1.
Atlanta, Georgia
–
Atlanta is the capital of and the most populous city in the U. S. state of Georgia, with an estimated 2015 population of 463,878. Atlanta is the cultural and economic center of the Atlanta metropolitan area, home to 5,710,795 people, Atlanta is the county seat of Fulton County, and a small portion of the city extends eastward into DeKalb County. In 1837, Atlanta was founded at the intersection of two lines, and the city rose from the ashes of the American Civil War to become a national center of commerce. Atlantas economy is considered diverse, with dominant sectors that include logistics, professional and business services, media operations, Atlanta has topographic features that include rolling hills and dense tree coverage. Revitalization of Atlantas neighborhoods, initially spurred by the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, has intensified in the 21st century, altering the demographics, politics. Prior to the arrival of European settlers in north Georgia, Creek Indians inhabited the area, standing Peachtree, a Creek village located where Peachtree Creek flows into the Chattahoochee River, was the closest Indian settlement to what is now Atlanta. As part of the removal of Native Americans from northern Georgia from 1802 to 1825, the Creek ceded the area in 1821. In 1836, the Georgia General Assembly voted to build the Western, the initial route was to run southward from Chattanooga to a terminus east of the Chattahoochee River, which would then be linked to Savannah. After engineers surveyed various possible locations for the terminus, the zero milepost was driven into the ground in what is now Five Points. A year later, the area around the milepost had developed into a settlement, first known as Terminus, and later as Thrasherville after a merchant who built homes. By 1842, the town had six buildings and 30 residents and was renamed Marthasville to honor the Governors daughter, later, J. Edgar Thomson, Chief Engineer of the Georgia Railroad, suggested the town be renamed Atlantica-Pacifica, which was shortened to Atlanta. The residents approved, and the town was incorporated as Atlanta on December 29,1847, by 1860, Atlantas population had grown to 9,554. During the American Civil War, the nexus of multiple railroads in Atlanta made the city a hub for the distribution of military supplies, in 1864, the Union Army moved southward following the capture of Chattanooga and began its invasion of north Georgia. On the next day, Mayor James Calhoun surrendered Atlanta to the Union Army, on November 11,1864, Sherman prepared for the Union Armys March to the Sea by ordering Atlanta to be burned to the ground, sparing only the citys churches and hospitals. After the Civil War ended in 1865, Atlanta was gradually rebuilt, due to the citys superior rail transportation network, the state capital was moved from Milledgeville to Atlanta in 1868. In the 1880 Census, Atlanta surpassed Savannah as Georgias largest city, by 1885, the founding of the Georgia School of Technology and the citys black colleges had established Atlanta as a center for higher education. In 1895, Atlanta hosted the Cotton States and International Exposition, during the first decades of the 20th century, Atlanta experienced a period of unprecedented growth. In three decades time, Atlantas population tripled as the city expanded to include nearby streetcar suburbs
Atlanta, Georgia
–
From top to bottom left to right: Atlanta skyline seen from
Buckhead, the
Fox Theatre, the
Georgia State Capitol,
Centennial Olympic Park,
Millennium Gate, the
Canopy Walk, the
Georgia Aquarium,
The Phoenix statue, and the
Midtown skyline
Atlanta, Georgia
–
Marietta Street, 1864
Atlanta, Georgia
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Atlanta in ruins during the Civil War, 1864
Atlanta, Georgia
–
In 1907, Peachtree Street, the main street of Atlanta, was busy with streetcars and automobiles.
2.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
3.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
4.
Baja California (state)
–
Baja California, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Baja California, is a state in Mexico. It is the northernmost and westernmost of the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico, before becoming a state in 1952, the area was known as the North Territory of Baja California. It has an area of 70,113 km2, or 3. 57% of the mass of Mexico and comprises the northern half of the Baja California Peninsula, north of the 28th parallel. The mainland portion of the state is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the east by Sonora, the U. S. State of Arizona, and the Gulf of California and its northern limit is the U. S. state of California. The state has an population of 3,165,776 much more than the sparsely populated Baja California Sur to the south. Over 75% of the lives in the capital city, Mexicali, in Ensenada. Other important cities include San Felipe, Rosarito and Tecate, additionally, there is a large immigrant population from the United States due to its proximity to San Diego and the cheaper cost of living compared to San Diego. There is also a significant population from Central America, many immigrants moved to Baja California for a better quality of life and the number of higher paying jobs in comparison to the rest of Mexico and Latin America. Baja California is the twelfth largest state by area in Mexico and its geography ranges from beaches to forests and deserts. The backbone of the state is the Sierra de Baja California, where the Picacho del Diablo and this mountain range effectively divides the weather patterns in the state. In the northwest, the weather is semi-dry and mediterranean, in the narrow center, the weather changes to be more humid due to altitude. It is in area where a few valleys can be found, such as the Valle de Guadalupe. To the east of the range, the Sonoran Desert dominates the landscape. In the south, the weather becomes drier and gives way to the Vizcaino Desert, the state is also home to numerous islands off both of its shores. In fact, the westernmost point in Mexico, the Guadalupe Island, is part of Baja California, the Coronado, Todos Santos and Cedros Islands are also on the Pacific Shore. On the Gulf of California, the biggest island is the Angel de la Guarda, separated from the peninsula by the deep, the first people came to the peninsula at least 11,000 years ago. At that time two main groups are thought to have been present on the peninsula. In the south were the Cochimí, in the north were several groups belonging to the Yuman language family, including the Kiliwa, Paipai, Kumeyaay, Cocopa, and Quechan
Baja California (state)
–
Central Desert in Cataviña
Baja California (state)
–
Flag
Baja California (state)
–
Isla Partida, which is part of the
San Lorenzo Marine Archipelago National Park
Baja California (state)
–
Sierra de San Pedro Martir, with Picacho del Diablo in the center.
5.
Board of directors
–
A board of directors is a body of elected or appointed members who jointly oversee the activities of a corporation or organization, which can include a non-profit organization or a government agency. A board of directors activities are determined by the powers, duties and responsibilities conferred on it by an authority outside itself and these matters are typically detailed in regulations or in the organizations constitution and bylaws. These authorities may specify the number of members of the board, how they are to be chosen, and how often they are to meet. In an organization with voting members, the board is accountable to, and might be subordinate to, the full membership. In a stock corporation, non-executive directors are voted for by the shareholders, the board of directors appoints the chief executive officer of the corporation and sets out the overall strategic direction. In corporations with dispersed ownership, the identification and nomination of directors are often done by the board itself, in a non-stock corporation with no general voting membership, the board is the supreme governing body of the institution, its members are sometimes chosen by the board itself. Other names include Board of directors and advisors, board of governors, board of managers, board of regents, board of trustees and it may also be called the executive board and is often simply referred to as the board. For companies with publicly trading stock, these responsibilities are typically much more rigorous, typically, the board chooses one of its members to be the chairman, who holds whatever title is specified in the bylaws or articles of association. However, in organizations, the members elect the president of the organization. The directors of an organization are the persons who are members of its board, several specific terms categorize directors by the presence or absence of their other relationships to the organization. An inside director is a director who is also an employee, officer, chief executive, major shareholder, inside directors represent the interests of the entitys stakeholders, and often have special knowledge of its inner workings, its financial or market position, and so on. Executive directors often have an area of responsibility in the organization, such as finance, marketing, human resources. An outside director is a member of the board who is not otherwise employed by or engaged with the organization, a typical example is a director who is president of a firm in a different industry. Outside directors are not employees of the company or affiliated with it in any other way, outside directors bring outside experience and perspectives to the board. One of the arguments for having outside directors is that they can keep a eye on the inside directors. Outside directors are unlikely to tolerate insider dealing between insider directors, as outside directors do not benefit from the company or organization, outside directors are often useful in handling disputes between inside directors, or between shareholders and the board. They are thought to be advantageous because they can be objective, director - a person appointed to serve on the board of an organization, such as an institution or business. This practice results in an interlocking directorate, where a small number of individuals have significant influence over a large number of important entities
Board of directors
–
A meeting of a board of directors of the
Leipzig–Dresden Railway Company in 1852
6.
