1.
City
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A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
2.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
3.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
4.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
5.
Hampshire County, Massachusetts
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Hampshire County is a historical and judicial county located in the U. S. state of Massachusetts. Instead there is a Hampshire Council of Governments, as of the 2010 census, the population was 158,080. Its most populous municipality is Amherst, and its county seat is Northampton, the county is named after the county Hampshire, in England. Hampshire County is part of the Springfield, MA Metropolitan Statistical Area, Hampshire County was constituted in 1662 from previously unorganized territory comprising the entire western part of Massachusetts Bay Colony. It included the towns of Springfield, Northampton, and Hadley. The original Hampshire County included territory that is now in modern-day Hampden County, Franklin County, by 1683, three new towns had been incorporated south of Springfield. These towns were partly or wholly in the state of Connecticut at the time of their incorporation. In 1731, Worcester County was created, which included the town of Brookfield. More territory was lost to Worcester County in 1742 when the town of Western was created and added to Worcester County, further territorial losses occurred in 1749 when the towns of Enfield, Somers, and Suffield unilaterally joined Connecticut Colony. In 1761, Berkshire County was created resulting in more territorial loss for Hampshire County. In 1811, Franklin County was split off from the part of Hampshire. Like a number of Massachusetts counties, Hampshire County exists today both as a geographic region and a judicial district, it has no county government. Many former county functions were assumed by state agencies in 1999, the sheriff and some other regional officials with specific duties are still elected county-wide to perform duties within the region. The Hampshire Council of Governments, with elected councilors from 15 towns, provides many regional services, together with Hampden County, Hampshire County municipalities belong to the Pioneer Valley Planning Commission. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 545 square miles. Hampshire County is the section of the Pioneer Valley. Franklin County Worcester County Hampden County Berkshire County As of the census of 2000, there were 152,251 people,55,991 households, the population density was 288 people per square mile. There were 58,644 housing units at a density of 111 per square mile
6.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
7.
Eastern Time Zone
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Places that use Eastern Standard Time when observing standard time are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. Eastern Daylight Time, when observing daylight saving time DST is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, in the northern parts of the time zone, on the second Sunday in March, at 2,00 a. m. EST, clocks are advanced to 3,00 a. m. EDT leaving a one-hour gap, on the first Sunday in November, at 2,00 a. m. EDT, clocks are moved back to 1,00 a. m, southern parts of the zone do not observe daylight saving time. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 ruled that daylight saving time would run from the last Sunday of April until the last Sunday in October in the United States, the act was amended to make the first Sunday in April the beginning of daylight saving time as of 1987. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time in the United States beginning in 2007. So local times change at 2,00 a. m. EST to 3,00 a. m. EDT on the second Sunday in March, in Canada, the time changes as it does in the United States. However, a handful of communities unofficially observe Eastern Time because they are part of the Columbus, Georgia metropolitan area – Phenix City, Smiths Station, Lanett, and Valley. Florida, All of Florida is in the Eastern Time zone except for the portion of the Florida Panhandle west of the Apalachicola River, as the Eastern–Central zone boundary approaches the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the Bay/Gulf county line. Indiana, All of Indiana observes Eastern Time except for six counties in the Chicago metropolitan area. Kentucky, Roughly, the half of the state, including all of metropolitan Louisville, is in the Eastern Time Zone. Historically the entire state observed Central Time, when daylight saving time was first introduced, the Lower Peninsula remained on DST after it formally ended, effectively re-aligning itself into the Eastern Time Zone. The Upper Peninsula continued to observe Central Time until 1972, when all, Tennessee, Most of the eastern third of Tennessee is legally on Eastern Time. Eastern Time is also used somewhat as a de facto official time for all of the United States, since it includes the capital and the largest city. Major professional sports leagues also post all game times in Eastern time, for example, a game time between two teams from Pacific Time Zone will still be posted in Eastern time. Most cable television and national broadcast networks advertise airing times in Eastern time, national broadcast networks generally have two primary feeds, an eastern feed for Eastern and Central time zones, and a tape-delayed western feed for the Pacific Time Zone. The prime time is set on Eastern and Pacific at 8,00 p. m. with the Central time zone stations receiving the eastern feed at 7,00 p. m. local time. Mountain Time Zone stations receive a separate feed at 7,00 p. m. local time, as Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, during the summer months, it has its own feed at 7,00 p. m. local time
8.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
9.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
10.
ZIP Code
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ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
11.
Area code 413
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Area code 413 is the area code for the western third of Massachusetts. The most-populous city in the 413 area code is Springfield,413 also includes Chicopee, Northampton, Holyoke, and Amherst. Massachusetts was scheduled to receive two area codes under the original North American Numbering Plan proposal - the only state in New England to be split between two area codes, Area code 413 was intended for use in Pennsylvania. However, when codes were finally assigned, the eastern two-thirds of the state was assigned 617. As a result,413 is the original area code in Massachusetts that still maintains its original boundaries. Despite the proliferation of phones and pagers,413 is currently projected to stay that way until at least 2030. Despite this, 10-digit dialing is mandatory for local calls outside 413. com,413 Area Code
12.
Geographic Names Information System
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It is a type of gazetteer. GNIS was developed by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the United States Board on Geographic Names to promote the standardization of feature names, the database is part of a system that includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps that confirm the feature or place name are cited, variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. Each feature receives a permanent, unique feature record identifier, sometimes called the GNIS identifier, the database never removes an entry, except in cases of obvious duplication. The GNIS accepts proposals for new or changed names for U. S. geographical features, the general public can make proposals at the GNIS web site and can review the justifications and supporters of the proposals. The Bureau of the Census defines Census Designated Places as a subset of locations in the National Geographic Names Database, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28 gives standards for addressing mail. In this publication, the postal service defines two-letter state abbreviations, street identifiers such as boulevard and street, department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, Digital Gazeteer, Users Manual. Least Heat Moon, William, Blue Highways, A Journey Into America, standard was withdrawn in September 2008, See Federal Register Notice, Vol.73, No. 170, page 51276 Report, Principles, Policies, and Procedures, Domestic Geographic Names, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28, November 2000. Board on Geographic Names website Geographic Names Information System Proposals from the general public Meeting minutes
13.
