1.
North Borneo Federation
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The idea supported and propagated the unification of all Borneo territories under British rule to form an independent leftist North Kalimantan state. Azahari personally favoured Bruneis independence and merging with British North Borneo, the North Borneo proposal was seen as a post-decolonisation alternative by local opposition against the Malaysia plan. Joining to form Malaysia was seen as a new form of colonialism under Malaya, the basic concept behind the formation of a union of British Borneo was partly based upon the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in Southern Africa. After the defeat of the revolutionaries in the Brunei Revolt, the idea was put to rest, had the federation been formed, the capital city would probably have been chosen from Kuching, Jesselton or Bandar Brunei. The Sultanate of Brunei has traditionally opposed such a federation, there remain groups of people who favour the creation of such an independent state and desire separation from the rest of Malaysia. These groups see union of Malaysia as unfair to the people of Borneo, particularly Sabah, only about 5% of the regions oil revenues go to the state government of Sabah and Sarawak. The federal government has taken 15% and other 80% goes to Petronas, Malaysian politics have usually been centred in Peninsular Malaysia, and critics see the federation neglecting the needs of East Malaysians. Some opposition parties in the Sarawak State Legislative Assembly have tried to promote a North Borneo federation, the matter was refused to be debated in the Assembly due to its sensitivity, by the coalition of governing parties in Sarawak, namely the Barisan Nasional led by Abdul Taib Mahmud. This has seen an increase in development in the two states
2.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
3.
Flag of Sabah
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The current flag of the state of Sabah, in Malaysia, was adopted on 16 September 1988. It is red, white and three different shades of blue, the mountain is in the canton as in the 1963 flag, but now in dark blue on a light blue background. The field is blue over white over red. The mountain shown on the flag is Mount Kinabalu, the five different colours represent the five divisions in Sabah. A silhouette of Mount Kinabalu represents the state of Sabah, zircon blue represents peace and calmness. Icicle blue represents unity and prosperity, royal blue represents strength and harmony. Chilli red represents courage and determination, on 31 August 1963, Sabah adopted a four-striped flag with a green canton and a brown mountain. The meaning of the flag created in 1963 is very similar to the current flag adopted in 1988, the second flag design was created in 1981 by the BERJAYA state government. It was formally adopted on 1 January 1982 and it had a completely different design from the previous one, blue over white with a red triangle on the hoist. It is similar to the Trisakti flag used by the state of Sarawak until 31 August 1988. This flag should not be confused with the flag of the Czech Republic, coats of arms of Sabah Sabah State Government Official Website Flagspot. net, About Sabah Jongandhi. wordpress. com, The Flags of Sabah
4.
God Save the Queen
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God Save the Queen is the national and/or royal anthem in a number of Commonwealth realms, their territories, and the British Crown Dependencies. The author of the tune is unknown and it may originate in plainchant and it is also the royal anthem of all the aforementioned countries, as well as Australia, Canada, Barbados and Tuvalu. In countries not previously part of the British Empire, the tune of God Save the Queen has provided the basis for various patriotic songs, in the United States, the melody is used for the patriotic song My Country, Tis of Thee. The melody is used for the national anthem of Liechtenstein. Beyond its first verse, which is consistent, God Save the Queen/King has many historic, since its first publication, different verses have been added and taken away and, even today, different publications include various selections of verses in various orders. In general, only one verse is sung, sometimes two verses are sung, and on rare occasions, three. The sovereign and her or his consort are saluted with the entire anthem, the first six bars also form all or part of the Vice Regal Salute in some Commonwealth realms outside the UK, as well as the salute given to governors of British overseas territories. He also points to several pieces by Henry Purcell, one of which includes the notes of the modern tune. Nineteenth-century scholars and commentators mention the widespread belief that an old Scots carol, the first published version of what is almost the present tune appeared in 1744 in Thesaurus Musicus. The 1744 version of the song was popularised in Scotland and England the following year and this manuscript has the tune depart from that which is used today at several points, one as early as the first bar, but is otherwise clearly a strong relative of the contemporary anthem. It was recorded as being sung in London theatres in 1745, with, for example, Scholes analysis includes mention of untenable and doubtful claims, as well as an American misattribution. The surgical knife that was purpose-built for the occasion is on display in the Musée dhistoire de la médecine, lully set words by Marie de Brinon to music, and Créquy claims the tune was later plagiarised by Handel. Translated in Latin under the name Domine, Salvum Fac Regem, after the Battle of Culloden, the Hanover dynasty supposedly then adopted this melody as the British anthem. James Oswald, He is an author of the Thesaurus Musicus, so may have played a part in the history of the song. Dr Henry Carey, Scholes refutes this attribution, first on the grounds that Carey himself never made such a claim, second, when the claim was made by Careys son, it was accompanied by a request for a pension from the British Government on that score. Third, the younger Carey claimed that his father had written parts of it in 1745, Scholes recommends the attribution traditional or traditional, earliest known version by John Bull. The English Hymnal gives no attribution, stating merely 17th or 18th cent, God Save the Queen is the national anthem of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Like many aspects of British constitutional life, its official status derives from custom and use, in general only one or two verses are sung, but on rare occasions three
5.
Kudat
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Kudat is a town in the state of Sabah, Malaysia. It is located 190 kilometres north of Kota Kinabalu, the state capital and it is the largest town in the heartland of the Rungus people which is a sub-ethnic group of the majority Kadazan-Dusun race and is therefore a major centre of Rungus culture. It is also notable for being one of the first parts of Sabah to be settled by Chinese Malaysians, in addition, Kudat serves as the administrative centre of the Kudat Division. What is now the Kudat area was originally named Tomborungan by the local Rungus natives and it was named after the Tomborungus River, which has since disappeared. The grass is known as kutad in the Rungus dialect and this was eventually corrupted to Kudat and replaced the old name of Tomborungan. In the late 19th century, Franz Witti, an explorer in the employ of the British North Borneo Chartered Company and this may have been a reason why the Company chose Kudat as the site for their first settlement in British North Borneo. The town of Kudat was officially founded on 7 December 1881, Company officers began clearing the land with the aid of several Brunei Malays in preparation for the declaration of Kudat as the first capital of British North Borneo. This was eventually made official in 1882, the British settlers ensured that they would live in peace with their native neighbours by signing a peace agreement with Temenggung Kurantud and Datu Harun. British colonial officers in Kudat were quick to ensure that their needs were satisfied by creating the Kudat Golf Club. The original nine-hole, 3075m course was completed in the early 1900s and it is recognised as a challenging course due to the close proximity of roads and buildings around it. The Companys next step was to bring in Chinese migrants to work the land and it resorted to bringing in foreign workers for the purpose because it felt that the productive and industrial value of the alien races is. Far greater than that of the natives of Borneo and it will be a very long time before the natives become, individually, as valuable assets to the State as the alien races. Medhurst offered free passage to British North Borneo to any Chinese people interested in seeking employment there, most of these migrants disembarked and settled in Kudat and Sandakan, which were then the largest towns in the colony. By the time Medhurst returned to the United Kingdom in 1885,348 of the 937 residents of Kudat were Chinese, of these,222 worked as shopkeepers. During this time, Kudats significance had waned significantly as the Company moved the capital of British North Borneo to Sandakan, however, Chinese migration to Kudat continued, albeit at a slower pace. During World War II, the Japanese Imperial Army built and maintained an airfield in Kudat with the help of locals and forced labour from Java, the runway was built using coral stones as a base. Many of the Indonesian labourers died from disease and hunger, in 1945, the United States Far East Air Force repeatedly bombed the airfield with its B-25 bombers, putting it out of action. The current Kudat Airport is built on part of the Japanese-built airfield, after World War II, Kudat received little attention from the rest of British North Borneo, having long been eclipsed by the rapid growth of Sandakan and Kota Kinabalu
6.