Northeast Power Coordinating Council
–
The Northeast Power Coordinating Council was formed January 19,1966, as a successor to the Canada–United States Eastern Interconnection. NPCC is one of nine regional electric reliability councils under North American Electric Reliability Corporation authority, NERC and the regional reliability councils were formed following the Northeast Blackout of 1965. NPCCs offices are located in New York City, New York, NPCC also has ties to non-NERC systems in Northern Canada. In terms of load served, NPCC covers 20% of the Eastern interconnections total load demand, the Hydro-Québec system, which encompasses all of Québec, is commonly considered as part of the Eastern Interconnection even though it technically is its own interconnection. It is tied to rest of the NPCC and Eastern Interconnection through four high voltage direct current ties, North American Electric Reliability Corporation Official website
Northeast Power Coordinating Council
–
The three major and two minor NERC Interconnections, and the nine NERC Regional Reliability Councils.
Northeast Power Coordinating Council
7.
Midwest Reliability Organization
–
The Midwest Reliability Organization began operations on January 1,2005, as the successor to the Mid-continent Area Power Pool, which was formed in 1965. MRO is one of eight regional reliability councils under North American Electric Reliability Corporation authority. NERC and the regional reliability councils were formed following the Northeast Blackout of 1965, mROs offices are located in St. Paul, Minnesota. MRO members include municipal utilities, cooperatives, investor-owned utilities, a federal power marketing agency, Canadian Crown Corporations, and independent power producers. The MRO has four of the six high-voltage direct current ties which connect the Eastern interconnection to the Western Interconnection, North American Electric Reliability Corporation Home Page About MRO
Midwest Reliability Organization
–
See also [edit]
8.
Florida Reliability Coordinating Council
–
The area served by FRCC was previously served by SERC Reliability Corporation. NERC and the regional reliability councils were formed following the Northeast Blackout of 1965, fRCCs offices are located in Tampa, Florida. The FRCC is a company incorporated in the State of Florida. The FRCC’s mission is to ensure that the power system in Peninsular Florida is reliable, adequate. The FRCC footprint is electrically unique in that it is tied to the interconnection on only one side, the area of the State of Florida that is within the FRCC Region is peninsular Florida east of the Apalachicola River. Areas west of the Apalachicola River are within the SERC Region, the entire FRCC Region is within the Eastern Interconnection and is under the direction of the FRCC Reliability Coordinator. FRCC members include investor-owned utilities, cooperative utilities, municipal utilities, one federal power agency, power marketers and independent power producers
Florida Reliability Coordinating Council
–
The three major and two minor NERC Interconnections, and the nine NERC Regional Reliability Councils.
9.
SERC Reliability Corporation
–
The SERC Reliability Corporation is one of eight regional electric reliability councils under North American Electric Reliability Corporation authority. NERC and the regional reliability councils were formed following the Northeast Blackout of 1965, SERC was formed on April 29,2005, as the successor to the Southeast Electric Reliability Council. On September 16,1996, the SERC member companies formerly represented by FEPCG formed the Florida Reliability Coordinating Council, sERCs offices are located in Charlotte, NC. SERC members include investor-owned, municipal, cooperative, state and federal systems, RTOs/ISOs, Merchant Electricity Generators, and power marketers
SERC Reliability Corporation
10.
Electric Reliability Council of Texas
–
ERCOT is the first independent system operator in the United States and one of nine ISOs in North America. ERCOT works with the Texas Reliability Entity, one of eight regional entities within the North American Electric Reliability Corporation that coordinate to improve reliability of the power grid. As the ISO for the region, ERCOT dispatches power on a grid that connects 40,500 miles of transmission lines. ERCOT also performs financial settlements for the competitive wholesale bulk-power market, ERCOT is a membership-based 501 nonprofit corporation, governed by a board of directors and subject to oversight by the Public Utility Commission of Texas and the Texas Legislature. ERCOTs members include consumers, electric cooperatives, generators, power marketers, retail electric providers, investor-owned electric utilities, power demands in the ERCOT region are highest in summer, primarily due to air conditioning use in homes and businesses. The ERCOT regions all-time record peak hour occurred on August 10,2015, a megawatt of electricity can power about 200 Texas homes during periods of peak demand. At the beginning of World War II, several electric utilities in Texas agreed to operate together as the Texas Interconnected System to support the war effort. Excess power generation was sent to industries on the Gulf Coast, providing a reliable supply of electricity for production of metal. Recognizing the reliability advantages of remaining interconnected, TIS members continued to operate, in 1970, ERCOT was formed to comply with NERC requirements. Throughout the 1980s, the continued to take over functions from TIS. The Texas Legislature amended the Public Utility Regulatory Act in 1995 to deregulate the wholesale generation market, the PUC then began the process of expanding ERCOT’s responsibilities to enable wholesale competition and facilitate efficient use of the transmission system by all market participants. On August 21,1996, the PUC endorsed an electric utility joint task force recommendation that ERCOT become an ISO and this ensured that an impartial, third-party organization was overseeing equitable access to the transmission system among competitive market participants. In September 1996, the change became official when the ERCOT Board of Directors initiated operations as a nonprofit ISO, in 2001, the 10 existing control areas in the ERCOT region were consolidated into a single control area administered by ERCOT. The PUC ordered ERCOT to begin developing a nodal wholesale market design in September 2003, with the goal of improving market, the order was approved on April 5,2006, and the nodal market went live on Dec.1,2010. The PUC has primary jurisdiction over activities conducted by ERCOT, three PUC commissioners, including the chair, are appointed by the Governor of Texas. The ERCOT organization is governed by a board of directors made up of independent members, consumers, the Technical Advisory Committee makes policy recommendations to the ERCOT Board of Directors. The TAC is assisted by five standing subcommittees as well as numerous workgroups, the ERCOT board appoints ERCOTs officers to direct and manage ERCOTs day-to-day operations, accompanied by a team of executives and managers responsible for critical components of ERCOTs operation. ERCOT Home Page ERCOT Press Releases ERCOT Reports and Presentations History of ERCOT Public Utility Commission of Texas Price map Current grid status
Electric Reliability Council of Texas
11.
United States dollar
–
The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
United States dollar
–
Series of 1917
$1 United States bill
United States dollar
–
Federal Reserve Notes
United States dollar
–
Spanish silver real or
peso of 1768
United States dollar
–
Obverse of rare 1934 $500 Federal Reserve Note, featuring a portrait of President
William McKinley.
12.