County seat
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A county seat is an administrative center, seat of government, or capital city of a county or civil parish. The term is used in the United States, Canada, Romania, China, in the United Kingdom and Ireland, county towns have a similar function. In the United States, counties are the subdivisions of a state. Depending on the state, counties may provide services to the public, impose taxes. Some types of subdivisions, such as townships, may be incorporated or unincorporated. The city, town, or populated place that houses county government is known as the seat of its respective county, a county seat is usually, but not always, an incorporated municipality. The exceptions include the county seats of counties that have no incorporated municipalities within their borders, such as Arlington County, Virginia, likewise, some county seats may not be incorporated in their own right, but are located within incorporated municipalities. For example, Cape May Court House, New Jersey, though unincorporated, is a section of Middle Township, in some of the colonial states, county seats include or formerly included Court House as part of their name. Most counties have only one county seat, an example is Harrison County, Mississippi, which lists both Biloxi and Gulfport as county seats. The practice of multiple county seat towns dates from the days when travel was difficult, there have been few efforts to eliminate the two-seat arrangement, since a county seat is a source of pride for the towns involved. There are 36 counties with multiple county seats in 11 states, Coffee County, for example, the official county seat is Greensboro, but an additional courthouse has been located in nearby High Point since 1938. For example, Clearwater is the county seat of Pinellas County, Florida, in New England, the town, not the county, is the primary division of local government. Historically, counties in this region have served mainly as dividing lines for the judicial systems. Connecticut and Rhode Island have no county level of government and thus no county seats, in Vermont, Massachusetts, and Maine the county seats are legally designated shire towns. County government consists only of a Superior Court and Sheriff, both located in the shire town. Bennington County has two towns, but the Sheriff is located in Bennington. In Massachusetts, most government functions which would otherwise be performed by county governments in other states are performed by town governments. As such, Massachusetts has dissolved many of its county governments, two counties in South Dakota have their county seat and government services centered in a neighboring county
14.
Florence, Massachusetts
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Florence is a village in the northwestern portion of the city of Northampton, Hampshire County, Massachusetts. The name Florence was suggested by neurologist Dr. Charles Munde, from the very early days of Northampton till 1847, the locality now called Florence was known as Broughtons Meadow. Soon after 1810 another name was applied commonly to this region, the Northampton Association of Education and Industry was started in 1842, and while it existed, the common term given to the settlement was The Community. In the fall of 1852 a meeting of the villagers was held in the South schoolhouse to choose a name for the place, postal communication was soon to be established and a new name was desired. The pretty village, the stream, the silk mill, all suggested to his vivid imagination the proprietry of naming the village Florence. The citizens thought well of the neat and euphonious Florence, and unanimously adopted it, in 1832, Samuel Whitmarsh planted 25 acres of mulberry trees in Florence in order to raise silkworms. Sojourner Truth, a slave who became a nationally known advocate for equality. After the community dissolved in 1846, she bought a house on Park Street, a memorial statue was erected in her honor in Florence in 2002. Samuel L. Hill, the leader of the Northampton Association of Education and Industry. After the commune dissolved, Hill took over the factory and ran it as the Nonotuck Silk Company, hills home at 31-35 Maple Street in Florence served as a stop for the Underground Railway. The company changed its name again, and, as the Corticelli Silk Company, grew to be one of the worlds largest producers of silk thread, made with raw silk imported from Japan. In New York City, the Corticelli logo—a kitten playing with a spool of thread—loomed over Broadway from an electrical sign at 42nd Street between 1910 and 1913. The company went out of business in 1930, david Ruggles was an African-American printer in New York City during the 1830s, who was the prototype for black activist journalists of his time. He had edited a New York paper called The Mirror, in 1841, his father died, and as he was himself ailing and almost blind, friends arranged for him to join a commune in Northampton, Massachusetts. Applying home treatment upon hydropathic principles, he regained his health to some degree and he began practicing hydropathy, and by 1845, had established a water cure hospital in the area now known as Florence. This was one of the earliest in the United States, although others, notably Joel Shew and he became familiar with the water cure methods of Vincent Priessnitz around 1836, and treated scarlet fever cases in Dresden during the winter of 1845-46. Mirage Studios, the force behind the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles comic books was based out of a renovated factory space in Florence. Florence was the location for the 1999 movie, In Dreams
15.
Leeds, Massachusetts
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Leeds is a village in the western portion of the city of Northampton, Massachusetts, United States, bordering Williamsburg—along the Mill River—and Florence. The village was named after the town of Leeds, in England. In the 19th century, Leeds was known for its manufacturing, including broadcloth, silk. The major producer of silk in Leeds was the Corticelli Silk Mills and they had several buildings along sections of the Mill River. The major factory was located at the corner of Main Street and Mulberry Street, another building was located across the bridge. Another building was located near the end of Main Street. The company also created items that could be used in the classroom as teaching aids, in 1874, a dam on the Mill River broke, flooding Leeds and Williamsburg and killing 139 people
16.
Counterculture
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A counterculture is a subculture whose values and norms of behavior differ substantially from those of mainstream society, often in opposition to mainstream cultural mores. A countercultural movement expresses the ethos and aspirations of a population during a well-defined era. When oppositional forces reach critical mass, countercultures can trigger dramatic cultural changes, John Milton Yinger originated the term contraculture in his 1960 article in American Sociological Review. Some scholars have attributed the counterculture to Theodore Roszak, author of The Making of a Counter Culture and it became prominent in the news media amid the social revolution that swept the Americas, Western Europe, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand during the 1960s. Scholars differ in the characteristics and specificity they attribute to counterculture, mainstream culture is of course also difficult to define, and in some ways becomes identified and understood through contrast with counterculture. Counterculture might oppose mass culture, or middle-class culture and values, Counterculture is sometimes conceptualized in terms of generational conflict and rejection of older or adult values. Counterculture may or may not be explicitly political and it typically involves criticism or rejection of currently powerful institutions, with accompanying hope for a better life or a new society. It does not look favorably on party politics or authoritarianism, typically, a fringe culture expands and grows into a counterculture by defining its own values in opposition to mainstream norms. Countercultures tend to peak, then go into decline, leaving an impact on mainstream cultural values. Their life cycles include phases of rejection, growth, partial acceptance, during the late 1960s, hippies became the largest and most visible countercultural group in the United States. The cultural shadows left by the Romantics, Bohemians, Beats, the counterculture of the 1960s and early 1970s generated its own unique brand of notable literature, including comics and cartoons, and sometimes referred to as the underground press. In the United States, this includes the work of Robert Crumb and Gilbert Shelton, another such hippie/anarchist bookshop was Mushroom Books, tucked away in the Lace Market area of Nottingham. Some genres tend to challenge societies with their content that is meant to question the norms within cultures. More often than not, sources of these controversies can be found in art such as Marcel Duchamp whose piece Fountain was meant to be an attack on the most basic conventions of art in 1917. Instead of being a topic to fear, they have initiated subtle trends that other artists, in order to achieve such liberation, consciousness raising and direct action were employed. At the outset of the 20th century, homosexual acts were punishable offenses in these countries, the prevailing public attitude was that homosexuality was a moral failing that should be punished, as exemplified by Oscar Wildes 1895 trial and imprisonment for gross indecency. But even then, there were dissenting views, according to Charles Kaisers The Gay Metropolis, there were already semi-public gay-themed gatherings by the mid-1930s in the United States. There were also bars and bathhouses that catered to gay clientele, but homosexuality was typically subsumed into bohemian culture, and was not a significant movement in itself
17.
