1.
Melbourne
–
Melbourne is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in Australia and Oceania. The name Melbourne refers to an urban agglomeration spanning 9,900 km2, the metropolis is located on the large natural bay of Port Phillip and expands into the hinterlands towards the Dandenong and Macedon mountain ranges, Mornington Peninsula and Yarra Valley. It has a population of 4,641,636 as of 2016, and its inhabitants are called Melburnians. Founded by free settlers from the British Crown colony of Van Diemens Land on 30 August 1835, in what was then the colony of New South Wales, it was incorporated as a Crown settlement in 1837. It was named Melbourne by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Richard Bourke, in honour of the British Prime Minister of the day, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne. It was officially declared a city by Queen Victoria, to whom Lord Melbourne was close, in 1847, during the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s, it was transformed into one of the worlds largest and wealthiest cities. After the federation of Australia in 1901, it served as the interim seat of government until 1927. It is a financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. It is recognised as a UNESCO City of Literature and a centre for street art, music. It was the host city of the 1956 Summer Olympics and the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the main passenger airport serving the metropolis and the state is Melbourne Airport, the second busiest in Australia. The Port of Melbourne is Australias busiest seaport for containerised and general cargo, Melbourne has an extensive transport network. The main metropolitan train terminus is Flinders Street Station, and the regional train. Melbourne is also home to Australias most extensive network and has the worlds largest urban tram network. Before the arrival of settlers, humans had occupied the area for an estimated 31,000 to 40,000 years. At the time of European settlement, it was inhabited by under 2000 hunter-gatherers from three indigenous tribes, the Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung and Wathaurong. The area was an important meeting place for the clans of the Kulin nation alliance and it would be 30 years before another settlement was attempted. Batman selected a site on the bank of the Yarra River. Batman then returned to Launceston in Tasmania, in early August 1835 a different group of settlers, including John Pascoe Fawkner, left Launceston on the ship Enterprize
2.
Leeds
–
Leeds /liːdz/ is a city in West Yorkshire, England. Historically in Yorkshires West Riding, the history of Leeds can be traced to the 5th century when the name referred to an area of the Kingdom of Elmet. The name has applied to many administrative entities over the centuries. It changed from being the appellation of a small borough in the 13th century, through several incarnations. In the 17th and 18th centuries Leeds became a centre for the production. During the Industrial Revolution, Leeds developed into a mill town, wool was the dominant industry but flax, engineering, iron foundries, printing. From being a market town in the valley of the River Aire in the 16th century Leeds expanded and absorbed the surrounding villages to become a populous urban centre by the mid-20th century. The city has the third largest jobs total by local authority area with 480,000 in employment and self-employment at the beginning of 2015. Leeds is also ranked as a world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Leeds is served by four universities, and has the fourth largest student population in the country and has the fourth largest urban economy. After London, Leeds is the largest legal and financial centre in the UK, with over 30 national and international banks located in the city. Leeds is also the UKs third largest manufacturing centre with around 1,800 firms and 39,000 employees, the largest sub-sectors are engineering, printing and publishing, food and drink, chemicals and medical technology. Outside of London, Leeds has the third busiest railway station, Public transport, rail and road communications networks in the region are focused on Leeds and there are a number of twinning arrangements with towns and cities in other countries. The name Leeds derives from the old Brythonic word Ladenses meaning people of the fast-flowing river and this name originally referred to the forested area covering most of the Brythonic kingdom of Elmet, which existed during the 5th century into the early 7th century. An inhabitant of Leeds is locally known as a Loiner, a word of uncertain origin, the term Leodensian is also used, from the citys Latin name. Leeds developed as a town in the Middle Ages as part of the local agricultural economy. Before the Industrial Revolution it became a centre for the manufacture of woollen cloth. Leeds handled one sixth of Englands export trade in 1770, growth, initially in textiles, was accelerated by the building of the Aire and Calder Navigation in 1699 and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in 1816
3.
