the editor of DeBows Review, and Gadsden both publicized within the South the benefits of building this railroad. Gadsden wanted to connect all Southern railroads into one sectional network and he also saw Charleston, his home town, losing its prominence as a seaport. In addition, many Southern business interests feared that a northern route would exclude the South from trade with the Orient. Other Southerners argued for diversification from an economy to keep the South independent of northern bankers. In October 1849 the southern interests held a convention to discuss railroads in Memphis, the Memphis convention overwhelmingly advocated the construction of a route beginning there, to connect with an El Paso, Texas to San Diego, California line. Disagreement arose only over the issue of financing, when California was admitted to the Union as a free state in 1850, he advocated secession by South Carolina. Gadsden considered slavery “a social blessing” and abolitionists “the greatest curse of the nation, the railway or highway would transport people to the California gold fields. The petition stimulated some debate, but it died in committee
34.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
35.
Battle of Ambos Nogales
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The American soldiers and militia forces were stationed in Nogales, Arizona, and the Mexican soldiers and armed Mexican militia were in Nogales, Sonora. This battle was notable for being a significant confrontation between US and Mexican forces during the Border War which took place in the context of the Mexican Revolution and the First World War. This occurred after the Zimmermann telegram during World War I, when the border between the two Nogaleses was a wide-open boulevard named International Street. Several previous fatal incidents had occurred in this area, which helped increase international tensions and this included the claim of German military advisors as agitators with Mexican Villa rebels, claims of racism and border politics. The access to arms and customs duties from Mexican communities along the US-Mexico border made towns such as Nogales, Sonora, the capture of the key border city of Ciudad Juárez in 1911 by Mexican revolutionaries led by Francisco I. Madero led to the downfall of President Diaz and the elevation of Madero to President and this took place during the Battle of Nogales and again during the Battle of Nogales. During the November 1915 Battle of Nogales fought between the forces of Francisco Villa and Venustiano Carranza, one US serviceman, Pvt, Little, was killed by a stray bullet as US troops guarded the border in Nogales from the violence in Mexico. The carrancistas won the battle over Villas forces despite three-way firing across the border, carrancista forces had received diplomatic recognition from the US government as the legitimate ruling force in Mexico. Villa, who had previously courted US recognition, then attacked the American border community of Columbus, although the manhunt for Villa was unsuccessful, small-scale confrontations in the communities of Parral and Carrizal nearly brought about a war between Mexico and the US in the summer of 1916. To fill in the gap, different US military units were deployed to the border, besides the obvious concern with spill-over violence along the border, US military leaders along the border carried out surveillance of German espionage activities. With the British interception of the Zimmermann telegram in 1917, the US knew well of the German Empires attempt to bring Mexico into the war on the side of the Central Powers. Additionally, the 1916-1917 Punitive Expedition vividly exposed the differences between the US and Mexico in terms of logistics, the US entry into World War I led to a mass mobilization of national resources that was soon felt along the border. US restrictions on foodstuffs limited what Nogales border crossers could take back into Mexico, in the summer of 1918 the US government threatened to close the border if Mexican authorities refused to help stop the “food running”. US involvement in the European war also led to formalization of security measures along the border, in an effort to exercise greater control over the border zone, the State Department called on American citizens to register for passports as soon as possible. These new regulations had an impact, as they halted the free transit across the open. For nogalenses who were accustomed to free passage between the two cities, these rules demanded an adjustment that led to growing hostility between citizens of the two countries. ”Although businesses in Nogales, Arizona, protested, the persons most affected were working-class nogalenses who depended on wages from their jobs in the US. In the months leading up to August 1918, US customs officials at Nogales killed at least two individuals who were attempting to enter the US along the defined border. Before various eyewitnesses, the shot and killed Mercado
36.
Agribusiness
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Agribusiness is the business of agricultural production. The term was coined in 1957 by Goldberg and Davis and it includes agrichemicals, breeding, crop production, distribution, farm machinery, processing, and seed supply, as well as marketing and retail sales. All agents of the food and fiber value chain and those institutions that influence it are part of the agribusiness system. Within the agriculture industry, agribusiness is used simply as a portmanteau of agriculture and business, there are academic degrees in and departments of agribusiness, agribusiness trade associations, agribusiness publications, and so forth, worldwide. The UNs Food and Agriculture Organization operates a section devoted to agribusiness development which seeks to promote food industry growth in developing nations, in the context of agribusiness management in academia, each individual element of agriculture production and distribution may be described as agribusinesses. However, the term agribusiness most often emphasizes the interdependence of these various sectors within the production chain, among critics of large-scale, industrialized, vertically integrated food production, the term agribusiness is used negatively, synonymous with corporate farming. As such, it is contrasted with smaller family-owned farms. As concern over global warming intensifies, biofuels derived from crops are gaining increased public and scientific attention and this is driven by factors such as oil price spikes, the need for increased energy security, concern over greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels, and support from government subsidies. In Europe and in the US, increased research and production of biofuels has been mandated by law, studies of agribusiness often come from the academic fields of agricultural economics and management studies, sometimes called agribusiness management. To promote more development of economies, many government agencies support the research and publication of economic studies. Some of these studies are on foods produced for export and are derived from agencies focused on food exports and these agencies include the Foreign Agricultural Service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Austrade, and New Zealand Trade and Enterprise. The Federation of International Trade Associations publishes studies and reports by FAS and AAFC, ray A. Goldberg coined the term agribusiness together with coauthor John H. Davis. They provided an economic framework for the field in their book A Concept of Agribusiness. That seminal work traces a complex value-added chain that begins with the purchase of seed and livestock. Agribusiness boundary expansion is driven by a variety of transaction costs, manuel Alvarado Ledesma and Peter D. Goldsmith explain the implications of weak institutions on agribusiness investment. According to them weak institutions lead to development and enforcement grounded in the moment, rather than based on precedent. The Globalization of Agribusiness and Developing World Food Systems, southern Innovator Magazine Issue 3, Agribusiness and Food Security, United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation
37.