EPodunk
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EPodunk is a website that profiles communities in the United States, Canada, Ireland, and the UK. It provides geocoded information that includes local museums, attractions, parks, colleges, libraries, cemeteries and other features, as well as local history, the site contains vintage postcards that its users can send online. The site was founded in 2001 by a team of journalists who had worked for publications including the New York Times, Detroit Free Press, Ithaca Times. Initial target audiences for the site were travelers and people in the process of relocating, upon inception, the site listed profiles for 28,000 residential communities and focused mostly on small communities. The site has grown to cover communities of all sizes and currently lists profiles for more than 46,000 communities, the site lists detailed information about residential communities on individual Community Profile pages. This includes items commonly found in almanacs and encyclopedias, such as resident demographics and information about parks, museums, historic sites, colleges, information is sourced from the United States Census and other government agencies, local historical societies, publications, and non-profit and commercial organizations. The United States version includes maps and rankings of American municipalities based on the population of these based on ancestry. The site is supported by licensing content to third parties and by running advertisements, ePodunk US ePodunk Canada ePodunk Ireland ePodunk UK
18.
Pioneer Valley
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The Pioneer Valley is the colloquial and promotional name for the portion of the Connecticut River Valley that is in Massachusetts in United States. It is generally taken to comprise the three counties of Hampden, Hampshire, and Franklin, the lower Pioneer Valley corresponds to the Springfield, Massachusetts metropolitan area, the regions urban center, and the seat of Hampden County. The upper Pioneer Valley region includes the cities of Northampton and Greenfield. The Pioneer Valley is known for its scenery and as a vacation destination, the Pioneer Valley is a popular, year-round tourist destination—a role that it has played historically, prior to its deindustrialization. The Connecticut River has been flowing through the valley for millions of years and was dammed to form glacial lake Hitchcock during the last ice age. According to Kings Handbook of Springfield, by Moses King, the Pioneer Valley is not a river channel, it is, in fact. These rocks now form many sharp hills and mountains in the Valley, during the Triassic time, Massachusettss portion of the Connecticut River Valley formed a shallow arm of the sea, leaving deposits that enriched the Pioneer Valleys inordinately fertile soil. The region known as the Pioneer Valley constitutes Massachusettss portion of the fertile Connecticut River Valley, Greenfield is its largest municipality, a small city frequently used as a gateway to the regions many outdoor pursuits. The county offers downhill skiing at resorts such as Berkshire East, white-water rafting, zip-lining, hiking, kayaking, in addition, Franklin County contains many rustic, former mill towns. Many of these have become quaint and scenic since the decline of the mills, Massachusettss Routes 2 and 2A, Hampshire County is the home to five prominent colleges and universities that cooperate with each other and are known collectively as the Five Colleges. They are UMass Amherst, Amherst, Mount Holyoke, Smith, each of these highly regarded liberal arts colleges and universities contribute to Hampshire Countys college town atmosphere, particularly in the significant college towns of Northampton and Amherst. Much of Hampshire Countys cultural activity, frequently flamboyant nightlife, in terms of political demographics, Hampshire County is one of the most liberal areas in the United States in both voter registration and election returns. Hampden County is the most highly urbanized county in Western Massachusetts, however, forest Park, a city park of 745 acres designed following the principles of Frederick Law Olmsted, who is most famous for designing New York Citys Central Park, is comparably diverse and ornate. The citys economic base is diverse, featuring Massachusettss wealthiest Fortune 100 company, MassMutual Insurance, as well as numerous universities, Springfield features thousands of Victorian era Painted Lady mansions e. g. in the McKnight Historic District. In addition to the Connecticut River, Springfield features Watershops Pond, Porter Lake, north of Springfield, the U. S. Westover Air Force Base is located in the resurgent, former industrial city of Chicopee. The City of Chicopee features the confluence of the fast-moving Chicopee River, the Chicopee River, although only 18.0 miles long, has the largest water basin in Massachusetts—and along the Connecticut River—at 741 square miles. Across from Chicopee, on the west side of the Connecticut River, in addition to the mall, Holyoke is home to the Mount Tom Range of mountains, the Holyoke Canal System, and the Volleyball Hall of Fame. The city of Westfield features Westfield State University, founded by renowned education reformer Horace Mann.1 mile Westfield River, currently, the Pioneer Valleys ethnic and racial diversity varies greatly from city to town
19.