Slogan
–
The Oxford Dictionary of English defines a slogan as a short and striking or memorable phrase used in advertising. A slogan usually has the attributes of being memorable, very concise and these attributes are necessary in a slogan, as it is only a short phrase. Therefore, it is necessary for slogans to be memorable, as well as concise in what the organisation or brand is trying to say, the word slogan is derived from slogorn which was an Anglicisation of the Scottish Gaelic and Irish sluagh-ghairm. Slogans vary from the written and the visual to the chanted and their simple rhetorical nature usually leaves little room for detail and a chanted slogan may serve more as social expression of unified purpose than as communication to an intended audience. George E. Shankels research states that, English-speaking people began using the term by 1704, the term at that time meant the distinctive note, phrase or cry of any person or body of persons. Slogans were common throughout the European continent during the Middle Ages, crimmins research suggests that brands are an extremely valuable corporate asset, and can make up a lot of a businesss total value. With this in mind, if we take into consideration Kellers research and these include, name, logo and slogan. Brands names and logos both can be changed by the way the receiver interprets them, therefore, the slogan has a large job in portraying the brand. Therefore, the slogan should create a sense of likability in order for the name to be likable. Dass, Kumar, Kohli, & Thomas research suggests there are certain factors that make up the likability of a slogan. The clarity of the message the brand is trying to encode within the slogan, the slogan emphasizes the benefit of the product or service it is portraying. The creativity of a slogan is another factor that had an effect on the likability of a slogan. Lastly, leaving the name out of the slogan will have a positive effect on the likability of the brand itself. The original usage refers to the usage as a clan motto among Highland clans, marketing slogans are often called taglines in the United States or straplines in the United Kingdom. Europeans use the terms baselines, signatures, claims or pay-offs, sloganeering is a mostly derogatory term for activity which degrades discourse to the level of slogans. Slogans are used to convey a message about the product, service or cause that it is representing and it can have a musical tone to it or written as a song. Slogans are often used to capture the attention of the audience it is trying to reach, if the slogan is used for commercial purposes, often it is written to be memorable/catchy in order for a consumer to associate the slogan with the product it is representing. A slogan is part of the aspect that helps create an image for the product
Slogan
–
In 1995,
FDA's assertion of authority to regulate
tobacco drew heavy opposition from the tobacco community, which erupted into lawsuits and slogans urging "Keep FDA Off the Farm."
13.
Mission statement
–
A mission statement, a type of statement of purpose, is a statement which is used to communicate the purpose of an organization. Mission statements are normally short and simple statements which outline what the purpose is and are related to the specific sector an organization operates in. Other designations of the concept may include company mission, corporate mission. The mission statement should guide the actions of an organization, spell out its goal, provide a path. It provides the framework or context within which the companys strategies are formulated and it is like a goal for what a company wants to do for the world. According to Chris Bart, a mission statement consists of three essential components, Key market, Who is your target client or customer. Contribution, What product or service do you provide to that client, distinction, What makes your product or service unique, so that the client would choose you. A personal mission statement is developed in much the way that an organizational mission statement is created. A personal mission statement is a description of what an individual wants to focus on, wants to accomplish. It is a way to energy, actions, behaviors. Moreover, it can be a part of a personal statement that an individual makes when applying for a university or a job. The sole purpose of a statement is to serve as your companys goal/agenda. Some generic examples of mission statements would be, To provide the best service possible within the sector for our customers. Or To provide the best experience for all of our customers and it is important that a mission statement is not confused with a vision statement. The reason why it is important that a statement and vision statement are not confused is because they both serve different purposes. Vision statements tend to be related to strategic planning and lean more towards discussing where a company aims to be in the future. Provides direction, Mission statements are a way to direct a business into the right path, clear purpose, Having a clear purpose can remove any potential ambiguities that can surround the existence of a business. The benefit of having a simple and clear mission statement is that it can be beneficial in different ways
Mission statement
–
FEMA's Mission Statement Poster
14.
Nonprofit
–
A nonprofit organization is an organization whose purpose is something other than making a profit. A nonprofit organization is dedicated to furthering a particular social cause or advocating for a particular point of view. This is known as the non-distribution constraint, the decision to adopt a nonprofit legal structure is one that will often have taxation implications, particularly where the nonprofit seeks income tax exemption, charitable status and so on. The terms nonprofit and not-for-profit are not consistently differentiated across jurisdictions, in laymans terms they are usually equivalent in concept, although in various jurisdictions there are accounting and legal differences. The nonprofit landscape is varied, although many people have come to associate NPOs with charitable organizations. Although charities do make up an often high-profile or visible aspect of the sector, overall, they tend to be either member-serving or community-serving. e. It could be argued many nonprofits sit across both camps, at least in terms of the impact they make. For example, the support group that provides a lifeline to those with a particular condition or disease could be deemed to be serving its members. Many NPOs use the model of a bottom line in that furthering their cause is more important than making a profit. Although NPOs are permitted to generate revenues, they must be retained by the organization for its self-preservation, expansion. NPOs have controlling members or a board of directors, many have paid staff including management, whereas others employ unpaid volunteers and executives who work with or without compensation. In some countries, where there is a fee, in general. The extent to which an NPO can generate surplus revenues may be constrained or use of surplus revenues may be restricted. Some NPOs may also be a charity or service organization, they may be organized as a corporation or as a trust. Their goal is not to be successful in terms of wealth, NPOs have a wide diversity of structures and purposes. Some of the above must be expressed in the charter of establishment or constitution. Others may be provided by the authority at each particular jurisdiction. While affiliations will not affect a legal status, they may be taken into consideration by legal proceedings as an indication of purpose, most countries have laws that regulate the establishment and management of NPOs and that require compliance with corporate governance regimes
Nonprofit
–
Front building of the
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation in
Seattle
15.
Bulk power transmission
–
Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines which facilitate this movement are known as a transmission network and this is distinct from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to as electric power distribution. The combined transmission and distribution network is known as the grid in North America. In the United Kingdom, the network is known as the National Grid, for example, there are four major interconnections in North America, and one large grid for most of continental Europe. Most transmission lines are high-voltage three-phase alternating current, although single phase AC is sometimes used in railway electrification systems, high-voltage direct-current technology is used for greater efficiency over very long distances. HVDC technology is used in submarine power cables, and in the interchange of power between grids that are not mutually synchronized. HVDC links are used to large power distribution networks where sudden new loads, or blackouts, in one part of a network can result in synchronization problems. Electricity is transmitted at high voltages to reduce the loss which occurs in long-distance transmission. Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines, underground power transmission has a significantly higher installation cost and greater operational limitations, but reduced maintenance costs. Underground transmission is used in urban areas or environmentally sensitive locations. A lack of energy storage facilities in transmission systems leads to a key limitation. Electrical energy must be generated at the rate at which it is consumed. A sophisticated control system is required to ensure that the power generation very closely matches the demand, if the demand for power exceeds supply, the imbalance can cause generation plant and transmission equipment to automatically disconnect and/or shut down to prevent damage. In the worst case, this may lead to a series of shut downs. Examples include the US Northeast blackouts of 1965,1977,2003, Transmission companies determine the maximum reliable capacity of each line to ensure that spare capacity is available in the event of a failure in another part of the network. High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered by insulation, the conductor material is nearly always an aluminum alloy, made into several strands and possibly reinforced with steel strands. Copper was sometimes used for transmission, but aluminum is lighter, yields only marginally reduced performance. Overhead conductors are a commodity supplied by companies worldwide
Bulk power transmission
–
Two-circuit, single-voltage power transmission line; "
Bundled " 4-ways
Bulk power transmission
–
Power lines in Qatar
Bulk power transmission
–
3-phase high-voltage lines in Washington State, "Bundled" 3-ways
Bulk power transmission
–
Four-circuit, two-voltage power transmission line; "Bundled" 2-ways
16.
North America
–
North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
North America
–
Map of North America, from 1621.
North America
–
North America
North America
–
The
El Castillo pyramid, at
Chichén Itzá, Mexico.
North America
–
Benjamin West 's
The Death of General Wolfe (1771) depicting the
Battle of the Plains of Abraham.
17.