Sandakan
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Sandakan formerly known at various times as Elopura, is a town in Sabah, Malaysia. It is the second largest town in Sabah after Kota Kinabalu and it is located on the east coast of the state in the administrative centre of Sandakan Division and was the former capital of British North Borneo. The town has an population of 157,330 while the surrounding municipal area has a total population of 396,290. Before the founding of Sandakan, Sulu Archipelago was the source of dispute between Spain and the Sultanate of Sulu for economic dominance in the region, by 1864, Spain had blockaded the Sultanate possessions in the Sulu Archipelago. The Sultanate of Sulu awarded a German consular service ex-member a piece of land in the Sandakan Bay to seek protection from Germany, in 1878, the Sultanate sold north-eastern Borneo to an Austro-Hungarian consul who later left the territory to a British colonial merchant. The German presence over the area raised concern among the British, the British also encouraged the migration of the Chinese from British Hong Kong to develop the economy of Sandakan. However, the prosperity halted when the Japanese occupied the area, as the war continued and Allied bombing started in 1944, the town was totally destroyed. Unable to fund the costs of the reconstruction, the powers of North Borneo were handed over to the Crown Colony government. Subsequently, the capital of North Borneo was moved to Jesselton. As part of the 1948–1955 Colonial Office Reconstruction and Development Plan, Sandakan is one of the main ports for oil, tobacco, coffee, sago, and timber exports. Other economic activities include fishing, ship building, eco-tourism, a first European settlement was built by a Scottish arms smuggler from Glasgow named William Clark Cowie who named the settlement Sandakan. It was soon renamed Kampong German, due to the presence of several German bases there, when another new settlement was built shortly after the previous Cowie settlement had been destroyed by a fire, it was called as Elopura, meaning beautiful town. The name was given by the British North Borneo Company but the locals persisted to use the old name, besides Elopura, it was also nicknamed Little Hong Kong due to a strong presence of ethnic Chinese migration from Hong Kong. It was Pryer who gave the settlement the name Elopura meaning beautiful town, several years later the settlement was again renamed Sandakan. The name Elopura, however, is used for some local government functions of the Sabah State Legislative Assembly. The town is referred as Sandakan nowadays instead of Elopura or Little Hong Kong. However, efforts have made to develop Sandakan so that the town is fitting to have the name of Little Hong Kong again. Since the 18th century, Sandakan start to be ruled by the Sultanate of Sulu, in 1860, the Sultanate of Sulu became important to the British as their archipelago could allow the British to dominate trade routes from Singapore to Mainland China
7.
Kota Kinabalu
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Kota Kinabalu, formerly known as Jesselton, is the capital of the state of Sabah, Malaysia. It is also the capital of the West Coast Division of Sabah, the city is located on the northwest coast of Borneo facing the South China Sea. The Tunku Abdul Rahman National Park lies to its west and Mount Kinabalu, Kota Kinabalu has a population of 452,058 according to the 2010 census, when the adjacent Penampang and Putatan districts are included, the metro area has a combined population of 628,725. In the 15th century, the area of Kota Kinabalu was under the influence of Bruneian Empire, in the 19th century, the British North Borneo Company first set up a settlement near the Gaya Island. However, it was destroyed by fire in 1897 by a leader named Mat Salleh. In July 1899, the place located opposite to the Gaya Island was identified as a place for settlements. Development in the area was started soon after that, and the place was named Api-api before it was renamed after the vice-chairman of BNBC as Jesselton, Jesselton became a major trading port in the area, and was connected to the North Borneo Railway. Jesselton was largely destroyed during World War II, the Japanese occupation of Jesselton provoked several local uprisings notably the Jesselton Revolt but they were eventually defeated by the Japanese. After the war, BNBC was unable to finance the high cost of reconstructions, the British Crown declared Jesselton as the new capital of North Borneo in 1946 and started to rebuild the town. After the formation of Malaysia, North Borneo was renamed as Sabah, in 1967, Jesselton was renamed as Kota Kinabalu. Kota Kinabalu was granted city status in 2000, Kota Kinabalu is often known as KK both in Malaysia and internationally. It is a major tourist destination and a gateway for travellers visiting Sabah. Kinabalu Park is located about 90 kilometres from the city and there are other tourist attractions in. Kota Kinabalu is also one of the industrial and commercial centres of East Malaysia. These two factors combine to make Kota Kinabalu one of the fastest growing cities in Malaysia, Kota Kinabalu is named after Mount Kinabalu, which is situated about 50 kilometres east-northeast of the city. Kinabalu is derived from the name Aki Nabalu meaning the place of the dead. Aki means ancestors or grandfather, and Nabalu is a name for the mountain in the Dusun language, there is also a source claiming that the term originated from Ki Nabalu, Ki meaning have or exist, and Nabalu meaning spirit of the dead. Kota is a Malay word for a fort, town, or a city and it is also used formally in a few other Malaysian towns and cities, for example, Kota Bharu, Kota Tinggi, and Kota Kemuning
8.
Chinese language
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Chinese is a group of related, but in many cases mutually unintelligible, language varieties, forming a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese is spoken by the Han majority and many ethnic groups in China. Nearly 1.2 billion people speak some form of Chinese as their first language, the varieties of Chinese are usually described by native speakers as dialects of a single Chinese language, but linguists note that they are as diverse as a language family. The internal diversity of Chinese has been likened to that of the Romance languages, There are between 7 and 13 main regional groups of Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin, followed by Wu, Min, and Yue. Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, although some, like Xiang and certain Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms, all varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. Standard Chinese is a form of spoken Chinese based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. It is the language of China and Taiwan, as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. It is one of the six languages of the United Nations. The written form of the language, based on the logograms known as Chinese characters, is shared by literate speakers of otherwise unintelligible dialects. Of the other varieties of Chinese, Cantonese is the spoken language and official in Hong Kong and Macau. It is also influential in Guangdong province and much of Guangxi, dialects of Southern Min, part of the Min group, are widely spoken in southern Fujian, with notable variants also spoken in neighboring Taiwan and in Southeast Asia. Hakka also has a diaspora in Taiwan and southeast Asia. Shanghainese and other Wu varieties are prominent in the lower Yangtze region of eastern China, Chinese can be traced back to a hypothetical Sino-Tibetan proto-language. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty, as the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have sought to promulgate a unified standard. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, in addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach, and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, the earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 BCE in the late Shang dynasty
9.
Chartered company
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A chartered company is an association formed by investors or shareholders for the purpose of trade, exploration, and colonization. Companies enabled merchants to band together to undertake ventures requiring more capital than was available to any one merchant or family, but chartered companies go back into the medieval period. Authorizations of charters enabled even small states to augment their influence by indirect rule, steering private resources into national pursuits of exploration. As they grew wealthier, some developed extensive administrations for their ventures. Chartered companies were formed, incorporated and legitimised under a royal or, in republics. This document set out the terms under which the company could trade, defined its boundaries of influence, and described its rights and responsibilities. In return, the British South Africa Company agreed to develop the territory it controlled, to respect existing African laws, to free trade within its territory. Chartered companies in many cases benefited from the trade monopolies, to carry out their many tasks, which in many cases included functions – such as security and defence – usually reserved for a sovereign state, some companies achieved relative autonomy. In time, most of their colonies were either lost or transformed into crown colonies, empire—How Britain Made the Modern World. The company, A short history of a revolutionary idea, a Concise History of South Africa. Cambridge, United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press
10.