Connecticut River
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The Connecticut River is the longest river in the New England region of the United States. Flowing roughly southward for 406.12 miles through four U. S. states, the Connecticut rises at the U. S. border with Quebec, Canada, and discharges at Long Island Sound. Its watershed encompasses five U. S. states and one Canadian province –11,260 square miles – via 148 tributaries,38 of which are major rivers, discharging at 19,600 cubic feet per second, the Connecticut produces 70% of Long Island Sounds fresh water. The word Connecticut is a French corruption of the Mohegan word quinetucket, the word Connecticut came into existence during the early 1600s, describing the river, which was also called simply The Great River. Prior to Dutch exploration beginning in 1614, numerous native tribes lived throughout the fertile Connecticut River valley, information concerning how these tribes lived and interacted stems mostly from English accounts written during the 1630s. In the southernmost region of the Connecticut River valley, the Pequots dominated a territory stretching roughly from the rivers mouth northward to just below the Big Bend. Occasionally, these villages endured invasions from more aggressive confederated tribes living in modern-day New York, such as the Mohawk, Mahican and Iroquois tribes. In the northernmost reaches of the Connecticut River Valley, the Western Abenaki tribe lived in the Green Mountains region of Vermont and they later merged with members of other Algonquin tribes displaced by the wars and famines that accompanied the European settling of the Connecticut River Valley. In 1614, Dutch explorer Adriaen Block became the first European explorer to chart the Connecticut River, in charting the Connecticut, Bloeck called it the Fresh River, and claimed it for the Netherlands as the northeastern border of the New Netherland colony. In 1623, Dutch traders constructed a trading post at the site of modern Hartford, Connecticut. Less than a later, four separate Puritan-led groups settled the fertile Connecticut River Valley. In the process, they founded the two cities that continue to dominate the Connecticut River Valley today – Hartford and Springfield. In 1633, a left the Massachusetts Bay Colony from Watertown. With this in mind, they founded Wethersfield, Connecticut, in 1633 – several miles south of the Dutch fort at modern Hartford, shortly after Hookers arrival, Newtowne annexed Matianuck, based on laws supposedly articulated in Connecticuts settlement charter, the Warwick Patent of 1631. The patent, however, had been physically lost, and the annexation was almost certainly illegal, the fourth English settlement along the Connecticut came out of a 1635 scouting party commissioned by William Pynchon. Of these settlements, Hartford and Springfield quickly emerged as powers, in 1641, Springfield splintered off from the Hartford-based Connecticut Colony, instead allying itself with the Boston-based Massachusetts Bay Colony. For decades, Springfield remained the Massachusetts Bay Colonys westernmost settlement, by 1654 however, the success of these English settlements rendered the Dutch position on the Connecticut untenable. A treaty relocated the boundary between the Connecticut Colony and New Netherland Colony westward, near present-day Greenwich, the treaty allowed the Dutch to maintain their trading post at Foot Huys de Hoop, which they did until the 1664 British takeover of New Netherland
20.
Springfield metropolitan area, Massachusetts
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The Springfield metropolitan area is a region that is socio-economically and culturally tied to the City of Springfield, Massachusetts. The U. S. Office of Management and Budget defines the Springfield, as of July 1,2009, the metropolitan areas population was estimated at 631,982. County government in New England is weak at best, and in Connecticut, Rhode Island, in addition, major cities and surrounding towns are often much smaller in land area than in other parts of the United States. For example, the City of Springfield is 33.2 sq. miles, whereas the City of Fort Worth, Texas is 298.9 sq. miles, nearly 10 times larger in land area than Springfield. Because of the discrepancy in land area, in general New England cities like Springfield feature much higher population densities. In addition, New England cities and towns have developed allegiances that transcend state borders, thus and this system is thought to better approximate New Englands metropolitan areas because it uses New Englands geographically smaller building blocks. In Springfields case, its NECTA consists of 51 additional cities, Hampden Hampshire Franklin As of the census of 2000, there were 680,014 people,260,745 households, and 167,924 families residing within the MSA. The racial makeup of the MSA was 83. 50% White,5. 96% African American,0. 25% Native American,1. 74% Asian,0. 06% Pacific Islander,6. 35% from other races, and 2. 13% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 11. 15% of the population, the median income for a household in the MSA was $42,195, and the median income for a family was $52,551. Males had an income of $37,784 versus $28,404 for females. The per capita income for the MSA was $20,633, the Pioneer Valley Transit Authority is the primary operator of public transportation services in the Springfield Metropolitan Area. Headquartered in Springfield, the PVTA maintains a fleet of approximately 174 buses,144 vans, founded in 1974 with the enactment of Massachusetts General Law Chapter 161B, the PVTA serves 24 member communities in Hampden, Hampshire, and Franklin counties. Each member community pays an assessment fee to the PVTA based on the number of miles served in city or town. Alternative sources of revenue mostly originate from federal and state governments, the PVTA itself is governed by an advisory board
21.
Western Massachusetts
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Western Massachusetts is a region in Massachusetts, one of the six U. S. states that make up the New England region of the United States. Western Massachusetts has diverse topography,22 universities, with approximately 100,000 university students, and such institutions as Tanglewood, Springfield Armory, the western part of Western Massachusetts includes the Berkshire Mountains, where there are several vacation resorts. The eastern part of the region includes the Connecticut River Valley, which has a number of university towns, the major city Springfield, in the eastern part of the area, the Quabbin region is a place of outdoor recreation. The western portion of Massachusetts consists approximately of the four counties of Franklin, Hampshire, Hampden and this set of four counties is sometimes regarded as defining Western Massachusetts, for example, the Western Massachusetts Office of the Governor serves residents of these counties. Subsequent to the elimination of the Franklin, Hampshire, Hampden, Berkshire and Worcester county governments in the late 1990s, the municipalities of Franklin and Hampshire counties subsequently organized two voluntary county-oriented regional councils of government. New Englands largest river, the Connecticut, flows through the center of its agricultural valley, nearly bisected by the American east coasts only east-west mountain ranges this relatively small area contains a number of college towns, urban environments, and rural hamlets. The portion of valley in Massachusetts is also commonly referred to as the Pioneer Valley. Secondary rifts branched off the main crustal fracture, and this one was occupied by the Connecticut River. Fossil dinosaur footprints in Holyoke attest to the present in this region during the Mesozoic. Although the Connecticut River Valleys soil is the richest in New England, regardless, the valley remains New Englands most productive farmland. Tobacco, tomatoes, sweet corn, and other vegetables are produced there in commercial quantities. The Berkshires have long been patronized by artists (e. g. Cultural opportunities include Lenoxs Tanglewood, Beckets Jacobs Pillow, the city of Pittsfield is the largest community located in the Berkshires. The practical limit of agriculture is somewhat below 2,000, above this climate and ecology become increasingly boreal with acidic soils. From these valleys, uplands to the east appear as a mountain range. West of the Housatonic-Hoosic valley system rises the narrower Taconic Range along the New York border, upper tributaries of the Hoosic separate Massachusetts highest peak, Mount Greylock 3,491 from both ranges, however Greylocks geology connects it with the Taconics. In northern Massachusetts, the higher altitude area to the east of the Connecticut River Valley is known as the North Quabbin region and these northern municipalities include Warwick, Orange, Petersham, Phillipston, Wendell, New Salem, and Athol near the New Hampshire border. The South Quabbin region includes the towns of Barre, Belchertown, Pelham, Ware, Hardwick, Leverett and this area once included the four Lost Towns of Enfield, Dana, Greenwich, and Prescott, which were destroyed to make way for the Quabbin Reservoir. Farther south, the called the Quaboag Hills includes Hampden, Monson, Wales, Warren, Holland
22.