Maquiladora
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They are an example of special economic zones as seen in many countries. In 1964, the Bracero Program, which allowed Mexican agricultural workers to work legally in the U. S. on a seasonal basis, came to an end. The maquiladoras became attractive to US firms due to the availability of labor, devaluations of the peso. In 1985, maquiladoras overtook tourism as the largest source of foreign exchange, following the 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement, the growth of maquila plants skyrocketed. During the five years before NAFTA, the employment had grown at a rate of 47%. The number of factories also increased dramatically, in the five years preceding NAFTA,564 new plants opened, in the five years following,1460 plants opened. However, the growth is largely attributable to growth in US demand. In the 1970s, most maquiladoras were located around the Mexico–United States border, by 1994, these were spread in the interior parts of the country, although the majority of the plants were still near the border. Recent research indicates that the maquiladora industry affects U. S. border city employment in service sectors, the industry had become an important source of foreign direct investment and foreign exchange for Mexico. In the 2000s, the industry faced competition due to rise of other countries with availability of cheap labor, including Malaysia, India. The biggest threat came from Chinas Special Economic Areas, since 1973, maquiladoras have also accounted for nearly half of Mexico’s export assembly. Between 1995 and 2000, exports of assembled products in Mexico tripled, Research indicates that maquiladoras post-NAFTA growth is connected to changes in Mexican wages relative to those in Asia and in the United States, and to fluctuations in U. S. industrial production. As of 2006, maquiladoras still accounted for 45 percent of Mexico’s exports, Maquiladoras, in general, are best represented among operations that are particularly assembly intensive. One of the goals of the Border Industrialization Program was to attract foreign investment. Mexican blue-collar labor is cheap and competitive with other major export countries by devaluations in the peso. Mexicans work for approximately one-sixth of the U. S. hourly rate, young women are often preferred over older women, as younger women are capable of working longer hours. Although Mexican labor law is more stringent than American labor laws, women are sometimes subjected to unsafe. Poverty is a key factor that motivates women, in particular, the minimum wage set by the Mexican government is barely enough to help sustain a family
38.
The Home Depot
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The Home Depot, Inc. is a home improvement supplies retailing company that sells tools, construction products, and services. It operates many big-box format stores across the United States, all 10 provinces of Canada, the company is headquartered at the Atlanta Store Support Center in Cobb County, Georgia, in Greater Atlanta. In terms of overall revenue reported to the U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission, the Home Depot is the largest home improvement retailer in the United States, ahead of rival Lowes. It operates out of large warehouse-style buildings averaging 105,000 ft2 with megastores operating in larger facilities, the Home Depot was founded in 1978 by Bernard Marcus, Arthur Blank, Ron Brill and Pat Farrah. The Home Depots proposition was to build home-improvement superstores, larger than any of their competitors facilities, investment banker Ken Langone helped Marcus and Blank to secure the necessary capital. In 1979, the first two stores, built in spaces leased from J. C. Penney that were originally Treasure Island hypermarket stores, two more opened not long after, and all four shared the space under the squiggly zig-zag roof with Zayre on its right side. The initial public offering occurred in approximately September 1981 and the became a New York Stock Exchange traded company on April 19,1984. The first headquarters was on Terrell Mill Road on the southeast side of Marietta, Georgia, the tallest building is approximately 85 metres high, the fourth-tallest in the Vinings area. The three buildings are marked B, C, and D—the missing building A is actually store #121 on Cumberland Parkway, in 2000, after the retirement of Marcus and Blank, Robert Nardelli was appointed chairman, president, and CEO. Nardelli had pushed hard to make the more efficient, instituting many metrics and centralizing operations, while cutting jobs, benefits. Its 2005 sales totaled US$91.8 billion, despite the 10% increase in revenue, it dropped three spots to No.17 on the 2007 FORTUNE magazines FORTUNE500 list. The Home Depot owned EXPO Design Center, a chain of home decorating and appliance stores, in 2001, it acquired distributor Your Other Warehouse, which still operates as its own division. In 2006, the Home Depot acquired Hughes Supply which was assimilated into HD Supply serving contractors, in September 2005, Home Depot Direct launched its online home-furnishings store,10 Crescent Lane, shortly followed by the launch of Paces Trading Company, its online lighting store. In mid 2006, the Home Depot acquired Home Decorators Collection, Home Depot Landscape Supply, with only a few stores each in metro Atlanta and Dallas/Fort Worth, was founded in 2002 and closed in late 2007. On January 2,2007, the Home Depot and Robert Nardelli mutually agreed on Nardellis resignation as CEO after a six-year tenure and his severance package of $210 million was criticized because when the stock went down, his pay went up. His successor, Frank Blake, previously served as the vice chairman of the board. Blake agreed to a more conservative compensation package than Nardelli. Although a longtime deputy to Nardelli at GE and Home Depot, Blake was said to lack Nardellis hard edge, indeed, Blake repudiated many of his predecessors strategies, and it has been reported that the two men have not spoken since Nardelli departed Home Depot
Kandahar, Afghanistan (since 2013)[30]
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