William Hood Treacher
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Sir William Hood Treacher KCMG was a British colonial administrator in Borneo and the Straits Settlements. Treacher was the son of Rev. Joseph Skipper Treacher, MA, Vicar of Sandford-on-Thames. Both he and his father were graduates of Oxford colleges and he founded the Anglo Chinese School in Klang on 10 March 1893. Treacher married Elizabeth Frances Cornelia Rumsey, the daughter of the Rev. J. Rumsey and their daughter Leila Treacher was born in Singapore in 1882
11.
New Imperialism
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New Imperialism or Neo-imperialism was a period of colonial expansion by European powers, the United States, and the Empire of Japan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The period is distinguished by a pursuit of overseas territorial acquisitions. At the time, states focused on building their empires with new advances and developments, making their territory bigger through conquest. During the era of New Imperialism, the Western powers conquered almost all of Africa, the new wave of imperialism reflected ongoing rivalries among the great powers, the economic desire for new resources and markets, and a civilizing mission ethos. Many of the colonies established during this era gained independence during the era of decolonization that followed World War II, the qualifier new is used to differentiate between imperialism which generally refers to the first wave of European colonization between the 15th and early 19th centuries. In the first wave of colonization, European powers conquered and colonized the Americas and later established outposts in Africa, the American Revolution and the collapse of the Spanish Empire in Latin America around 1820 ended the first era of European imperialism. Especially in Great Britain these revolutions helped show the deficiencies of mercantilism, in 1846, the Corn Laws were repealed and manufacturers gained, as the regulations enforced by the Corn Laws had slowed their businesses. With the repeal in place, the manufacturers were able to trade more freely. Thus, Britain began to adopt the concept of free trade, the establishment of nation-states in Germany and Italy resolved territorial issues that had kept potential rivals embroiled in internal affairs at the heart of Europe, to Britains advantage. The years from 1871 to 1914 would be marked by an unstable peace. The imposition of rule in terms of effective occupation necessitated routine recourse to armed force against indigenous states and peoples. One of the goals of the conference was to reach agreements over trade, navigation, however, of all of the 15 nations in attendance of the Berlin Conference, none of the countries represented were African. The main dominating powers of the conference were France, Germany, Great Britain and they remapped Africa without considering the cultural and linguistic borders that were already established. At the end of the conference, Africa was divided into 50 different colonies, the attendants established who was in control of each of these newly divided colonies. They also planned, noncommittally, to end the trade in Africa. In Britain, the age of new imperialism marked a time for significant economic changes, because the country was the first to industrialize, Britain was technologically ahead of many other countries throughout the majority of the nineteenth century. However, by the end of the century, other countries such as Germany, the United States, Russia. After several decades of monopoly, the country was battling to maintain a dominant economic position while other became more involved in international markets
12.
Royal charter
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A royal charter is a formal document issued by a monarch as letters patent, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as cities or universities, Charters should be distinguished from warrants and letters of appointment, as they have perpetual effect. Typically, a Royal Charter is produced as a high-quality work of calligraphy on vellum, the British monarchy has issued over 980 royal charters. Of these about 750 remain in existence, the earliest was to the town of Tain in 1066, making it the oldest Royal Burgh in Scotland, followed by the University of Cambridge in 1231. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown, a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute for the Management of Sport and Physical Activity, Charters have been used in Europe since medieval times to create cities. The date that such a charter is granted is considered to be when a city is founded, at one time, a royal charter was the sole means by which an incorporated body could be formed, but other means are generally used nowadays instead. In the period before 1958,32 higher education institutes had been created by royal charter and these were typically engineering or technical institutions rather than universities. Royal decrees can therefore no longer grant higher education status or university status. A Royal Charter is granted by Order in Council, either creating an incorporated body and this is an exercise of the Royal Prerogative, and, in Canada, there are hundreds of organisations under Royal Charters. Such organisations include charities, businesses, colleges, universities, today, it is mostly charities and professional institutions who receive Royal Charters. Application for a charter is a petition to the Queen-in-Council, however, meeting these benchmarks does not guarantee the issuance of a Royal Charter. Companies, corporations, and societies in Canada founded under or augmented by a Royal Charter include, Royal Charter was issued in August 1826 to purchase and develop lands. Purchased the Crown Reserve of 1,384,413 acres, cities under Royal Charter are not subject to municipal Acts of Parliament applied generally to other municipalities, and instead are governed by legislation applicable to each city individually. The Royal Charter codifies the laws applied to the particular city, the Universitys Pontifical Charter was granted by Pope Leo XIII in 1889. Several Canadian private schools were founded or reconstituted under Royal Charter, the Royal Gibraltar Post Office was granted Royal Charter in 2005. The Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club obtained Royal Charter in 1959 and it is one of the three banknote-issuing banks in Hong Kong. The Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch Chartered originally in 1847, disbanded 1859, the Institution of Engineers was incorporated by royal charter in 1935. A number of Irish institutions retain the Royal prefix, even though Republic of Ireland severed all remaining connections between the state and the British monarch in 1949, the University of South Africa received a Royal Charter in 1877
13.
North Borneo Chartered Company
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The North Borneo Chartered Company or British North Borneo Company was a chartered company assigned to administer North Borneo in August 1881. The company also administered the island of Labuan for a period in 1890 before it became part of the Straits Settlements. North Borneo became a protectorate of the British Empire with internal affairs administered by the company until 1946 when it became the Crown Colony of British North Borneo, the main motto was Pergo et Perago, which means I undertake and I achieve. The first chairman of the company was Alfred Dent, in 1882, the North Borneo Chartered Company established a settlement on Pulau Gaya, one year after the Chartered Company was given the mandate to rule Sabah. However, in 1897, this settlement was burnt to the ground during the raid led by Mat Salleh and this company is also known as Syarikat Borneo Utara British and was criticised by the locals for the taxes it collected. H. Treacher, British Borneo - Sketches of Brunai, Sarawak, Labuan and North Borneo, Singapore, Government print department,1891 K. G. Tregonning, A History Of Modern Sabah,2
14.
Japanese occupation of British Borneo
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Because of its oil resources, Borneo was a prime target for Japan, and a very poorly guarded one. Chronically short of resources, Japan needed an assured supply, particularly of oil. In 1941, the Americans and British had placed an embargo on exports of raw materials to Japan because of its aggression in China. Borneo was strategically important to Japan as it is located on the sea routes between Java, Sumatra, Malaya and Celebes. Control of these routes was vital to securing the territory, the Japanese invasion plan called for the British territories to be taken and held by the Imperial Japanese Army and the southern Dutch territory to be taken and held by the Imperial Japanese Navy. The IJA unit that invaded northern Borneo was the 35th Infantry Brigade, the Brigade was led by Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi and consisted of units previously stationed at Canton, southern China. Ten transport ships carried the Japanese 35th Infantry Brigade HQ under the command of Major-General Kiyotake Kawaguchi, the Support Force—commanded by Rear-Admiral Takeo Kurita—consisted of the cruisers Kumano and Suzuya and the destroyers Fubuki and Sagiri. The Japanese forces intended to capture Miri and Seria, while the rest would capture Kuching, the convoy proceeded without being detected and, at dawn on 16 December 1941, two landing units secured Miri and Seria with little resistance from British forces. A few hours later, Lutong was captured, after securing the oilfields, on 22 December, the main Japanese forces moved westwards to Kuching. The Japanese airforce bombed Singkawang airfield to prevent a Dutch attack, after escorts drove off a lone Dutch submarine, the Japanese task force entered the mouth of the Santubong river on 23 December. The convoy arrived off Cape Sipang, and the troops in twenty transports, commanded by Colonel Akinosuke Oka, the 2nd Battalion of the 15th Punjab Regiment, which was stationed in Kuching, was the sole Allied infantry unit on the entire island. Although they resisted the Japanese attack on the airfield, they were outnumbered and retreated up the Santubong river. At about 16,40 on 25 December, Japanese troops successfully captured Kuching airfield, the Punjab Regiment retreated through the jungle to the Singkawang area. On 31 December 1941, a force under Lieutenant Colonel Watanabe moved northward to occupy the remainder of Brunei, Jesselton was defended by the North Borneo Armed Constabulary, with only 650 men. They hardly provided any resistance to slow down the Japanese invasion, on 3 January 1942, the Japanese army invaded Labuan Island. On 18 January 1942, using fishing boats, the Japanese landed at Sandakan. On the morning of the 19 January, Governor Charles Robert Smith surrendered British North Borneo and was interned with other staff, the occupation of British Borneo was thus completed. Southern and central Borneo were taken by the Japanese Navy, following its attacks from east and west, after ten weeks in the jungle-covered mountains, Allied troops surrendered on 1 April 1942
15.