Springfield, Massachusetts
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Springfield is a city in western New England, and the seat of Hampden County, Massachusetts, United States. Springfield sits on the bank of the Connecticut River near its confluence with three rivers, the western Westfield River, the eastern Chicopee River, and the eastern Mill River. As of the 2010 Census, the population was 153,060. Metropolitan Springfield, as one of two areas in Massachusetts, had an estimated population of 698,903 as of 2009. The first Springfield in the New World, it is the largest city in Western New England, and the urban, economic and it is the third-largest city in Massachusetts and fourth-largest in New England after Boston, Worcester, and Providence. Hartford, the capital of Connecticut, lies 23.9 miles south of Springfield, bradley International Airport, which sits 12 miles south of Metro Center Springfield, is Hartford-Springfields airport. Springfield was founded in 1636 by English Puritan William Pynchon as Agawam Plantation under the administration of the Connecticut Colony, in 1641 it was renamed after Pynchons hometown of Springfield, Essex, England, following incidents that precipitated the settlement joining the Massachusetts Bay Colony. From 1777 until its closing during the Vietnam War, the Springfield Armory attracted skilled laborers to Springfield, arsenal at Springfield during Shays Rebellion of 1787 led directly to the formation of the U. S. Springfield is located at 42°6′45″N 72°32′51″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 33.2 square miles, of which 32.1 square miles is land and 1.1 square miles is water. Once nicknamed The City in a Forest, Springfield features over 4, aside from its rivers, Springfields 2nd most prominent topographical feature is the citys 735 acres Forest Park, designed by renowned landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted. Forest Park also borders Western Massachusetts most affluent town, Longmeadow, Springfield shares borders with other well-heeled suburbs such as East Longmeadow, Wilbraham, Ludlow and the de-industrializing city of Chicopee. The small cities of Agawam and West Springfield, Massachusetts lie less than a mile from Springfields Metro Center, across the Connecticut River. The City of Springfield also owns the Springfield Country Club, which is located in the city of West Springfield, Massachusetts. Springfield, like other cities in southern New England, has a continental climate with four distinct seasons. Winters are cold with a average in January of around 26 °F. During winter, noreaster storms can drop significant snowfalls on Springfield, Springfields summers are very warm and sometimes humid. During summer, several times per month, on hot days afternoon thunderstorms will develop when unstable warm air collides with approaching cold fronts, the daily average in July is around 74 °F. Usually several days during the summer exceed 90 °F, constituting a heat wave, Spring and fall temperatures are usually pleasant, with mild days and crisp, cool nights
23.
Smith College
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Smith College is a private, independent womens liberal arts college with coed graduate and certificate programs, located in Northampton, Massachusetts, United States. It is the largest member of the Seven Sisters, in its 2017 edition, U. S. News & World Report ranked it tied for 12th among the best National Liberal Arts Colleges. The college was chartered in 1871-1891 by a bequest of Sophia Smith and opened its doors in 1875 with 14 students, by 1915–16 the student enrollment was 1,724 and the faculty numbered 163. Today, with some 2,600 undergraduates on campus, and 250 students studying elsewhere, on August 28,1942, a total of 120 women reported to the school for training. Smith has been led by 11 presidents and two acting presidents, for the 1975 centennial, the college inaugurated its first woman president, Jill Ker Conway, who came to Smith from Australia by way of Harvard and the University of Toronto. The campus was planned and planted in the 1890s as a garden and arboretum. The campus landscape now encompasses 147 acres and includes more than 1,200 varieties of trees, Smith College has 285 professors in 41 academic departments and programs, for a faculty, student ratio of 1,9. Smith Colleges acceptance rate in 2015 was 35. 97% and it was the first womens college in the United States to grant its own undergraduate degrees in engineering. The Picker Engineering Program offers a single ABET accredited Bachelor of Science in engineering science, Smith recently joined the SAT optional movement for undergraduate admission. Smith runs its own junior year abroad programs in four European cities, Paris, Hamburg, Florence and these programs are notable for requiring all studies to be conducted in the language of the host country. In some cases live in homestays with local families. Nearly half of Smiths juniors study overseas, either through Smith JYA programs or at more than 40 other locations around the world, junior math majors from other undergraduate institutions are invited to study at Smith College for one year through the Center for Women in Mathematics. The Center also offers a year of math study to women who either did not major in mathematics as undergraduates or whose mathematics major was not strong. The Louise W. and Edmund J. Kahn Liberal Arts Institute supports collaborative research without regard to the boundaries of academic departments. Each year the Institute supports long-term and short-term projects proposed, planned and organized by members of the Smith College faculty, by becoming Kahn Fellows, students get involved in interdisciplinary research projects and work alongside faculty and visiting scholars for a year. Students can develop skills through Smiths two-year Phoebe Reese Lewis Leadership Program. Participants train in public speaking, analytical thinking, teamwork strategies, through Smiths internship program, Praxis, The Liberal Arts at Work, every undergraduate is guaranteed access to one college funded internship during her years at the college. This program enables students to access interesting self-generated internship positions in social welfare and human services, the arts, media, health, education, the 2017 annual ranking of U. S. News & World Report categorizes Smith as more selective
24.
Northampton High School (Massachusetts)
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Northampton High School is a four-year secondary school located in the town of Northampton, Massachusetts. The student body is composed of approximately 900 students, supported by 75 staff. Athletics include varsity teams in football, soccer, swimming, baseball, basketball, lacrosse, wrestling, track & field, cross country, field hockey, fencing, skiing, crew, and ultimate. Northampton Highs theater program has been under the direction of Stephen Eldredge since his hire in 2005, Eldredge has acted, directed and taught theater for over 30 years in New York, San Francisco and New England. Within the school is a 709-seat proscenium theater, a Black Box theater was added in 2012, providing an alternative performing space, with room for 70 audience members. The seats were salvaged from Pleasant Street theater, a movie theater in downtown Northampton. In the Spring, senior students are given the opportunity to produce, direct, Northampton High is a very strong sports school. Northampton High School has one of the strongest girls varsity programs in the state. The Northampton High School Girls Varsity Basketball team won the Massachusetts Girls Division 1 Basketball State Championship for the 2007-2008 season, both seniors and juniors from that team went on to division 1,2 and 3 college basketball careers. Then in the 2010-2011 season, the Boys Varsity Basketball team won the Western Massachusetts Division 1 title, the fencing team has had numerous fencers place in states for the past 5 years. The Track program is ranked with numerous Western Mass championships. The Cross-Country Team is one of the best in Massachusetts, winning Western Mass in 2010 and 2014, both girls and boys soccer are also highly ranked. The school also has a very strong Ultimate program, in 2015, the Boys Varsity and Girls Varsity teams placed 7th and 2nd in their respective state championships. NHS is home to the Devilbots, a ranked team in the FIRST Robotics Competition or FRC. The team is now conjoined with a schools team, Smith Vocational High School. Northampton Community Television, a community media center, shares space with NHS. Although not officially affiliated with the High School, Northampton Community Televisions equipment, the high schools theater and technology programs often work together. Northampton High School Northampton Public Schools Northampton High School Theater
25.