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
–
Sidney Sussex College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in England. The college was founded in 1596 under the terms of the will of Frances Sidney, Countess of Sussex and it was from its inception an avowedly Protestant foundation, some good and godlie moniment for the mainteynance of good learninge. In her will, Lady Sussex left the sum of £5,000 together with some plate to found a new college at Cambridge University to be called the Lady Frances Sidney Sussex College. Her executors Sir John Harington and Henry Grey, 6th Earl of Kent, supervised by Archbishop John Whitgift, as of 2014, the college had an endowment of £36. m. and total capital and reserves of £108. m. By the early 19th century, the original red brick was unfashionable. H. Lyon, and somewhat at odds with the colleges original Puritan ethos, at the beginning of the twentieth century, E. H. Griffiths wrote a ten verse song dedicated to Sidney Sussex, each verse systematically identifies, then dismisses other Cambridge colleges for their faults, before settling on Sidney as the best college of all. Sidney Sussex is recognised as one of the smaller, more classical Cambridge colleges and its current student body consists of roughly 350 undergraduate students and 190 graduates. Academically, Sidney Sussex has tended towards a position in the unofficial Tompkins Table. However, the college has traditionally excelled in subjects, notably Mathematics, History, Engineering. It is also known for the standard of pastoral support from the Tutorial team. The college ranks fourth highest amongst Cambridge colleges in Nobel Prizes won by alumni, the Choir of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge was nominated for a 2013 Gramophone Award in recognition of their disc of the music of Thomas Weelkes. The choir also tours regularly, most recently to Germany, in December 2016, in the television show University Challenge, Sidney Sussex had a winning team in both 1971 and 1978–79. The 1978 team, comprising John Gilmore, John Adams, David Lidington, the college last appeared on the television show in 2015. It is known for producing a well-regarded May Ball for a smaller college, notably, students created an artificial lake and canal in 2010, when the ball had a Venetian theme, to enable punting at the landlocked college. Recent themes have included Light, and Beyond, as with many of the smaller colleges, Sidney Sussex does not run a May Ball every year, instead running a biennial May Ball, on even numbered years. On odd numbered years, the college hosted an Arts Festival. Notable guest speakers at the Sidney Arts Festival include Stephen Fry, however, for 2017 it was decided instead to hold a June Event
4.
Boron
–
Boron is a chemical element with symbol B and atomic number 5. Produced entirely by cosmic ray spallation and supernovae and not by stellar nucleosynthesis, it is an element in the Solar system. Boron is concentrated on Earth by the water-solubility of its more common naturally occurring compounds and these are mined industrially as evaporites, such as borax and kernite. The largest known deposits are in Turkey, the largest producer of boron minerals. Elemental boron is a metalloid that is found in small amounts in meteoroids, industrially, very pure boron is produced with difficulty because of refractory contamination by carbon or other elements. Several allotropes of boron exist, amorphous boron is a powder, crystalline boron is silvery to black, extremely hard. The primary use of boron is as boron filaments with applications similar to carbon fibers in some high-strength materials. Boron is primarily used in chemical compounds, about half of all consumption globally, boron is used as an additive in glass fibers of boron-containing fiberglass for insulation and structural materials. The next leading use is in polymers and ceramics in high-strength, lightweight structural, borosilicate glass is desired for its greater strength and thermal shock resistance than ordinary soda lime glass. Boron compounds are used as fertilizers in agriculture and in sodium perborate bleaches, a small amount of boron is used as a dopant in semiconductors, and reagent intermediates in the synthesis of organic fine chemicals. A few boron-containing organic pharmaceuticals are used or are in study, natural boron is composed of two stable isotopes, one of which has a number of uses as a neutron-capturing agent. In biology, borates have low toxicity in mammals, but are toxic to arthropods and are used as insecticides. Boric acid is mildly antimicrobial, and several natural boron-containing organic antibiotics are known, small amounts of boron compounds play a strengthening role in the cell walls of all plants, making boron a necessary plant nutrient. Boron is involved in the metabolism of calcium in both plants and animals and it is considered an essential nutrient for humans, and boron deficiency is implicated in osteoporosis. The word boron was coined from borax, the mineral from which it was isolated, by analogy with carbon, marco Polo brought some glazes back to Italy in the 13th century. Agricola, around 1600, reports the use of borax as a flux in metallurgy, in 1777, boric acid was recognized in the hot springs near Florence, Italy, and became known as sal sedativum, with primarily medical uses. The rare mineral is called sassolite, which is found at Sasso, Sasso was the main source of European borax from 1827 to 1872, when American sources replaced it. Boron compounds were relatively rarely used until the late 1800s when Francis Marion Smiths Pacific Coast Borax Company first popularized and produced them in volume at low cost
5.