Borneo campaign (1945)
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The Borneo Campaign of 1945 was the last major Allied campaign in the South West Pacific Area during World War II. In a series of amphibious assaults between 1 May and 21 July, the Australian I Corps, under Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead, attacked Imperial Japanese forces occupying the island. Allied naval and air forces, centred on the U. S. 7th Fleet under Admiral Thomas Kinkaid, the Australian First Tactical Air Force, thirteenth Air Force also played important roles in the campaign. The plans for the Allied attacks were known collectively as Operation Oboe, Borneo in particular was considered at the time a strategic location for its natural resources, oil. The Borneo campaign was criticized in Australia at the time and in subsequent years, modern historians such as Max Hastings have said that attacking these forces, already cut off from Japan, was a waste of resources. Any rational strategic judgment would have them to their own devices screened by token allied forces until their nations defeat enforced their surrender. In the end only the operations against Tarakan, Balikpapan and British Borneo—at Labuan, the campaign opened with Oboe 1 by a landing on the small island of Tarakan, off the north east coast on 1 May 1945 using Australian built MKIII folboats. Small parties paddled in the Tarakan region to obtain useful information, on the 10th June 1945 Oboe 6 subsequently followed with simultaneous assaults on the island of Labuan and the coast of Brunei, in the north west of Borneo. A week later, the Australians followed up with attacks on Japanese positions around Weston on the part of Brunei Bay. The attention of the Allies then switched back to the central east coast, the last major amphibious assault of World War II was at Balikpapan on 1 July 1945. These operations ultimately constituted the last campaigns of Australian forces in the war against Japan. 1 May –21 June 1945, Battle of Tarakan 10 June –15 August 1945, Battle of North Borneo and Battle of Labuan 1–21 July 1945, Battle of Balikpapan Japanese occupation of British Borneo Dennis, the Oxford Companion to Australian Military History. Commando Kayak, The Australian Folboat in the Pacific Campaign, hirschbooks. net & ozatwar. com/hoehn. ISBN 978-3-033-01717-7 Last Battles, The Landings, WW2 Australia Borneo campaign at AWM London Borneo Campaign at WW2 Database
16.
British North Borneo dollar
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The British North Borneo dollar was the currency of British North Borneo from 1882 to 1953. It was subdivided into 100 cents, both coins and banknotes were issued by the British North Borneo Company. During the Japanese occupation period, paper money was issued in denominations ranging from 1 cent to 1000 dollars and this currency was fixed at 1 dollar =1 Japanese yen, compared to a 1,2 pre-war rate. Following the war, the Japanese occupation currency was declared worthless, Coins were first minted in values of 1⁄2 cent and 1 cent in copper, and later 1 cent, 2 1⁄2 cents, and 5 cents in copper-nickel, and 25 cents in silver. Originally they were issued under the name British North Borneo Co, later they were minted under State of North Borneo, starting in 1903. All coins depicted the coat of arms on the obverse. These were last minted in 1941 and later phased out and replaced by coins of the Malayan dollar, banknotes were printed in values of 25 cents,50 cents, $1, $5, $10, and $25. The design of the banknotes did not change much during the currencys lifetime, however, their physical sizes tend to shrink over time. They either show the coat of arms, Mount Kinabalu, or both, Malayan dollar Postal orders of British North Borneo Sarawak dollar Global Financial Data currency histories table Online Coin Club / Coins from North Borneo
17.
Bruneian Empire
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The Bruneian Empire or Empire of Brunei /bruːˈnaɪ/, also known as Sultanate of Brunei, was a Malay sultanate, centred in Brunei on the northern coast of Borneo island in Southeast Asia. The kingdom was founded in the early 7th century, started as a small seafaring trading kingdom ruled by a pagan or Hindu king known by the Chinese as Po-Li or Po-Ni. Understanding the history of the Bruneian Empire is quite difficult since it is mentioned in contemporary sources of its time. No local or indigenous sources exist to provide evidence for any of this, as a result, Chinese texts have been relied on to construct the history of early Brunei. Boni in Chinese sources most likely refers to Borneo as a whole, while Poli 婆利, the earliest diplomatic relations between Boni and China are recorded in the Taiping Huanyu Ji. In 1225, a Chinese official, Zhao Rugua, reported that Boni had 100 warships to protect its trade, in the 14th century, Brunei seems to be subjected to Java. The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Prapanca in 1365, mentioned Barune as the state of Majapahit. In 1369, the Sulus attacked Po-ni, looting it of treasure, a fleet from Majapahit succeeded in driving away the Sulus, but Po-ni was left weaker after the attack. A Chinese report from 1371 described Po-ni as poor and totally controlled by Majapahit, after the death of its emperor, Hayam Wuruk, Majapahit entered the state of decline and was unable to control its overseas possessions. This opened the opportunity for Bruneian kings to expand their influence, Chinese Ming emperor Yongle, after ascending to throne in 1403, immediately dispatched envoys to various countries inviting them to pay tribute to Chinese court. Brunei immediately got involved in the tributary system with China. It controlled most of northern Borneo, and it became an important hub for the East, the Bruneian kings seems to cultivated alliance with regional seafaring peoples of Orang Laut and Bajau that formed their naval armada. The Dayaks, native tribes of interior Borneo however, were not under their control, the earliest recorded documentation by the West about Brunei was by an Italian known as Ludovico di Varthema. Ludovico was at the time on a route to the Maluku Islands when he landed in Borneo, the record of his documentation dates back to 1550. We arrived at the island of Bornei, which is distant from the Maluch about two hundred miles, and we found that it was larger than the aforesaid and much lower. The people are pagans and are men of goodwill and their colour is whiter than that of the other sort. in this island justice is well administered. During the rule of Bolkiah, the fifth Sultan, the empire controlled over coastal areas of northwest Borneo and reached Seludong, Ma-i, in the 16th century, the Brunei empires influence also extended as far as Kapuas River delta in West Kalimantan. The Malay Sultanate of Sambas in West Kalimantan and Sultanate of Sulu in Southern Philippines in particular has developed relations with the royal house of Brunei
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Sultanate of Sulu
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The Sultanate of Sulu was a Muslim state that ruled the islands in the Sulu Archipelago, parts of Mindanao, certain portions of Palawan and north-eastern Borneo. The sultanate was founded on 17 November 1405, by a Johore-born explorer and religious scholar Sharif ul-Hashim. Paduka Mahasari Maulana al Sultan Sharif ul-Hashim became his full regnal name, after the marriage of Abu Bakr and a local dayang-dayang Paramisuli, he founded the sultanate. The Sultanate gained its independence from the Bruneian Empire in 1578, at its peak, it stretched over the islands that bordered the western peninsula of Mindanao in the east to Palawan in the north. It also covers the area in northeastern side of Borneo, stretching from Marudu Bay, while another source stated the area stretching from Kimanis Bay which also overlaps with the boundaries of the Bruneian Sultanate. In 1962, Philippine Government under the leadership of President Diosdado Macapagal officially recognised the existence of the Sultanate of Sulu. On 24 May 1974, Sultan Mohammad Mahakuttah Kiram, was the last officially recognized Sulu Sultan in the Philippines, the present area of the Sultanate of Sulu was once under the influence of the Bruneian Empire before it gained its own independence in 1578. Later, the earliest known settlement in this soon to be occupied by the sultanate who was in Maimbung. During these times, Sulu was called Lupah Sug, the Principality of Maimbung, populated by Buranun people, was first ruled by a certain rajah who assumed the title Rajah Sipad the Older. According to Majul, the origins of the title rajah sipad originated from the Hindu sri pada, the Principality was instituted and governed using the system of rajahs. Sipad the Older was succeeded by Sipad the Younger, during the reign of Sipad the Younger, a mystic named Tuan Mashā′ikha arrived in Jolo in 1280 AD. Other reports, however, insisted that Tuan Mashā′ikha together with his parents, Jamiyun Kulisa, however, Saleeby dismisses this claim by concluding that Jamiyun Kulisa and Indra Suga were mythical names. According to tarsila, during the coming of Tuan Mashā′ikha, the people of Maimbung worshipped tombs, after he preached Islam in the area, he married Sipad the Youngers daughter, Idda Indira Suga and bore three children, Tuan Hakim, Tuan Pam and Aisha. Tuan Hakim, in turn, begot five children, from the genealogy of Tuan Mashā′ikha, another titular system of aristocracy called tuanship started in Sulu. Apart from the Idda Indira Suga, Tuan Mashā′ikha also married into another unidentified woman, Tuan Mashā′ikha died in 710 A. H. and was buried in Bud Dato near Jolo, with an inscription of Tuan Maqbālū. A descendant of Tuan Mashā′ikha named Tuan May also begot a son named Datu Tka, the descendants of Tuan May did not assume the title tuan, instead, they started to use datu. It is the first time datu was used as a political institution, during the coming of Tuan Mashā′ikha, the Tagimaha people coming from Basilan and several places in Mindanao, also arrived and settled in Buansa. After the Tagimaha came the Baklaya people, believed to be originated from Sulawesi, after these came the Bajau people from Johor