Clarke Schools for Hearing and Speech
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A local benefactor, John Clarke, offered a $50,000 grant to anyone who would start a school for the deaf in Northampton. Gardiner Greene Hubbard, with the government and numerous individuals. As of 2008, over 1,400 teachers of the deaf had been trained through the Smith College/Clarke Graduate Teacher Education program. Alexander Graham Bell, President Calvin Coolidge, and First Lady Grace Coolidge served on Clarke’s Board of Trustees, with Bell and Grace Coolidge serving as chair of the board at different times. In the first quarter of 2010, Clarke announced the new name better reflecting their mission from Clarke School for the Deaf to Clarke Schools for Hearing, subsequently, a new logo and website was created to complete the rebranding. Clarkes New York campus in New York City, New York Clarkes Jacksonville campus in Jacksonville, the program consists of a residential program and a school program which revolves around a central theme. For example, the most recent summer program focused on Going Green, the classes are not academic and the campers enjoy swimming at Clarkes indoor swimming pool, gym and many other fun activities that occur in the dormitory and at school. Each camper is placed into small groups of five or six other campers of similar age or placement. According to historians at the school, Calvin Coolidge lived on campus where he met his wife in Grace Anna Goodhue. In 1902, Mr. Coolidge lived in Adams House, a faculty house behind to the main dormitory. Grace Goodhue thought it was a sight, and laughed out loud. That apparently got the attention of Coolidge and later year, he. In 1905 Grace Goodhue left the school after three years of service to marry Calvin and join him in his political career. In 2007, Clarke School was featured in the PBS documentary, the documentary depicted deafness and Deaf culture in the United States and the choices parents face between sign language and oral language. School website A Sound Future Promotion
26.
Pocomtuc
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Their territory also included much of current-day Hampden and Hampshire Counties, plus areas now in northern Connecticut and southern Vermont. Their principal village, also known as Pocumtuck, was in the vicinity of the present day village of Deerfield and their language, now extinct, was an R-dialect of the Algonquian language family, most likely related to the Wappinger and nearby Mahican tribes of the Hudson River Valley. Little is known about the Pocumtuck people, but it is believed they led a similar to other tribes of New England. They would have engaged in agriculture of maize, beans. They also hunted game and fished in the Connecticut River, which served as a major transportation route. The Pocumtuck were decimated by warfare with the powerful Mohawk, then based in present-day New York. They had no immunity to the new disease and suffered high fatalities, in addition, they lost tribal members due to taking part in wars among the Dutch, English, French, and their respective Native American allies. The Pocumtuck were originally allied with the Tunxis and Narragansett against Chief Uncas of the Mohegan, all these tribes united against the English colonists with the Wampanoag Confederacy in King Philips War. At the close of the war, many Pocumtuck, Nipmuc, and other tribes fled to Schaghticoke and they remained there until the outbreak of the Seven Years War in 1754, when most joined and merged into the Abenaki tribes at Saint-François-du-Lac, Quebec or moved further west. Small bands remained in Massachusetts as late as the 19th century, many of the present-day Abenaki of New Hampshire, Vermont, and Canada are of part-Pocumtuck ancestry. Among the members of the Pocumtuck tribe was Chief Wawanotewat, better known as Greylock, a famous warrior, he continued to lead bands into Massachusetts after most of his followers had left the state. Mount Greylock in the Berkshires is named after him, agawam - present-day Metro Center Springfield, Massachusetts
27.
Northampton
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Northampton /nɔːrθˈæmptən/ is the county town of Northamptonshire in the East Midlands of England. It lies on the River Nene, about 67 miles north-west of London and 50 miles south-east of Birmingham, One of the largest towns in the UK, Northampton had a population of 212,100 in the 2011 census. Archaeological evidence of settlement in the dates back to the Bronze Age, Roman. During the Middle Ages, the rose to national significance with the establishment of Northampton Castle. Medieval Northampton had many churches, monasteries and the University of Northampton and it was granted its first town charter by King Richard I in 1189 and its first mayor was appointed by King John in 1215. The town is also the site of two battles, the Battle of Northampton and the second in 1460. The town also suffered the Great Fire of Northampton which destroyed most of the town and it was soon rebuilt and grew rapidly with the industrial development of the 18th century. Northampton continued to grow following the creation of the Grand Union Canal, after the World Wars, Northamptons growth was limited until it was designated as a New Town in 1968, accelerating development in the town. Northampton unsuccessfully applied for status in 1996 and city status in 2000. According to Centre for Cities data in 2015, Northampton had a growth of 11. 3% between the years 2004 and 2013, one of the ten highest in the UK. The earliest reference to Northampton in writing occurred in 914 under the name Ham tune, the prefix North was added later to distinguish it from other towns called Hampton, most prominently Southampton. The Domesday Book records the town as Northantone, which evolved into Norhamptone by the 13th century, present-day Northampton is the latest in a series of settlements that began in the Bronze Age. During the British Iron Age, people lived in protected hill forts. Present-day Hunsbury Hill is an example of settlement, a circular ditch. In the Roman period, a rural settlement is thought to have existed in the present-day district of Duston. Following Danish invasion, the area of the town was turned into a stronghold called a burh. A ditch was dug around the settlement and it was fortified with earth ramparts, having conquered Mercia, the Danes turned the settlement into a centre for military and administrative purposes, which was part of the Danelaw. In the 9th century Regenhere of Northampton an East Anglian Saint with localised veneration was buried in Northampton, by 918, Northampton had an earl and an army dependent upon it, whose territory extended to the River Welland
28.