Wide area synchronous grid
–
A wide area synchronous grid, is an electrical grid at a regional scale or greater that operates at a synchronized frequency and is electrically tied together during normal system conditions. Synchronous grids with ample capacity facilitate electricity market trading across wide areas, in the ENTSO-E in 2008, over 350,000 megawatt hours were sold per day on the European Energy Exchange. All of the interconnects in North America are synchronized at a nominal 60 Hz, Wide area synchronous networks cannot be formed if the two networks to be linked are running at different frequencies or have significantly different standards. For example in Japan, for reasons, the northern part of the country operates on 50 Hz. This makes it impossible to form a single network. Also, even when the networks have compatible standards, failure modes can be problematic, phase and current limitations can be reached which can cause widespread outages. These kinds of issues are solved by adding HVDC links within the network which permit greater control during off-nominal events. Increasing transmission capacity and expanding the market by uniting with neighboring synchronous networks make such manipulations more difficult, SIEPAC serving 37 million customers of 6 countries of Central America. China plans to complete by 2020 its ultra high voltage AC synchronous grid linking the current North, Central, when complete, its generation capacity will dwarf that of the UCTE Interconnection. Union of the UCTE and IPS/UPS grid unifying 36 countries across 13 time zones, Unified Smart Grid unification of the US interconnections into a single grid with smart grid features. SuperSmart Grid a similar mega grid proposal linking UCTE, IPSUPS, North Africa, the Tres Amigas SuperStation aims to enable energy transfers and trading between the Eastern Interconnection and Western Interconnection using 30GW HVDC connections. High-voltage direct current Super grid European super grid Smart grid Unified Smart Grid SuperSmart Grid Tres Amigas SuperStation A Wide Area Synchronized Frequency Measurement System
Wide area synchronous grid
–
The synchronous grids of Europe
18.
Energy Policy Act of 2005
–
The act, described by proponents as an attempt to combat growing energy problems, changed US energy policy by providing tax incentives and loan guarantees for energy production of various types. The Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935 was repealed, effective February 2006, in Congressional bills, an authorization of a discretionary program is a permission to spend money IF money has been appropriated, while an appropriation is the provision of funds so it can be spent. The authorizations above will not get carried out if money is never appropriated for them, the bill amends the Uniform Time Act of 1966 by changing the start and end dates of daylight saving time, beginning in 2007. Clocks were set one hour on the second Sunday of March instead of on the first Sunday of April. Clocks were set one hour on the first Sunday in November, rather than on the last Sunday of October. Lobbyists against this provision included the U. S and this section of the act is controversial, some have questioned whether daylight saving results in net energy savings. §179D includes full and partial tax deductions for investments in energy efficient commercial building that are designed to increase the efficiency of energy-consuming functions. Up to $.60 for lighting, $.60 for HVAC and $.60 for building envelope, interior lighting may also be improved using the Interim Lighting Rule, which provides a simplified process to earn the Deduction, capped at $0. 30-$0. 60/square foot. Improvements are compared to a baseline of ASHRAE2001 standards, to obtain these benefits the facilities/energy division of a business, its tax department, and a firm specializing in EPAct 179D deductions needed to cooperate. IRS mandated software had to be used and an independent 3rd party had to certify the qualification, for municipal buildings, benefits were passed through to the primary designers/architects in an attempt to encourage innovative municipal design. The Commercial Buildings Tax Deduction expiration date had been extended twice, last by the Energy Improvement, with this extension, the CBTD could be claimed for qualifying projects completed before January 1,2014. The commercial building tax deductions could be used to improve the payback period of an energy improvement investment. The deductions could be combined by participating in demand response programs where building owners agree to curtail usage at peak times for a premium. The most common qualifying projects were in the area of lighting.2 billion over the 2006-2010 period, the CBO did not attempt to estimate additional effects on discretionary spending. The CBO and the Joint Committee on Taxation estimated that the legislation would reduce revenues by $7.9 billion over the 2005-2010 period, the collective reduction in national consumption of energy is significant for home heating. The Act provided gible financial incentives for average homeowners to make positive changes to their homes. It made improvements to energy use more affordable for walls, doors, windows, roofs, water heaters. Consumer spending, and hence the economy, was abetted
Energy Policy Act of 2005
–
George W. Bush signing the Energy Policy Act of 2005, which was designed to promote US nuclear reactor construction, through incentives and subsidies, including cost-overrun support up to a total of $2 billion for six new nuclear plants.
19.
George Westinghouse
–
George Westinghouse, Jr. was an American entrepreneur and engineer who invented the railway air brake and was a pioneer of the electrical industry, gaining his first patent at the age of 19. Based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania for much of his career, Westinghouse was one of Thomas Edisons main rivals in the implementation of the American electricity system. Westinghouses electricity distribution system, based on alternating current, ultimately prevailed over Edisons insistence on direct current, in 1911 Westinghouse received the AIEEs Edison Medal For meritorious achievement in connection with the development of the alternating current system. George Westinghouse was born in 1846 in Central Bridge, New York, from his youth, he was talented at machinery and business. At the age of fifteen, as the Civil War broke out, Westinghouse enlisted in the New York National Guard and served until his parents urged him to return home. In April 1863 he persuaded his parents to him to re-enlist, whereupon he joined Company M of the 16th New York Cavalry. In December 1864 he resigned from the Army to join the Navy, after his military discharge in August 1865, he returned to his family in Schenectady and enrolled at Union College. However, he lost interest in the curriculum and dropped out in his first term there, Westinghouse was 19 years old when he created his first invention, the rotary steam engine. He also devised the Westinghouse Farm Engine, in 1867, Westinghouse met and soon married Marguerite Erskine Walker. They were married for 47 years, and had one son, George Westinghouse III, the couple made their first home in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. They later acquired houses in Lenox, Massachusetts, where they summered, at about this time, he witnessed a train wreck where two engineers saw one another, but were unable to stop their trains in time using the existing brakes. Brakemen had to run from car to car, on catwalks atop the cars, in 1869, at age 22, Westinghouse invented a railroad braking system using compressed air. It is a system, in that any rupture or disconnection in the train pipe will apply the brakes throughout the train. It was patented by Westinghouse on October 28,1873, the Westinghouse Air Brake Company was subsequently organized to manufacture and sell Westinghouses invention. It was in time nearly universally adopted by railways, modern trains use brakes in various forms based on this design. The same conceptual design of air brake is also found on heavy trucks. Westinghouse pursued many improvements in railway signals, in 1881 he founded the Union Switch and Signal Company to manufacture his signaling and switching inventions. In 1879, Thomas Edison invented an incandescent light bulb
George Westinghouse
–
George Westinghouse, c. early 1900s
George Westinghouse
–
Westinghouse Electric Company 1888 catalog advertising their "Alternating System"
George Westinghouse
–
Aerial view of
Niagara Falls, with the
American Falls at left and the Canadian
Horseshoe Falls on the right
George Westinghouse
–
The residence of George Westinghouse in
Washington, D.C., from 1901 to 1914
20.
Thomas Edison
–
Thomas Alva Edison was an American inventor and businessman, who has been described as Americas greatest inventor. He developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and the long-lasting, practical electric light bulb. Edison was an inventor, holding 1,093 US patents in his name, as well as many patents in the United Kingdom, France. Edisons inventions contributed to mass communication and, in particular, telecommunications and these included a stock ticker, a mechanical vote recorder, a battery for an electric car, electrical power, recorded music and motion pictures. His advanced work in these fields was an outgrowth of his career as a telegraph operator. Edison developed a system of generation and distribution to homes, businesses. His first power station was on Pearl Street in Manhattan, New York, Thomas Edison was born in Milan, Ohio, and grew up in Port Huron, Michigan. He was the seventh and last child of Samuel Ogden Edison, Jr. and Nancy Matthews Elliott. His father, the son of a Loyalist refugee, had moved as a boy with the family from Nova Scotia, settling in southwestern Ontario, in a known as Shewsbury, later Vienna. Samuel Jr. eventually fled Ontario because he took part in the unsuccessful Mackenzie Rebellion of 1837 and his father, Samuel Sr. had earlier fought in the War of 1812 as captain of the First Middlesex Regiment. By contrast, Samuel Jr. s struggle found him on the losing side, once across the border, he found his way to Milan, Ohio. His patrilineal family line was Dutch by way of New Jersey and his mother taught him at home. Much of his education came from reading R. G, parkers School of Natural Philosophy and The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art. Edison developed hearing problems at an early age, the cause of his deafness has been attributed to a bout of scarlet fever during childhood and recurring untreated middle-ear infections. In his later years, he modified the story to say the injury occurred when the conductor, in helping him onto a moving train, Edisons family moved to Port Huron, Michigan, after the railroad bypassed Milan in 1854 and business declined. Edison sold candy and newspapers on trains running from Port Huron to Detroit and he briefly worked as a telegraph operator in 1863 for the Grand Trunk Railway at Stratford, Ontario railway at age 16. He was held responsible for a near collision and he also studied qualitative analysis and conducted chemical experiments on the train until he left the job. Edison obtained the right to sell newspapers on the road, and, with the aid of four assistants, he set in type and printed the Grand Trunk Herald
Thomas Edison
–
"Genius is one percent inspiration, ninety-nine percent perspiration." – Thomas Alva Edison,
Harper's Monthly (September 1932 edition)
Thomas Edison
–
Edison as a boy
Thomas Edison
–
Mina Edison in 1906
Thomas Edison
–
Photograph of Edison with his phonograph (2nd model), taken in
Mathew Brady 's Washington, DC studio in April 1878.