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Sultanate of Bulungan
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The Sultanate of Bulungan was a princely state of Indonesia located in the existing Bulungan Regency in the North Kalimantan province of Indonesia in the east of the island of Borneo. With its territory spanning throughout the eastern shores of North Kalimantan and Tawau, the Sultanate was founded by a Kayan group, the Uma Apan, who originated from the interior region of Apo Kayan, before settling near the coast in the 17th century. Around 1650, a princess of the group married a man from Brunei and this marriage founded a Hindu lineage who settled in the region of todays Tanjung Selor. Around 1750, this dynasty converted to Islam and its rulers took the title of Sultan and were recognised as vassals of the sultan of Berau, the latter acknowledging himself a vassal of the kingdom of Kutai. In 1850, the Dutch, who had conquered Berau in 1834 and imposed their sovereignty upon Kutai in 1848, the Dutch intervened in the region to combat piracy and the trafficking in slaves. Until 1860, Bulungan was a subject of the Tausug of the Sultanate of Sulu, during this period, vessels began travelling to Sulu, Tarakan, and thence into the interior of Bulungan, to trade directly with Tidung. This influence ended in 1878 with the signing of a treaty between the English and Spanish partitioning Sulu, in 1881, the North Borneo Chartered Company was created, thereby placing northern Borneo under British jurisdiction, despite initial Dutch objections. The Sultanate was finally incorporated into the empire of the Dutch East Indies in the 1880s. The Dutch installed a government post in 1893 in Tanjung Selor, in the 20th century, like many other princely states of the archipelago, the Sultan was forced to sign a Korte verklaring, a short statement in which he sold most of its powers over land upstream. The Dutch eventually recognised the border between the two jurisdictions in 1915, the Sultanate was granted Zelfbestuur status in 1928, again like many princely states of the Netherlands Indies. The discovery of oil by the BPM in the islands of Bunyu and Tarakan gave great importance to Bulungan for the Dutch, the last Sultan, Jalaluddin, died in 1958. The Sultanate was abolished in 1959 and the territory becomes a simple kabupaten, or department
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Crown Colony of Labuan
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Labuan, made up of the main Labuan Island and six smaller islands. Since 15th century, Labuan was part of Brunei and the became the shelter for the ships from storms. Later on in 1846, Labuan was ceded to Great Britain in 1848 to become a Crown colony under the Treaty of Labuan, in 1890, it came to be administered by the British North Borneo Company. It was reverted to British government rule in 1904, then, on 1 January 1907, it joined the Straits Settlements and had been administered from Singapore, the capital of the Straits Settlements. During World War II, Labuan was occupied by Japan from December 1941 to June 1945, Labuan was renamed Maida Island after Marquis Toshinari Maeda, the first commander of Japanese forces in northern Borneo. The liberation of Borneo began on 10 June 1945 when the Allied Forces under the command of General McArthur landed at Labuan with a convoy of 100 ships, the 9th Australian Division launched an attack supported by massive air and sea bombardments that resulted in the surrender of the Japanese. On 9 September 1945, General Masao Baba, commander of Japanese military, surrendered at the Layang-layang beach before Major General George F. Wooten, Labuan was later separated from Sabah, becoming a Federal Territory, administered by the federal government, on 16 April 1984. 1846 Treaty of Labuan, officially became Crown colony to Great Britain,1890 Incorporated into the territory of the British North Borneo Company which in 1881 had taken over land previously part of Brunei. 1906 The boundaries of the Straits Settlements were extended to include the Colony of Labuan,1907 Became part of the Straits Settlements. 1946 Labuan returned to the Crown Colony of North Borneo,1963 Became part of Sabah and Malaysia. 1984 Ceded to Federal Government by Sabah and made into Federal Territory
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British Military Administration (Borneo)
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The British Military Administration was the interim administrator of British Borneo between the end of World War II and the establishment of the Crown Colony of Sarawak and North Borneo in 1946. Specifically, the entity lasted from 12 September 1945 to 15 July 1946, Labuan also were placed under a temporary British military rule and the headquarters located there. The headquarters was mostly managed by the Australian Imperial Force, the area under this administration comprises today of Labuan, Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei. British Military Administration Japanese occupation of Malaya Japanese occupation of Singapore Lists of Archival Materials from Public Record Office, British military administration British Borneo, Monthly Reports
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Malaysia
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Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra
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Borneo
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Borneo is the third-largest island in the world and the largest island in Asia. At the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, in relation to major Indonesian islands, it is located north of Java, west of Sulawesi, the island is politically divided among three countries, Malaysia and Brunei in the north, and Indonesia to the south. Approximately 73% of the island is Indonesian territory, in the north, the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak make up about 26% of the island. Additionally, the Malaysian federal territory of Labuan is situated on an island just off the coast of Borneo. The sovereign state of Brunei, located on the north coast, antipodal to an area of Amazon rainforest, Borneo is itself home to one of the oldest rainforests in the world, and to Bornean orangutans. The island is known by names, internationally it is known as Borneo, after Brunei. The name Brunei possibly was derived from the Sanskrit word váruṇa, meaning either ocean or the mythological Varuna. Indonesian natives called it Kalimantan, which was derived from the Sanskrit word Kalamanthana, prior to that the island was also known by other names. In 977 Chinese records began to use the term Po-ni to refer to Borneo or Brunei, in 1225 it was also mentioned by the Chinese official Chau Ju-Kua. The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Majapahit court poet Mpu Prapanca in 1365, mentioned the island as Nusa Tanjungnagara, to the west of Borneo are the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. To the south and east are islands of Indonesia, Java and Sulawesi, to the northeast are the Philippine Islands. With an area of 743,330 square kilometres, it is the third-largest island in the world and its highest point is Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with an elevation of 4,095 m. The largest river system is the Kapuas in West Kalimantan, with a length of 1,143 km, other major rivers include the Mahakam in East Kalimantan, the Barito in South Kalimantan, and Rajang in Sarawak. Clearwater Cave, for example, has one of the worlds longest underground rivers, deer Cave is home to over three million bats, with guano accumulated to over 100 metres deep. The South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand now submerge the former low-lying areas of the peninsula, the Borneo rainforest is 140 million years old, making it one of the oldest rainforests in the world. There are about 15,000 species of flowering plants with 3,000 species of trees,221 species of mammals and 420 species of resident birds in Borneo. There are about 440 freshwater fish species in Borneo and it is the centre of the evolution and distribution of many endemic species of plants and animals. The Borneo rainforest is one of the few remaining habitats for the endangered Bornean orangutan
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Concession (territory)