New Hampshire
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New Hampshire is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, New Hampshire is the 5th smallest by land area and the 9th least populous of the 50 United States. Concord is the capital, while Manchester is the largest city in the state and in northern New England, including Vermont. It has no sales tax, nor is personal income taxed at either the state or local level. The New Hampshire primary is the first primary in the U. S. presidential election cycle and its license plates carry the state motto, Live Free or Die. The states nickname, The Granite State, refers to its extensive granite formations, the state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire by Captain John Mason. New Hampshire is part of the New England region and it is bounded by Quebec, Canada, to the north and northwest, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, Massachusetts to the south, and Vermont to the west. New Hampshires major regions are the Great North Woods, the White Mountains, the Lakes Region, the Seacoast, the Merrimack Valley, the Monadnock Region, and the Dartmouth-Lake Sunapee area. New Hampshire has the shortest ocean coastline of any U. S. coastal state, New Hampshire was home to the rock formation called the Old Man of the Mountain, a face-like profile in Franconia Notch, until the formation disintegrated in May 2003. Major rivers include the 110-mile Merrimack River, which bisects the lower half of the state north–south and ends up in Newburyport and its tributaries include the Contoocook River, Pemigewasset River, and Winnipesaukee River. The 410-mile Connecticut River, which starts at New Hampshires Connecticut Lakes and flows south to Connecticut, only one town – Pittsburg – shares a land border with the state of Vermont. The northwesternmost headwaters of the Connecticut also define the Canada–U. S, the Piscataqua River and its several tributaries form the states only significant ocean port where they flow into the Atlantic at Portsmouth. The Salmon Falls River and the Piscataqua define the southern portion of the border with Maine, the U. S. Supreme Court dismissed the case in 2002, leaving ownership of the island with Maine. New Hampshire still claims sovereignty of the base, however, the largest of New Hampshires lakes is Lake Winnipesaukee, which covers 71 square miles in the east-central part of New Hampshire. Umbagog Lake along the Maine border, approximately 12.3 square miles, is a distant second, Squam Lake is the second largest lake entirely in New Hampshire. New Hampshire has the shortest ocean coastline of any state in the United States, Hampton Beach is a popular local summer destination. It is the state with the highest percentage of area in the country. New Hampshire is in the temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biome, much of the state, in particular the White Mountains, is covered by the conifers and northern hardwoods of the New England-Acadian forests
29.
Connecticut
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Connecticut is the southernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Connecticut is also often grouped along with New York and New Jersey as the Tri-State Area and it is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the south. Its capital city is Hartford, and its most populous city is Bridgeport, the state is named for the Connecticut River, a major U. S. river that approximately bisects the state. The word Connecticut is derived from various anglicized spellings of an Algonquian word for long tidal river, Connecticut is the third smallest state by area, the 29th most populous, and the fourth most densely populated of the 50 United States. It is known as the Constitution State, the Nutmeg State, the Provisions State, and it was influential in the development of the federal government of the United States. Connecticuts center of population is in Cheshire, New Haven County, Connecticuts first European settlers were Dutch. They established a small, short-lived settlement in present-day Hartford at the confluence of the Park, initially, half of Connecticut was a part of the Dutch colony New Netherland, which included much of the land between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers. The first major settlements were established in the 1630s by England, the Connecticut and New Haven Colonies established documents of Fundamental Orders, considered the first constitutions in North America. In 1662, the three colonies were merged under a charter, making Connecticut a crown colony. This colony was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution, the Connecticut River, Thames River, and ports along the Long Island Sound have given Connecticut a strong maritime tradition which continues today. The state also has a history of hosting the financial services industry, including insurance companies in Hartford. As of the 2010 Census, Connecticut features the highest per-capita income, Human Development Index, and median household income in the United States. Landmarks and Cities of Connecticut Connecticut is bordered on the south by Long Island Sound, on the west by New York, on the north by Massachusetts, and on the east by Rhode Island. The state capital and third largest city is Hartford, and other cities and towns include Bridgeport, New Haven, Stamford, Waterbury, Norwalk, Danbury, New Britain, Greenwich. Connecticut is slightly larger than the country of Montenegro, there are 169 incorporated towns in Connecticut. The highest peak in Connecticut is Bear Mountain in Salisbury in the northwest corner of the state, the highest point is just east of where Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York meet, on the southern slope of Mount Frissell, whose peak lies nearby in Massachusetts. At the opposite extreme, many of the towns have areas that are less than 20 feet above sea level. Connecticut has a maritime history and a reputation based on that history—yet the state has no direct oceanfront
30.
Algonquian peoples
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The Algonquian are one of the most populous and widespread North American native language groups. Today, thousands of individuals identify with various Algonquian peoples, historically, the peoples were prominent along the Atlantic Coast and into the interior along the St. Lawrence River and around the Great Lakes. This grouping consists of the peoples who speak Algonquian languages, before Europeans came into contact, most Algonquian settlements lived by hunting and fishing, although quite a few supplemented their diet by cultivating corn, beans and squash. The Algonquians of New England practiced a seasonal economy, the basic social unit was the village, a few hundred people related by a clan kinship structure. The people moved to locations of greatest natural food supply, often breaking into smaller units or recombining as the circumstances required and this custom resulted in a certain degree of cross-tribal mobility, especially in troubled times. In warm weather, they constructed light wigwams for portability, wigwams are a type of hut which usually had buckskin doors. In the winter, they erected the more substantial long houses and they cached food supplies in more permanent, semi-subterranean structures. In the spring, when the fish were spawning, they left the camps to build villages at coastal locations. In March, they caught smelt in nets and weirs, moving about in birchbark canoes, in April, they netted alewife, sturgeon and salmon. In May, they caught cod with hook and line in the ocean, putting out to sea, the men hunted whales, porpoises, walruses and seals. The women and children gathered scallops, mussels, clams and crabs, from April through October, natives hunted migratory birds and their eggs, Canada geese, brant, mourning doves and others. In July and August they gathered strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, in September, they split into small groups and moved up the streams to the forest. There, the men hunted beaver, caribou, moose and white-tailed deer, in December, when the snows began, the people created larger winter camps in sheltered locations, where they built or reconstructed long houses. February and March were lean times, the tribes in southern New England and other northern latitudes had to rely on cached food. Northerners developed a practice of going hungry for days at a time. Historians hypothesize that this kept the population down, according to Liebigs law. The northerners were food gatherers only, the southern Algonquians of New England relied predominantly on slash-and-burn agriculture. They cleared fields by burning for one or two years of cultivation, after which the moved to another location
31.