21.
Provinces and territories of Canada
–
Canadas geography is divided into administrative divisions known as provinces and territories that are responsible for delivery of sub-national governance. Over its history, Canadas international borders have changed several times, the ten provinces are Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Saskatchewan. Several of the provinces were former British colonies, Quebec was originally a French colony, the three territories are Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon, which govern the rest of the area of the former British North America. Together, the provinces and territories make up the worlds second-largest country by area, the powers flowing from the Constitution Act are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively. In modern Canadian constitutional theory, the provinces are considered to be co-sovereign divisions, the territories are not sovereign, but simply part of the federal realm, and have a commissioner who represents the federal government. Notes, There are three territories in Canada, unlike the provinces, the territories of Canada have no inherent sovereignty and have only those powers delegated to them by the federal government. They include all of mainland Canada north of latitude 60° north and west of Hudson Bay, the following table lists the territories in order of precedence. Prior to Confederation, Ontario and Quebec were united as the Province of Canada, over the following years, Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island were added as provinces. The Hudsons Bay Company controlled large swathes of western Canada referred to as Ruperts Land and the North-Western Territory until 1870, subsequently, the area was re-organized into the province of Manitoba and the Northwest Territories. The remaining Arctic islands were transferred by Britain to Canada in 1880,1898 saw the Yukon Territory, later renamed simply as Yukon, carved from the parts of the Northwest Territories surrounding the Klondike gold fields. On September 1,1905, a portion of the Northwest Territories south of the 60th parallel north became the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. In 1912, the boundaries of Quebec, Ontario and Manitoba were expanded northward, Manitobas to the 60° parallel, Ontarios to Hudson Bay, in 1907, Newfoundland acquired dominion status. In the middle of the Great Depression in Canada with Newfoundland facing a period of economic crisis. In 2001, it was officially renamed Newfoundland and Labrador, in 1903, the Alaska Panhandle Dispute fixed British Columbias northwestern boundary. This was one of two provinces in Canadian history to have its size reduced. In 1999, Nunavut was created from the portion of the Northwest Territories. Yukon lies in the portion of The North, while Nunavut is in the east. All three territories combined are the most sparsely populated region in Canada, covering 3,921,739 km2 in land area and they are often referred to as a single region, The North, for organisational and economic purposes
Provinces and territories of Canada
–
"
O Canada we stand on guard for thee" Stained Glass, Yeo Hall,
Royal Military College of Canada features arms of the Canadian provinces and territories (1965)
Provinces and territories of Canada
–
Alberta Legislature Building
Provinces and territories of Canada
–
British Columbia Parliament Buildings
Provinces and territories of Canada
–
Manitoba Legislative Building
22.
Electric power transmission
–
Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines which facilitate this movement are known as a transmission network and this is distinct from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to as electric power distribution. The combined transmission and distribution network is known as the grid in North America. In the United Kingdom, the network is known as the National Grid, for example, there are four major interconnections in North America, and one large grid for most of continental Europe. Most transmission lines are high-voltage three-phase alternating current, although single phase AC is sometimes used in railway electrification systems, high-voltage direct-current technology is used for greater efficiency over very long distances. HVDC technology is used in submarine power cables, and in the interchange of power between grids that are not mutually synchronized. HVDC links are used to large power distribution networks where sudden new loads, or blackouts, in one part of a network can result in synchronization problems. Electricity is transmitted at high voltages to reduce the loss which occurs in long-distance transmission. Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines, underground power transmission has a significantly higher installation cost and greater operational limitations, but reduced maintenance costs. Underground transmission is used in urban areas or environmentally sensitive locations. A lack of energy storage facilities in transmission systems leads to a key limitation. Electrical energy must be generated at the rate at which it is consumed. A sophisticated control system is required to ensure that the power generation very closely matches the demand, if the demand for power exceeds supply, the imbalance can cause generation plant and transmission equipment to automatically disconnect and/or shut down to prevent damage. In the worst case, this may lead to a series of shut downs. Examples include the US Northeast blackouts of 1965,1977,2003, Transmission companies determine the maximum reliable capacity of each line to ensure that spare capacity is available in the event of a failure in another part of the network. High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered by insulation, the conductor material is nearly always an aluminum alloy, made into several strands and possibly reinforced with steel strands. Copper was sometimes used for transmission, but aluminum is lighter, yields only marginally reduced performance. Overhead conductors are a commodity supplied by companies worldwide
Electric power transmission
–
Two-circuit, single-voltage power transmission line; "
Bundled " 4-ways
Electric power transmission
–
Power lines in Qatar
Electric power transmission
–
3-phase high-voltage lines in Washington State, "Bundled" 3-ways
Electric power transmission
–
Four-circuit, two-voltage power transmission line; "Bundled" 2-ways
23.
Electrical grid
–
An electrical grid is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from suppliers to consumers. Power stations may be located near a source, at a dam site, or to take advantage of renewable energy sources. They are usually large to take advantage of the economies of scale. The electric power which is generated is stepped up to a voltage at which it connects to the electric power transmission network. The bulk power transmission network will move the power long distances, sometimes across international boundaries, on arrival at a substation, the power will be stepped down from a transmission level voltage to a distribution level voltage. As it exits the substation, it enters the distribution wiring, finally, upon arrival at the service location, the power is stepped down again from the distribution voltage to the required service voltage. Electrical grids vary in size covering an single building through national grids which cover whole countries. Early electric energy was produced near the device or service requiring that energy, in the 1880s, electricity competed with steam, hydraulics, and especially coal gas. Coal gas was first produced on premises but later evolved into gasification plants that enjoyed economies of scale. In the industrialized world, cities had networks of piped gas, but gas lamps produced poor light, wasted heat, made rooms hot and smoky, and gave off hydrogen and carbon monoxide. In the 1880s electric lighting soon became advantageous compared to gas lighting, Electric utility companies took advantage of economies of scale and moved to centralized power generation, distribution, and system management. With long distance power transmission it became possible to interconnect stations to balance load, merz was appointed head of a Parliamentary Committee and his findings led to the Williamson Report of 1918, which in turn created the Electricity Supply Bill of 1919. The bill was the first step towards an integrated electricity system, the Electricity Act of 1926 led to the setting up of the National Grid. The Central Electricity Board standardized the nations electricity supply and established the first synchronized AC grid and this started operating as a national system, the National Grid, in 1938. In the United States in the 1920s, utilities formed joint-operations to share peak load coverage, no longer were electric utilities built as vertical monopolies, where generation, transmission and distribution were handled by a single company. Now, the three stages could be split among various companies, in an effort to provide accessibility to high voltage transmission. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 allowed incentives and loan guarantees for energy production. In France, electrification began in the 1900s, with 700 communes in 1919, and 36,528 in 1938
Electrical grid
–
The Continental U.S. power transmission grid consists of about 300,000 km of lines operated by approximately 500 companies. The
North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) oversees all of them.