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Usually, it is conceded, that is, allowed or even surrendered by a weaker state to a stronger power. One of the concessions in Tianjin, in China, officially surrendered by Austria in 1919 and Hungary in 1920 respectively. Belgian colonizing efforts ceased after a few years, due to the lack of financial means, on 19 December 1984, the UK agreed to restore all of Hong Kong — including the territories ceded in perpetuity — to China on 1 July 1997. The British concession in Tianjin, in which the trade centred, was situated on the bank of the river Peiho below the native city. It was held on a lease in perpetuity granted by the Chinese government to the British Crown, the local management was entrusted to a municipal council organized on lines similar to those at Shanghai. The British concession on the Shamian Island in Guangzhou, tati Concessions Land 1872–1911, in a small part of present Botswana, detached from the Matabele kingdom. Between 1882 and 1884, the Qing Empire obtained concessions in Korea at Incheon, the concessions were occupied by Japan in 1894 after the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War. The concessions were formally abolished in 1898,6 April 1849 French concession in Shanghai established,17 July 1854 Municipal Council established. Relinquished by Vichy France to a Japan-sponsored puppet government in China, on 23 August 1914, Republic of China canceled the German lease. The concession was occupied by Japan on 7 November 1914, One of the Concessions in Tianjin One of the concessions in Hankou A concession zone in Tianjin was conceded to the Kingdom of Italy by Qing China on 7 September 1901. It was administered by Italys Consul and had a population of 6,261 in 1935, several ships of the Italian Royal Navy were based at Tianjin. During World War II, the primary Italian vessels based at Tianjin were the minelayer Lepanto, on 10 September 1943, the Italian concession at Tianjin was occupied by Japan. On 10 February 1947, by treaty, the zone was formally returned to Nationalist China by the Republic of Italy. In China, the only non-Western concession in Tianjin, the only non-Western concession in Hankou. The concession turned into a Portuguese colony in mid-19th Century, the Chinese government assumed sovereignty over Macau on 20 December 1999, ending 329 years of Portuguese colonial rule. One of the Concessions in Tianjin, One of the concessions of Hankou. In both cases, the Soviets limited themselves to a command, without any civilian administration. Guantanamo Bay, leased from Cuba under 1903 and 1934 treaties in perpetuity, no civilian administration, One of the Concessions in Tianjin
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German Empire
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The German Empire was the historical German nation state that existed from the unification of Germany in 1871 to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918, when Germany became a federal republic. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, with most being ruled by royal families and this included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. Although Prussia became one of kingdoms in the new realm, it contained most of its population and territory. Its influence also helped define modern German culture, after 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron, chemicals, and railways. In 1871, it had a population of 41 million people, and by 1913, a heavily rural collection of states in 1815, now united Germany became predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological, Germany became a great power, boasting a rapidly growing rail network, the worlds strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base. In less than a decade, its navy became second only to Britains Royal Navy, after the removal of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II, the Empire embarked on a bellicose new course that ultimately led to World War I. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, the German Empire had two allies, Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, however, left the once the First World War started in August 1914. In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in autumn 1914 failed, the Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food. Germany was repeatedly forced to send troops to bolster Austria and Turkey on other fronts, however, Germany had great success on the Eastern Front, it occupied large Eastern territories following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was designed to strangle the British, it failed, but the declaration—along with the Zimmermann Telegram—did bring the United States into the war. Meanwhile, German civilians and soldiers had become war-weary and radicalised by the Russian Revolution and this failed, and by October the armies were in retreat, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, Bulgaria had surrendered and the German people had lost faith in their political system. The Empire collapsed in the November 1918 Revolution as the Emperor and all the ruling monarchs abdicated, and a republic took over. The German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848, called Pan-Germanism, to Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarcks pragmatic Realpolitik. He envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany, the war resulted in the Confederation being partially replaced by a North German Confederation in 1867, comprising the 22 states north of the Main. The new constitution and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871, during the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution was adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, the political system remained the same. The empire had a parliament called the Reichstag, which was elected by universal male suffrage, however, the original constituencies drawn in 1871 were never redrawn to reflect the growth of urban areas
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Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
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British Hong Kong
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British Hong Kong was the period during which Hong Kong was under British Crown rule from 1841 to 1997. It was established as a Crown colony and later designated a British Dependent Territory in 1981, Hong Kong Island was ceded to Great Britain by the Qing dynasty of China after the First Anglo-Chinese War. The Kowloon Peninsula was added to the colony after the Second Anglo-Chinese War, finally, in 1898, the New Territories were added under a 99-year lease. The transfer has been credited as marking the end of the British Empire, in 1836, the Manchu Qing government undertook a major policy review of the opium trade. Lin Zexu volunteered to take on the task of suppressing opium, in March 1839, he became Special Imperial Commissioner in Canton, where he ordered the foreign traders to surrender their opium stock. He confined the British to the Canton Factories and cut off their supplies, Chief Superintendent of Trade, Charles Elliot, complied with Lins demands to secure a safe exit for the British, with the costs involved to be resolved between the two governments. When Elliot promised that the British government would pay for their stock, the merchants surrendered their 20,283 chests of opium. In September 1839, the British Cabinet decided that the Chinese should be made to pay for the destruction of British property, an expeditionary force was placed under Elliot and his cousin, Rear Admiral George Elliot, as joint plenipotentiaries in 1840. Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston stressed to the Chinese Imperial Government that the British Government did not question Chinas right to prohibit opium, but it objected to the way this was handled. He viewed the sudden strict enforcement as laying a trap for the traders. In 1841, Elliot negotiated with Lins successor, Qishan, in the Convention of Chuenpi during the First Opium War, on 20 January, Elliot announced the conclusion of preliminary arrangements, which included the cession of Hong Kong Island and its harbour to the British Crown. On 26 January, the Union Jack was raised on Hong Kong and Commodore James Bremer, commander-in-chief of British forces in China, on 29 August 1842, the cession was formally ratified in the Treaty of Nanking, which ceded Hong Kong in perpetuity to Britain. The treaty failed to satisfy British expectations of an expansion of trade and profit. In October 1856, Chinese authorities in Canton detained the Arrow, the Consul in Canton, Harry Parkes, claimed the hauling down of the flag and arrest of the crew were an insult of very grave character. Parkes and Sir John Bowring, the 4th Governor of Hong Kong, in March 1857, Palmerston appointed Lord Elgin as Plenipotentiary with the aim of securing a new and satisfactory treaty. A French expeditionary force joined the British to avenge the execution of a French missionary in 1856, in 1860, the capture of the Taku Forts and occupation of Beijing led to the Treaty of Tientsin and Convention of Peking. In the Treaty of Tientsin, the Chinese accepted British demands to open ports, navigate the Yangtze River. During the conflict, the British occupied the Kowloon Peninsula, where the land was valuable training and resting ground
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Alfred Dent
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Sir Alfred Dent, KCMG was a British colonial merchant and entrepreneur. He was a founder of the British North Borneo Company, Dent was born in London, the son of Thomas Dent. In 1896 he married Margaret Aird with whom he had a son, Leslie Alfred Dent, in 1898 Dent was appointed a member of the Indian Currency Commission and, in the same year was made a Knight Commander in the Order of St Michael and St George. He had a house at Eastbourne in south-east England, and served as High Sheriff of Sussex in 1908