Relative atomic mass
–
Relative atomic mass is a dimensionless physical quantity. In its modern definition, it is the ratio of the mass of atoms of an element in a given sample to one unified atomic mass unit. The unified atomic mass unit, symbol u, is defined being 1⁄12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, the mass of atoms can vary, due to the presence of various isotopes of that element. Since both values in the ratio are expressed in the unit, the resulting value is dimensionless. Within one source, it is a average over the individual atom weights present. Between sources, the weight can vary when the sources origin resulted in different isotopic concentrations. These differences are real and measurable, and can be used to identify a sample to its origin, for example, a sample of elemental carbon from volcanic methane will have a different relative atomic mass than one collected from plant or animal tissues. The well-known standard atomic weight, or atomic weight, is a usage of relative atomic mass, it is the relative atomic mass. For these sources, research reports are used by the CIAAW of the International Union of Pure, the standard atomic weights are reprinted in a wide variety of textbooks, commercial catalogues, and periodic table wall charts. They are what chemists loosely call atomic weights and it is the most published form of the relative atomic mass. Both terms are officially sanctioned by IUPAC, the term relative atomic mass now seems to be gaining as the preferred term over atomic weight, although in the case of standard atomic weight, this shorter term continues to be used. This comparison is the quotient of the two weights, which makes the value dimensionless and this quotient also explains the word relative, the sample mass value is made relative to carbon-12. It is uses as a synonym for atomic weight, in some circumstances may even be synonymous with standard atomic weight. Here the unified atomic mass unit refers to 1⁄12 of the mass of an atom of 12C in its ground state. The IUPAC definition of relative atomic mass is, An atomic weight of an element from a source is the ratio of the average mass per atom of the element to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of 12C. The definition deliberately specifies An atomic weight…, as an element will have different relative atomic masses depending on the source, for example, boron from Turkey has a lower relative atomic mass than boron from California, because of its different isotopic composition. Nevertheless, given the cost and difficulty of isotope analysis, it is usual to use the values of standard atomic weights which are ubiquitous in chemical laboratories. Older historical relative scales used either the relative isotopic mass for reference
6.
Inorganic chemistry
–
Inorganic chemistry deals with the synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds. This field covers all chemical compounds except the myriad organic compounds, the distinction between the two disciplines is far from absolute, as there is much overlap in the subdiscipline of organometallic chemistry. It has applications in every aspect of the industry, including catalysis, materials science, pigments, surfactants, coatings, medications, fuels. Many inorganic compounds are compounds, consisting of cations and anions joined by ionic bonding. Examples of salts are magnesium chloride MgCl2, which consists of magnesium cations Mg2+ and chloride anions Cl−, or sodium oxide Na2O, in any salt, the proportions of the ions are such that the electric charges cancel out, so that the bulk compound is electrically neutral. The ions are described by their state and their ease of formation can be inferred from the ionization potential or from the electron affinity of the parent elements. Important classes of compounds are the oxides, the carbonates, the sulfates. Many inorganic compounds are characterized by high melting points, inorganic salts typically are poor conductors in the solid state. Other important features include their high meilting point and ease of crystallization, where some salts are very soluble in water, others are not. The simplest inorganic reaction is double displacement when in mixing of two salts the ions are swapped without a change in oxidation state, in redox reactions one reactant, the oxidant, lowers its oxidation state and another reactant, the reductant, has its oxidation state increased. The net result is an exchange of electrons, electron exchange can occur indirectly as well, e. g. in batteries, a key concept in electrochemistry. When one reactant contains hydrogen atoms, a reaction can take place by exchanging protons in acid-base chemistry, as a refinement of acid-base interactions, the HSAB theory takes into account polarizability and size of ions. Inorganic compounds are found in nature as minerals, soil may contain iron sulfide as pyrite or calcium sulfate as gypsum. Inorganic compounds are also found multitasking as biomolecules, as electrolytes, the first important man-made inorganic compound was ammonium nitrate for soil fertilization through the Haber process. Inorganic compounds are synthesized for use as such as vanadium oxide and titanium chloride. Subdivisions of inorganic chemistry are organometallic chemistry, cluster chemistry and bioinorganic chemistry and these fields are active areas of research in inorganic chemistry, aimed toward new catalysts, superconductors, and therapies. Inorganic chemistry is a highly practical area of science, traditionally, the scale of a nations economy could be evaluated by their productivity of sulfuric acid. The manufacturing of fertilizers is another application of industrial inorganic chemistry
7.