Electrical grid
–
General layout of electricity networks. Voltages and depictions of electrical lines are typical for Germany and other European systems.
24.
Contiguous United States
–
The contiguous United States consists of the 48 adjoining U. S. states plus Washington, D. C. on the continent of North America. S. The greatest distance entirely within the 48 contiguous states is 2,802 miles, the greatest north-south line is 1,650 miles. Together, the 48 contiguous states and Washington, D. C. occupy an area of 3,119,884.69 square miles. Of this area,2,959,064.44 square miles is land, composing 83. 65% of U. S. land area, officially,160,820.25 square miles is water area, composing 62. 66% of the nations total water area. The contiguous United States would be placed 5th in the list of states and dependencies by area. The 2010 census population of area was 306,675,006, comprising 99. 33% of the nations population. While conterminous U. S. has the meaning of contiguous U. S. other terms commonly used to describe the 48 contiguous states have a greater degree of ambiguity. The term was in use prior to the admission of Alaska and Hawaii as states of the United States, the District of Columbia is not always specifically mentioned as being part of CONUS. OCONUS is derived from CONUS with O for outside added, thus referring to Outside of Continental United States, the term Lower 48 is also used to refer to the conterminous United States. The National Geographic style guide recommends the use of contiguous or conterminous United States instead of lower 48 when the 48 states are meant, both Alaskans and Hawaiians have unique labels for the contiguous United States because of their own locations relative to them. Alaska became the 49th state of the United States on January 3,1959, Alaska is on the northwest end of the North American continent, but separated from the rest of the United States Pacific coast by the Canadian province of British Columbia. In Alaska, given the ambiguity surrounding the usage of continental, several other terms have been used over the years. Hawaii became the 50th state of the United States on August 21,1959 and it is the southernmost and so far, the latest state to join the Union. Not part of any continent, Hawaii is located in the Pacific Ocean, about 2,200 miles from North America, in Hawaii and overseas American territories, for instance, the terms the Mainland or U. S. Mainland are often used to refer to the continental United States, apart from off-shore US islands, a few continental portions of the contiguous US are accessible by road only by traveling through Canada. Point Roberts, Washington, Elm Point, Minnesota, and the Northwest Angle in Minnesota are three such places, alburgh, Vermont, is not directly connected by land, but is accessible by road via bridges from within Vermont and from from New York. The 48 contiguous United States are, Washington, D. C. is distinct from the state of Washington, extreme points of the United States Mainland Definition of continental Definition of contiguous Definition of coterminous and conterminous
Contiguous United States
–
This map shows the contiguous
United States and in insets at the lower left, the two states that are not contiguous
25.
Eastern Interconnection
–
The Eastern Interconnection is one of the two major alternating-current electrical grids in the continental U. S. power transmission grid. The other major interconnection is the Western Interconnection, the three minor interconnections are the Quebec, Alaska, and Texas interconnections. All of the utilities in the Eastern Interconnection are electrically tied together during normal system conditions. The Eastern Interconnection reaches from Central Canada eastward to the Atlantic coast, south to Florida, and back west to the foot of the Rockies. The Eastern Interconnection is tied to the Western Interconnection with six DC ties, on October 17,2009, the Tres Amigas SuperStation was announced to connect the Eastern, Western and Texas Interconnections via three 5 GW superconductor links. As of 2016, it has not started construction, in 2016, National Renewable Energy Laboratory simulated a year with 30% renewable energy in 5-minute intervals. Results show a grid with some changes in operation
Eastern Interconnection
–
The two major and three minor
NERC interconnections, and the nine NERC Regional Reliability Councils.
26.
Rocky Mountains
–
The Rocky Mountains, commonly known as the Rockies, are a major mountain range in western North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch more than 3,000 miles from the northernmost part of British Columbia, in western Canada, to New Mexico, in the Southwestern United States. Within the North American Cordillera, the Rockies are somewhat distinct from the Pacific Coast Ranges, the Rocky Mountains were initially formed from 80 million to 55 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny, in which a number of plates began to slide underneath the North American plate. The angle of subduction was shallow, resulting in a belt of mountains running down western North America. Since then, further tectonic activity and erosion by glaciers have sculpted the Rockies into dramatic peaks, at the end of the last ice age, humans started to inhabit the mountain range. The first mention of their present name by a European was in the journal of Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre in 1752, the Rocky Mountains are commonly defined as stretching from the Liard River in British Columbia south to the Rio Grande in New Mexico. The United States definition of the Rockies includes the Cabinet and Salish Mountains of Idaho and their counterparts north of the Kootenai River, the Columbia Mountains, are considered a separate system in Canada, lying to the west of the huge Rocky Mountain Trench. This runs the length of British Columbia from its beginnings in the middle Flathead River valley in western Montana to the bank of the Liard River. The Rockies vary in width from 70 to 300 miles, also west of the Rocky Mountain Trench, farther north and facing the Muskwa Range across the trench, are the Stikine Ranges and Omineca Mountains of the Interior Mountains system of British Columbia. A small area east of Prince George, British Columbia on the side of the Trench. In Canada geographers define three main groups of ranges, the Continental Ranges, Hart Ranges and Muskwa Ranges, the Muskwa and Hart Ranges together comprise what is known as the Northern Rockies. The western edge of the Rockies includes ranges such as the Wasatch near Salt Lake City, the Great Basin and Columbia River Plateau separate these sub-ranges from distinct ranges further to the west, most prominent among which are the Sierra Nevada, Cascade Range and Coast Mountains. The Rocky Mountain System within the United States is a United States physiographic region, the Rocky Mountains are notable for containing the highest peaks in central North America. The ranges highest peak is Mount Elbert located in Colorado at 14,440 feet above sea level, Mount Robson in British Columbia, at 12,972 feet, is the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies. The Continental Divide of the Americas is located in the Rocky Mountains, triple Divide Peak in Glacier National Park is so named because water that falls on the mountain reaches not only the Atlantic and Pacific, but Hudson Bay as well. Farther north in Alberta, the Athabasca and other rivers feed the basin of the Mackenzie River, see Rivers of the Rocky Mountains for a list of rivers. Human population is not very dense in the Rocky Mountains, with an average of four people per square kilometer, however, the human population grew rapidly in the Rocky Mountain states between 1950 and 1990. The 40-year statewide increases in range from 35% in Montana to about 150% in Utah
Rocky Mountains
–
Moraine Lake, and the
Valley of the Ten Peaks,
Banff National Park,
Alberta,
Canada
Rocky Mountains
–
The Front Range of the Rocky Mountains near
Denver, Colorado
Rocky Mountains
–
The
Tetons are a rugged subrange in Wyoming
Rocky Mountains
–
Mount Robson in
British Columbia.
27.