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Spanish East Indies
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The Spanish East Indies were the Spanish territories in Asia-Pacific from 1565 until 1899. They comprised the Philippines, the Mariana Islands, the Caroline Islands, Cebu was the first seat of government, later transferred to Manila. From 1565 to 1821 these territories, together with the Spanish West Indies, were administered through the Viceroyalty of New Spain based in Mexico City, the King of Spain traditionally styled himself King of the East and West Indies. After Mexican independence, they were ruled directly from Madrid, administrative affairs of the Spanish East Indies were handled by the Captaincy General of the Philippines and the Real Audiencia of Manila. The few remaining islands were ceded to the United States when the Treaty of Washington was ratified in 1901, Spanish contact began on 6 March 1521, when a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan reached the Mariana Islands. He named Guam and the other islands Islas de los Ladrones because the natives came aboard his galleon, the expedition later continued its journey west and reached the island of Homonhon in the eastern Philippines on 16 March, with only 150 crewmen. There they were able to communicate with the local peoples because the Malayan interpreter, Enrique of Malacca, Miguel López de Legazpi set out from Mexico, and established the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines in 1565, which became the town of San Miguel in present-day Cebu. In 1571, the city of Manila was founded and made seat of the Spanish Captaincy General of the Philippines and these and other Asian territories claimed by the Spanish crown were to be governed from the Viceroyalty of New Spain in Mexico City. The Manila-Acapulco galleons shipped products gathered from both Asia-Pacific and the Americas, such as silk, spices, silver, gold and other Asian-Pacific islander products to Mexico, in 1606, the Spaniards established some form of trade links with the Maluku Islands and remained until 1663. Contacts with Japan were also established and Sebastián Vizcaíno was sent as ambassador in 1611, on the north eastern coastal region of Taiwan, the Spaniards built Fort Santo Domingo near Keelung in 1626 and a mission in Tamsui in 1628, which they occupied until 1642. In 1668, Blessed Diego Luis de San Vitores established the first mission on Guam, in 1762 British troops briefly captured the city of Manila during the Seven Years War. The British promised support for an uprising led by Diego Silang and his wife Gabriela, under the peace settlement Manila was exchanged, along with British-occupied Havana, for Florida and Minorca. It was handed back to Spanish authorities in April 1764, the Seven Years War prompted Charles III to initiate extensive governmental reforms throughout the overseas possessions. An intendencia was established in Manila in 1784 to handle the government finances, in a similar vein, to promote innovation and education among the residents of the islands, Governor-General José Basco y Vargas established the Economic Society of the Friends of the Country. For over 256 years, the Spanish East Indies were governed by a general. All economic matters of the Philippines were managed by the Viceroyalty of New Spain, in 1821 the New Spanish Viceroyalty collapsed following the Mexican War of Independence, which resulted in the First Mexican Empire. In 1574 the Captaincy General of the Philippines was created as a dependency of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, Islas Carolinas Islas Marianas Islas Palau The Spanish used several names that are not currently used. Gran Moluca for the island of Mindanao and Nueva Castilla for Luzon, because Spanish interest in the region was primarily focused on its use as a base for trade with East Asia, direct Spanish control over the area expanded slowly
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Dutch East Indies
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The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony. It was formed from the colonies of the Dutch East India Company. During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and hegemony were expanded and this colony was one of the most valuable European colonies under the Dutch Empires rule, and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century. The colonial social order was based on racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from. The term Indonesia came into use for the location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, Japans World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution, the word Indies comes from Latin, Indus. The original name Dutch Indies was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies, the name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Companys documents of the early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states. The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the late 15th century, following disruption of Dutch access to spices in Europe, the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed, recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company. The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, a capital was established in Batavia, which became the centre of the VOCs Asian trading network. Smuggling, the expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century, finally in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1811, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including Java, Dutch control was restored in 1816. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu in Sumatra, in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula, the resulting borders between British and Dutch possessions remain between Malaysia and Indonesia
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Madrid Protocol of 1885
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Under the agreement, Spain relinquishes all claim to Borneo. Another important point regarding the agreement relates to Article IV which guarantees of no restriction on trade to the parties of the protocol within the Archipelago, North Borneo dispute Leigh R. Wright. Historical Notes on the North Borneo Dispute, the Journal of Asian Studies, Vol.25, No. Modern Asian Studies, Vol.10, No,1, pp. 149–154 Leigh R. Wright. The Anglo-Spanish-German Treaty of 1885, A Step in the Development of British Hegemony in North Borneo, australian Journal of Politics & History 18, 62–75 British North Borneo,1885 Sabah Law
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Lumber
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Lumber, or timber is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber may also refer to currently un-needed furniture, as in Lumber room, or an awkward gait, ultimately derived from the look of unfashionable, Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and it is available in many species, usually hardwoods, but it is also readily available in softwoods, such as white pine and red pine, because of their low cost. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but has other uses as well. It is classified more commonly as a softwood than as a hardwood, in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and Britain, the term timber describes sawn wood products, such as floor boards. In the United States and Canada, generally timber describes standing or felled trees, before they are milled into boards, Timber there also describes sawn lumber not less than 5 inches in its smallest dimension. The latter includes the often partly finished lumber used in timber-frame construction, remanufactured lumber is the result of secondary or tertiary processing/cutting of previously milled lumber. Specifically, it is cut for industrial or wood-packaging use. Lumber is cut by ripsaw or resaw to create dimensions that are not usually processed by a primary sawmill, resawing is the splitting of 1-inch through 12-inch hardwood or softwood lumber into two or more thinner pieces of full-length boards. For example, splitting a ten-foot 2×4 into two ten-foot 1×4s is considered resawing, structural lumber may also be produced from recycled plastic and new plastic stock. Its introduction has been opposed by the forestry industry. Blending fiberglass in plastic lumber enhances its strength, durability, logs are converted into timber by being sawn, hewn, or split. Sawing with a rip saw is the most common method, because sawing allows logs of lower quality, with grain and large knots. There are various types of sawing, Plain sawn —A log sawn through without adjusting the position of the log, quarter sawn and rift sawn—These terms have been confused in history but generally mean lumber sawn so the annual rings are reasonably perpendicular to the sides of the lumber. Boxed heart—The pith remains within the piece with some allowance for exposure, heart center—the center core of a log. Free of heart center —A side-cut timber without any pith, free of knots —No knots are present. Dimensional lumber is lumber that is cut to standardized width and depth, carpenters extensively use dimensional lumber in framing wooden buildings. Common sizes include 2×4, 2×6, and 4×4, the length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth
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Agriculture