Newcastle University
–
Newcastle University is a public research university located in Newcastle upon Tyne in the North-East of England. The university can trace its origins to a School of Medicine and Surgery, established in 1834 and these two colleges came to form one division of the federal University of Durham, with the Durham Colleges forming the other. The Newcastle colleges merged to form Kings College in 1937, in 1963, following an Act of Parliament, Kings College became the University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Newcastle University is a red brick university and is a member of the Russell Group, the university has one of the largest EU research portfolios in the UK. Newcastle attracts over 20,000 students from more than 120 different countries, in June 1851, following a dispute among the teaching staff, the School split into two rival institutions. The majority formed the Newcastle College of Medicine, and the others established themselves as the Newcastle upon Tyne College of Medicine, by 1852, the majority college was formally linked to the University of Durham. It awarded its first Licence in Medicine in 1856, and its teaching certificates were recognised by the University of London for graduation in medicine, the two colleges amalgamated in 1857 and renamed the University of Durham College of Medicine in 1870. Attempts to realise a place for the teaching of sciences in the city were met with the foundation of the College of Physical Science in 1871. By 1908, the Newcastle Division was teaching a range of subjects in the Faculties of Medicine, Arts, and Science. As the successor of Kings College, Durham, the university at its founding in 1963, in the Letters Patent authorising the transfer, the arms are blazoned Azure, a Cross of St Cuthbert Argent and in chief of the last a lion passant guardant Gules. While a Latin motto, mens agitat molem appears in the Students Union building, the university occupies a campus site close to Haymarket in central Newcastle upon Tyne. It is located to the northwest of the city centre between the spaces of Leazes Park and the Town Moor. The Armstrong building is the oldest building on the campus and is the site of the original Armstrong College. The building was constructed in three stages, the north east wing was completed first at a cost of £18,000, the south-east wing, which includes the Jubilee Tower, and south-west wings were opened in 1894. The Jubilee Tower was built with funds raised from an Exhibition to mark Queen Victorias Jubilee in 1887. The north-west front, forming the entrance, was completed in 1906. Much of the construction work was financed by Sir Isaac Lowthian Bell. In 1906 it was opened by King Edward VII, the building contains the Kings Hall, which serves as the universitys chief hall for ceremonial purposes where Congregation ceremonies are held
8.
University of Leeds
–
The University of Leeds is a redbrick university located in Leeds, West Yorkshire, England, established in 1831. In 1904, a charter, created in 1903, was granted to the University of Leeds by King Edward VII. The Leeds University Business School hold the Triple Crown accreditations from AACSB, AMBA and EQUIS, the university has 31,790 students, the seventh largest university in the UK. From 2006 to present, the university has consistently ranked within the top 5 in the United Kingdom for the number of applications received. Leeds had an income of £634.9 million in 2015/16. The university has financial endowments of £67.7 million, ranking outside the top ten British universities by financial endowment, for 2016-17, Leeds is ranked nationally between 13th and 16th. Internationally, the university is ranked as the 32nd best in Europe, Leeds was ranked top three in the UK and top 20 in the world for graduate employability, also ranked as the 5th most targeted British university by the UKs top graduate employers in 2016-17. Leeds was ranked 10th in the UK for research power in the 2014 Research Excellence Framework, the best result in the Yorkshire, the university was named the 2017 Sunday Times University of the Year, having been runner-up in 2016. Notable alumni include former Secretary of State Jack Straw, former co-chairman of the Conservative Party Sayeeda Warsi, American actor Chris Pine, Piers Sellers and five Nobel laureates. The universitys history is linked to the development of Leeds as a centre for the textile industry. The universitys roots can be traced back to the formation of schools of medicine in English cities to serve the general public, prior to 1900, only five universities had been established in England and one in Wales. These consisted of the University of Oxford, University of Cambridge, University of London, Durham University, and the federal Victoria University, Owens College was the sole college of Victoria University from 1880 to 1884, in 1887 Yorkshire College was the third to join the university. In 1831, the Leeds School of Medicine was established with the aim of serving the needs of the five institutions which had been established in the city. In 1874, the Yorkshire College of Science was created to provide education for the children of middle-class industrialists and merchants, financial support from local industry was crucial in setting up the College and aiding the students. The university continues to recognise these elements of its history, for example, the religious qualification ceased in the 1850s but the classics-based education continued at Oxford and Cambridge. When classics, modern literature and history went on offer a few years later, in 1884, the Yorkshire College absorbed the Leeds School of Medicine and subsequently joined the federal Victoria University on 3 November 1887. Students in this period were awarded external degrees by the University of London, Leeds was given its first university in 1887 when the Yorkshire College joined the federal Victoria University on 3 November. The Victoria University had been established by charter in 1880