Direct current
–
Direct current is a flow of electrical charge carriers that always takes place in the same direction. The current need not always have the magnitude, but if it is to be defined as dc. This contrasts with alternating current which varies the direction of flow, sources of direct current include power supplies, electrochemical cells and batteries, and photovoltaic cells and panels. The intensity, or amplitude, of a direct current might fluctuate with time, in some such cases the dc has an ac component superimposed on it. An example of this is the output of a cell that receives a modulated light communications signal. A source of dc is sometimes called a dc generator, batteries and various other sources of dc produce a constant voltage. This is called pure dc and can be represented by a straight, the peak and effective values are the same. The peak to peak value is zero because the instantaneous amplitude never changes, in some instances the value of a dc voltage pulsates or oscillates rapidly with time, in a manner similar to the changes in an ac wave. The unfiltered output of a wave or a full wave rectifier. In 1820, Hans Christian Orsted discovered that electrical current creates a magnetic field and this discovery made scientists relate magnetism to the electric phenomena. In 1879, Thomas Edison invented the light bulb. He improved a 50-year-old idea using lower current electricity, a vacuum inside the globe and a small carbonized filament. At that time, the idea of lightning was not new. Edison not only invented an incandescent electric light, but an electric lighting system contained all the necessary elements to make the incandescent light safe, economical. Prior to 1879, direct current electricity had been used in lighting for the outdoors and it was in the 1880s when the modern electric utility industry began. It was an evolution from street lighting systems and from gas and it was located in Lower Manhattan, on Pearl Street. This station provided light and electricity to customers in a one square mile range, the station was called Thomas Edisons Pearl Street Electricity Generating Station. This station introduced four elements of an electric utility system, Efficient distribution, competitive price, reliable central generation
Direct current
–
Direct Current (red curve). The horizontal axis measures time; the vertical, current or voltage.
28.
Western Interconnection
–
The Western Interconnection is a wide area synchronous grid and one of the two major alternating current power grids in the continental U. S. power transmission grid. The other major wide area synchronous grid is the Eastern Interconnection, the three minor interconnections are the Québec Interconnection, the Texas Interconnection, and the Alaska Interconnection. All of the utilities in the Western Interconnection are electrically tied together during normal system conditions. The Western Interconnection stretches from Western Canada south to Baja California in Mexico, there are six DC ties to the Eastern Interconnect in the US and one in Canada, and there are proposals to add four additional ties. It is not tied to the Alaska Interconnection, on October 13,2009, the Tres Amigas SuperStation was announced to connect the Eastern, Western and Texas Interconnections via three 5 GW superconductor links. In 2015, WECC had a consumption of 883 TWh. There was a peak demand of 150,700 MW. The region had a Nameplate capacity of 265 GW in 2015
Western Interconnection
–
The two major and three minor NERC Interconnections, and the nine NERC Regional Reliability Councils.
29.
Texas Interconnection
–
The Texas Interconnection is an alternating current power grid – a wide area synchronous grid – that covers most of the state of Texas. The grid is managed by the Electric Reliability Council of Texas, the Texas Interconnection is one of the three minor grids in the continental U. S. power transmission grid. The other two minor interconnections are the Quebec Interconnection and the Alaska Interconnection, the two major interconnections are the Eastern Interconnection and the Western Interconnection. The Texas Interconnection is maintained as a grid for political. All of the utilities in the Texas Interconnection are electrically tied together during normal system conditions. The Texas Interconnection is tied to the Eastern Interconnection with two DC ties, and has a DC tie and a VFT to non-NERC systems in Mexico, there is one AC tie switch in Dayton, Texas that has been used only one time in its history. On October 13,2009, the Tres Amigas SuperStation was announced to connect the Eastern, Western and Texas Interconnections via three 5 GW superconductor links
Texas Interconnection
–
The two major and three minor NERC Interconnections, and the nine NERC Regional Reliability Councils.
30.
Texas
–
Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
Texas
–
Sam Rayburn Reservoir
Texas
–
Flag
Texas
–
Texas Hill Country
Texas
–
Big Bend National Park.
31.
Quebec Interconnection
–
The Québec Interconnection is a wide area synchronous grid and one of the three minor alternating-current electrical grids in the continental U. S. power transmission grid. The other two minor interconnections are the Texas and Alaska interconnections, the Quebec Interconnection covers all of the Province of Quebec and operates at an average system frequency of 60 Hz. It connects 18 systems in the US and Canada to one electric utility company and it is operated as an independent AC grid for physical reasons. Because of its status, it is often functionally considered part of the Eastern Interconnection
Quebec Interconnection
–
The two major and three minor
NERC interconnections, and the nine NERC Regional Reliability Councils
32.
Quebec
–
Quebec is the second-most populous province of Canada and the only one to have a predominantly French-speaking population, with French as the sole provincial official language. Quebec is Canadas largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division and it also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Quebec is Canadas second-most populous province, after Ontario, most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. Approximately half of Quebec residents live in the Greater Montreal Area, the Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples. Even in central Quebec at comparatively southerly latitudes winters are severe in inland areas, Quebec independence debates have played a large role in the politics of the province. Parti Québécois governments held referendums on sovereignty in 1980 and 1995, in 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a symbolic motion recognizing the Québécois as a nation within a united Canada. These many industries have all contributed to helping Quebec become an economically influential province within Canada, early variations in the spelling of the name included Québecq and Kébec. French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the seat for the French colony of New France. The province is sometimes referred to as La belle province, the Province of Quebec was founded in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 after the Treaty of Paris formally transferred the French colony of Canada to Britain after the Seven Years War. The proclamation restricted the province to an area along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, the Treaty of Versailles ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. After the Constitutional Act of 1791, the territory was divided between Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with each being granted an elected legislative assembly, in 1840, these become Canada East and Canada West after the British Parliament unified Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. This territory was redivided into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario at Confederation in 1867, each became one of the first four provinces. In 1898, the Canadian Parliament passed the first Quebec Boundary Extension Act that expanded the provincial boundaries northward to include the lands of the aboriginal peoples. This was followed by the addition of the District of Ungava through the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act of 1912 that added the northernmost lands of the Inuit to create the modern Province of Quebec. In 1927, the border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador was established by the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Located in the part of Canada, and part of Central Canada. Its topography is very different from one region to another due to the composition of the ground, the climate. The Saint Lawrence Lowland and the Canadian Shield are the two main regions, and are radically different
Quebec
–
The arrival of
Samuel de Champlain, the father of
New France, on the site of
Quebec City.
Quebec
–
Flag
Quebec
–
Michel's falls on
Ashuapmushuan River in
Saint-Félicien,
Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean.
Quebec
–
View of
Jacques-Cartier River from Andante mountain.
33.
Northeast Blackout of 2003
–
Some power was restored by 11 p. m. Many others did not get their power back until two days later, in more remote areas it took nearly a week to restore power. At the time, it was the second most widespread blackout in history. The outage, which was more widespread than the Northeast Blackout of 1965. The blackouts primary cause was a bug in the alarm system at a control room of the FirstEnergy Corporation. A lack of alarm left operators unaware of the need to power after overloaded transmission lines hit unpruned foliage. What would have been a local blackout cascaded into massive widespread distress on the electric grid. For the next 30 minutes, to 4,40 p. m. Eventually, marie, Ontario, the shore of James Bay, Ottawa, New York, and Toledo was left without power. According to the analysis of the blackout prepared by the US and Canadian governments. In the minutes before the event, the NYISO-managed power system was carrying 28,700 MW of load, at the height of the outage, the load had dropped to 5,716 MW, a loss of 80%. Essential services remained in operation in some of these areas, in others, backup generation systems failed. Telephone networks generally remained operational, but the increased demand triggered by the blackout left many circuits overloaded, Water systems in several cities lost pressure, forcing boil-water advisories to be put into effect. Cellular service was interrupted as mobile networks were overloaded with the increase in volume of calls, Major cellular providers continued to operate on standby generator power. It was a hot day in much of the region. The high ambient temperature increased energy demand, as people across the region turned on fans and this caused the power lines to sag as higher currents heated the lines. Most of the Amtrak Northeast Corridor service was interrupted, as it uses electric locomotives, via Rail in Canada was able to continue most of its service. The power outages effects on air transport and financial markets were widespread. The reliability of the grid was called into question
Northeast Blackout of 2003
–
A streetcar left stranded by the blackout in
Toronto
Northeast Blackout of 2003
–
This image shows states and provinces that experienced
power outages. Not all areas within these political boundaries were affected.