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Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time
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Overseas Chinese
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Overseas Chinese are people of Chinese birth or descent who live outside the Peoples Republic of China and Republic of China. People of partial Chinese ancestry living outside the Greater China Area may also consider themselves overseas Chinese, Overseas Chinese can be of the Han Chinese ethnic majority, or from any of the other ethnic groups in China. The Chinese language has various terms equivalent to the English Overseas Chinese which refers to Chinese citizens residing in other than China. The term haigui refers to returned overseas Chinese and guīqiáo qiáojuàn to their returning relatives, huáyì refers to ethnic Chinese residing outside of China. Literally, it means Tang people, a reference to Tang dynasty China when it was ruling China proper. It should be noted that this term is used by the Cantonese, Hoochew, Hakka and Hokkien as a colloquial reference to the Chinese people. The term shǎoshù mínzú is added to the terms for overseas Chinese to indicate those in the diaspora who would be considered ethnic minorities in China. The terms shǎoshù mínzú huáqiáo huárén, shǎoshù mínzú huáqiáo huárén, the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the PRC does not distinguish between Han and ethnic minority populations for official policy purposes. For example, members of the Tibetan diaspora may travel to China on passes granted to certain overseas Chinese. Various estimates of the overseas Chinese minority population include 3.1 million,3.4 million,5.7 million, cross-border ethnic groups are not considered overseas Chinese minorities unless they left China after the establishment of an independent state on Chinas border. Some ethnic groups who have connections with China, like the Hmong or Mongolians may not associate themselves as overseas Chinese. The Chinese people have a history of migrating overseas. One of the dates back to the Ming dynasty when Zheng He became the envoy of Ming. He sent people - many of them Cantonese and Hokkien - to explore and trade in the South China Sea, when China was under the imperial rule of the Qing Dynasty, subjects who left the Qing Empire without the Administrators consent were considered to be traitors and were executed. Their family members faced consequences as well, however, the establishment of the Lanfang Republic in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, as a tributary state of Qing China, attests that it was possible to attain permission. The republic lasted until 1884, when it fell under Dutch occupation as Qing influence waned and these migrations are considered to be among the largest in Chinas history. Most of the nationalist and neutral refugees fled Mainland China to Southeast Asia as well as Taiwan, many nationalists who stayed behind were persecuted or even executed. Kuomintang members who settled in Malaysia and Singapore played a role in the establishment of the Malaysian Chinese Association
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Qing dynasty
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It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the base for the modern Chinese state. The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in Manchuria, in the late sixteenth century, Nurhaci, originally a Ming vassal, began organizing Banners, military-social units that included Jurchen, Han Chinese, and Mongol elements. Nurhaci formed the Jurchen clans into an entity, which he renamed as the Manchus. By 1636, his son Hong Taiji began driving Ming forces out of Liaodong and declared a new dynasty, in 1644, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng conquered the Ming capital, Beijing. The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor from the 1750s to the 1790s extended Qing control into Central Asia, the early rulers maintained their Manchu ways, and while their title was Emperor, they used khan to the Mongols and they were patrons of Tibetan Buddhism. They governed using Confucian styles and institutions of government and retained the imperial examinations to recruit Han Chinese to work under or in parallel with Manchus. They also adapted the ideals of the system in dealing with neighboring territories. The Qianlong reign saw the apogee and initial decline in prosperity. The population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, corruption set in, rebels tested government legitimacy, and ruling elites did not change their mindsets in the face of changes in the world system. Following the Opium War, European powers imposed unequal treaties, free trade, the Taiping Rebellion and the Dungan Revolt in Central Asia led to the deaths of some 20 million people, most of them due to famines caused by war. In spite of disasters, in the Tongzhi Restoration of the 1860s, Han Chinese elites rallied to the defense of the Confucian order. The initial gains in the Self-Strengthening Movement were destroyed in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, in which the Qing lost its influence over Korea, New Armies were organized, but the ambitious Hundred Days Reform of 1898 was turned back by Empress Dowager Cixi, a conservative leader. Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries competed with reformist monarchists such as Kang Youwei, after the deaths of Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor in 1908, the hardline Manchu court alienated reformers and local elites alike. The Wuchang Uprising on October 11,1911, led to the Xinhai Revolution, General Yuan Shikai negotiated the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor, on February 12,1912. Nurhaci declared himself the Bright Khan of the Later Jin state in both of the 12–13th century Jurchen Jin dynasty and of his Aisin Gioro clan. His son Hong Taiji renamed the dynasty Great Qing in 1636, there are competing explanations on the meaning of Qīng. The character Qīng is composed of water and azure, both associated with the water element and this association would justify the Qing conquest as defeat of fire by water
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Japanese diaspora
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The Japanese diaspora, and its individual members known as nikkei or nikkeijin, are the Japanese emigrants from Japan and their descendants that reside in a foreign country. According to the Association of Nikkei and Japanese Abroad, there are about 2.5 million nikkei living in their adopted countries, the largest of these foreign communities are in Brazil, the United States, the Philippines, China, Canada and Peru. Descendants of emigrants from the Meiji period still hold recognizable communities in those countries, Nikkei is derived from the term nikkeijin in Japanese, used to refer to Japanese people who emigrated from Japan and their descendants. Emigration refers to permanent settlers, excluding transient Japanese abroad and these groups were historically differentiated by the terms issei, nisei, sansei, and yonsei. The term Nikkeijin may or may not apply to those Japanese who still hold Japanese citizenship, usages of the term may depend on perspective. On the other hand, in the U. S, the term nikkei has multiple and diverse meanings depending on situations, places, and environments. Nikkei also include people of mixed descent who identify themselves as Nikkei. Native Japanese also use the term nikkei for the emigrants and their descendants who return to Japan, many of these nikkei live in close communities and retain identities separate from the native Japanese. The definition was derived from The International Nikkei Research Project, a collaborative project involving more than 100 scholars from 10 countries and 14 participating institutions. Overseas Japanese have existed since the 16th century, many documents mention the large slave trade along with protests against the enslavement of Japanese. Japanese slaves were brought by the Portuguese to Macau, where some of them were enslaved to Portuguese, thus, the Portuguese might own Malay and African slaves, who in turn possessed Japanese slaves of their own. Hideyoshi blamed the Portuguese and Jesuits for this trade and banned Christian proselytizing as a result. Some Korean slaves in Japan who had been among the thousands of prisoners of war taken during the Japanese invasions of Korea were bought by the Portuguese and taken to Portugal. Fillippo Sassetti saw some Chinese and Japanese slaves in Lisbon among the slave community in 1578. The Portuguese highly regarded Asian slaves like Chinese and Japanese, much more than slaves from sub-Saharan Africa, the Portuguese attributed qualities like intelligence and industriousness to Chinese and Japanese slaves which is why they favored them more. In 1595 a law was passed by Portugal banning the sale of Chinese and Japanese slaves, from the 15th through the early 17th century, Japanese seafarers traveled to China and Southeast Asia countries, in some cases establishing early Japantowns. This activity ended in the 1640s, when the Tokugawa shogunate imposed maritime restrictions which forbade Japanese from leaving the country and this policy would not be lifted for over two hundred years. Travel restrictions were eased once Japan opened diplomatic relations with western nations, in 1867, the bakufu began issuing travel documents for overseas travel and emigration
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