Northeast Blackout of 2003
–
People walking across the
Queensboro Bridge in
New York City during the blackout
Northeast Blackout of 2003
–
Toronto, on the evening of August 14
34.
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
–
FERC also reviews proposals to build interstate natural gas pipelines, natural gas storage projects, and liquefied natural gas terminals, and FERC licenses non-federal hydropower projects. The Federal Power Commission, which preceded FERC, was established by Congress in 1920 to allow members to coordinate federal hydropower development. In 1935, the FPC was transformed into an independent regulatory agency with five members nominated by the President, the FPC was authorized to regulate both hydropower and interstate electricity. In 1938, the Natural Gas Act gave FPC jurisdiction over natural gas pipelines. In 1942, this jurisdiction was expanded to cover the licensing of more natural gas facilities, in 1954, the Supreme Court decision in Phillips Petroleum Co. v. Wisconsin extended FPC jurisdiction over all wellhead sales of natural gas in interstate commerce. In response to the 1973 oil crisis, Congress passed the Department of Energy Organization Act in 1977, Congress insisted that a separate independent regulatory body be retained, and the FPC was renamed the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, preserving its independent status within the Department. FERC was also given added responsibility to hear appeals of DOE oil price control determinations, as a result, DOE does not have any administrative law judges. The DOE Act also transferred the regulation of oil pipelines from the Interstate Commerce Commission to FERC. However, the FERC lost some jurisdiction over the imports and exports of gas, in 1978, FERC was given additional responsibilities for harmonizing the regulation of wellhead gas sales in both the intrastate and interstate markets. The National Energy Act included the Natural Gas Policy Act, which reduced the scope of federal price regulation, in 1989, Congress ended federal regulation of wellhead natural gas prices, with the passage of the Natural Gas Wellhead Decontrol Act of 1989. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 gave FERC additional responsibilities as outlined in FERCs top priorities, FERC is an independent regulatory agency within the United States Department of Energy. The President and Congress do not generally review FERC decisions, FERC is independent of the Department of Energy because FERC activities shall not be subject to further view by the Secretary or any officer or employee of the Department. The Department of Energy can, however, participate in FERC proceedings as a third party, FERC is composed of up to five commissioners who are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The President appoints one of the commissioners to be the chairman of FERC, FERC is a bipartisan body, no more than three commissioners may be of the same political party. FERC investigated the alleged manipulation of electricity market by Enron and other energy companies, FERC has collected more than $6.3 billion from California electric market participants through settlements. FERC regulates approximately 1,600 hydroelectric projects in the U. S and it is largely responsible for permitting construction of a large network of interstate natural gas pipelines. FERC also works closely with the United States Coast Guard to review the safety, security, the Commissioners are, Cheryl LaFleur Colette Honorable FERC has been under increasing criticism as being a Rubber Stamp for industry, and a Rogue Agency which permits projects illegally. In a July 1,2014 decision, No Gas Pipeline v. Others have directly disputed FERC’s critics by pointing out that “FERC is a creature of law
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
–
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
35.
Critical infrastructure protection
–
Critical infrastructure protection is a concept that relates to the preparedness and response to serious incidents that involve the critical infrastructure of a region or nation. The American Presidential directive PDD-63 of May 1998 set up a program of Critical Infrastructure Protection. In 2014 the NIST Cybersecurity Framework was published after further presidential directives, member states are obliged to adopt the 2006 directive into their national statutes. The U. S. CIP is a program to ensure the security of vulnerable. In May 1998, President Bill Clinton issued presidential directive PDD-63 on the subject of critical infrastructure protection and this was updated on December 17,2003, by President Bush through Homeland Security Presidential Directive HSPD-7 for Critical Infrastructure Identification, Prioritization, and Protection. The systems and networks that make up the infrastructure of society are taken for granted. Take, for example, a virus that disrupts the distribution of natural gas across a region. This could lead to a reduction in electrical power generation. Road traffic, air traffic, and rail transportation might then become affected, emergency services might also be hampered. An entire region can become debilitated because some elements in the infrastructure become disabled through natural disaster. The federal government has developed a description of critical infrastructure, in order to facilitate monitoring. Power, - The Department of Energy oversees energy supplies including electricity, oil, and gas, note that CIP in this sector is different from energy security, which is the politics and economics of supply. Information and communications, - Overseen by the Department of Commerce, most areas of life rely on telecommunications, Federal and municipal services, - Overseen jointly by Federal and State agencies. They guarantee continuity of government at the federal, state, law enforcement agencies, - Overseen jointly by the Department of Justice and the Federal Bureau of Investigation to ensure the orderly running of activities during times of threat or crises. Public works, - Overseen by the United States Environmental Protection Agency and this includes safe water systems and drainage. In 2003 the remit was expanded to include, Agriculture and food, with the Department of Agriculture overseeing the safe supply of meat, poultry, the Department of State and the Central Intelligence Agency are also involved in intelligence analysis with friendly countries. In May 2007 the DHS completed its plans for coordinating and dealing with critical events. It is going to be against commercial infrastructure, later this fear was qualified by President Clinton after reports of actual cyber terrorist attacks in 2000, I think it was an alarm
Critical infrastructure protection
–
Grand Coulee Dam
Critical infrastructure protection
–
Oklahoma City bombing: Search and rescue teams formed from various emergency services coordinated by
FEMA
Critical infrastructure protection
–
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a
worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the
talk page. (August 2011)
36.
List of major power outages
–
This is a list of notable wide-scale power outages. To be included, the outage must conform to all of the following criteria. The outage must affect at least 1,000 people and last at least one hour, there must be at least 1,000,000 person-hours of disruption. On August 5, a 50-mile stretch of Floridas gold coast was hit with a power failure after an explosion at the Cutler Ridge facility. The outage affected more than 2 million people, and created a traffic jam. Miami and Ft. Lauderdale downtown areas were offline for almost two hours, with other areas dark for much longer periods, New York City television and FM radio stations that transmit from the Empire State Building were knocked off the air. AM radio stations were largely unaffected, as most of their transmitters are located in either Northern New Jersey or on High Island in the Bronx, however, several Manhattan AM station studios were affected due to no or insufficient studio power backups. Several lines of the New York City IND and IRT subway lines were affected, stranding passengers in the cars, at Grand Central Terminal power in the terminal was lost, but power on the tracks was retained because it runs on direct current. The New York Daily News was also affected when the blackout caused their printing facility to halt operations, on July 4, a major power failure affected most of Utah and parts of Wyoming for 1.5 to 6 hours. On 17 May, parts of South Florida were blacked out after a malfunctioning relay caused the Turkey Point Nuclear Generating Station in Miami to go offline, on July 13–14 in New York City 9 million people were affected by a power outage. The power outage was a result of lightning striking power lines resulted in transmission failures. A second lightning strike took place causing the loss of two more power lines and the last power connection between New York City and the Northwest. The power outage resulted in instances of looting occurring over 26 hours. On September 20, almost the entire province of Quebec, totalling 6 million people, was affected. Power was restored to scattered rural areas within an hour and within 2 hours, service was back to parts of Montreal and Quebec City. The failure started from 07,40 am, within nine hours and 20 minutes, the authorities were able to restore power across the country. 1.5 million people lost power, in almost all of Utah, as well as parts of southeastern Idaho and southwestern Wyoming. On December 22, a tower near Tracy, California collapsed onto an adjacent tower bringing down two 500-kV lines and a pair of 230-kV lines that passed underneath the 500-kV right of way
List of major power outages
–
Skyline of
Toronto during the
Northeast blackout of 2003
List of major power outages
–
Hurricane Opal approaching Pensacola, Florida in October 1995
List of major power outages
–
São Paulo, the largest city in
Brazil, during November 10 blackout.
List of major power outages
$66.6 million[2]