Mahican
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Following the disruption of the American Revolutionary War, most of the Mahican descendants first migrated westward to join the Iroquois Oneida on their reservation in central New York. The Oneida gave them about 22,000 acres for their use, after more than two decades, in the 1820s and 1830s, the Oneida and the Stockbridge moved again, pressured to relocate to northeastern Wisconsin under the federal Indian Removal program. Therefore, they, along with tribes living along the Hudson River, were called the River Indians by the Dutch. The Dutch heard and wrote the term for the people of the area variously as, Mahigan, Mahikander, Mahinganak, Maikan and Mawhickon, which the English simplified later to Mahican or Mohican. The Mahican were living in and around the Hudson River at the time of their first contact with Europeans traders along the Hudson River in the 1590s, after 1609 at the time of the settlement of New Netherland, they also ranged along the Mohawk River and the Hoosic River. In their own language, the Mahican referred to collectively as the Muhhekunneuw. The original Mahican homeland was the Hudson River Valley from the Catskill Mountains north to the end of Lake Champlain. Usually consisting of 20 to 30 mid-sized longhouses, they were located on hills, agriculture provided most of their diet but was supplemented by game, fish, and wild foods. Mahican villages were governed by hereditary sachems advised by a council of clan elders, a general council of sachems met regularly at Shodac to decide important matters affecting the entire confederacy. The Mahican were a confederacy of five tribes and as many as forty villages, Mahican proper, Mechkentowoon Wawyachtonoc Westenhuck Wiekagjoc The Mahican traded with Henry Hudson when he sailed up the Hudson River in September,1609. Hudson returned to Holland with a cargo of furs which immediately attracted Dutch merchants to the area. The first Dutch fur traders arrived on the Hudson River the following year to trade with the Mahican, besides exposing them to European epidemics, the fur trade destabilized the region. Many settled in the town of Stockbridge, Massachusetts, where they became known as the Stockbridge Indians. Etow Oh Koam, one of their chiefs, accompanied three Mohawk chiefs on a visit to Queen Anne and her government in England in 1710. They were popularly referred to as the Four Mohawk Kings, the Stockbridge Indians allowed Protestant missionaries, including Jonathan Edwards, to live among them. In the 18th century, many converted to Christianity, while keeping certain traditions of their own and they fought on the side of the British colonists in the French and Indian War. During the American Revolution, they sided with the colonists, Henry Rauch reached out to two Mahican leaders, Maumauntissekun, also known as Shabash, and Wassamapah, who took him back to Shekomeko. They named him the new religious teacher, over time, Rauch won listeners, as the Mahicans had suffered much from disease and warfare, which had disrupted their society
32.
Iroquois
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The Iroquois or Haudenosaunee are a historically powerful northeast Native American confederacy. The Iroquois have absorbed many other peoples into their cultures as a result of warfare, adoption of captives, the historic Erie, Susquehannock, Wyandot, and St. Lawrence Iroquoians, all independent peoples, spoke Iroquoian languages. In 2010, more than 45,000 enrolled Six Nations people lived in Canada, the most common name for the confederacy, Iroquois, is of somewhat obscure origin. The first time it appears in writing is in the account of Samuel de Champlain of his journey to Tadoussac in 1603, other spellings occurring in the earliest sources include Erocoise, Hiroquois, Hyroquoise, Irecoies, Iriquois, Iroquaes, Irroquois, and Yroquois. In the French spoken at the time, this would have been pronounced as or. In 1883, Horatio Hale wrote that the Charlevoix etymology was dubious, Hale suggested instead that the term came from Huron, and was cognate with Mohawk ierokwa they who smoke or Cayuga iakwai a bear. Hewitt responded to Hales etymology in 1888 by expressing doubt that either of those words even exist in the respective languages, a more modern etymology is that advocated by Gordon M. Day in 1968, who elaborates upon an earlier etymology given by Charles Arnaud in 1880. Arnaud had claimed that the word came from Montagnais irnokué, meaning terrible man, Day proposes a hypothetical Montagnais phrase irno kwédač, meaning a man, an Iroquois, as the origin of this term. More recently, Peter Bakker has proposed a Basque origin for Iroquois. g and he proposes instead that the word derives from hilokoa, from the Basque roots hil to kill, ko, and a. He also argues that the /l/ was rendered as /r/ since the former is not attested in the inventory of any language in the region. Thus the word according to Bakker is translatable as the killer people, a different term, Haudenosaunee, is the designation more commonly used by the Iroquois to refer to themselves. It is also preferred by scholars of Native American history who consider the name Iroquois to be derogatory in origin. An alternate designation, Ganonsyoni, is encountered as well. More transparently, the Iroquois confederacy is also referred to simply as the Six Nations. The history of the Iroquois Confederacy goes back to its formation by the Peacemaker in 1142, each nation within the Iroquoian family had a distinct language, territory and function in the League. Iroquois influence extended into present-day Canada, westward along the Great Lakes, the League is governed by a Grand Council, an assembly of fifty chiefs or sachems, each representing one of the clans of one of the nations. The original Iroquois League or Five Nations, occupied areas of present-day New York State up to the St. Lawrence River, west of the Hudson River. The League was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, in or close to 1722, the Tuscarora tribe joined the League, having migrated from the Carolinas after being displaced by Anglo-European settlement
33.
Mohawk people
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The Mohawk people are the most easterly tribe of the Haudenosaunee, or Iroquois Confederacy. They are an Iroquoian-speaking indigenous people of North America, the Mohawk were historically based in the Mohawk Valley in present-day upstate New York west of the Hudson River, their territory ranged north to the St. As one of the five members of the Iroquois League. For hundreds of years, they guarded the Iroquois Confederation against invasion from that direction by tribes from the New England and their current major settlements include areas around Lake Ontario and the St Lawrence River in Canada and New York. In the Mohawk language, the say that they are from Kanienkehá. The Mohawk became wealthy traders as other nations in their confederacy needed their flint for tool making and their Algonquian-speaking neighbors, the people of Muh-heck Haeek Ing, a name transliterated by the Dutch as Mohican or Mahican, referred to the People of Ka-nee-en Ka as Maw Unk Lin. The Dutch heard and wrote this term as Mohawk, and also referred to the Mohawk as Egil or Maqua, the French colonists adapted these latter terms as Aignier and Maqui, respectively. They also referred to the people by the generic Iroquois, a French derivation of the Algonquian term for the Five Nations, the Algonquians and Iroquois were traditional competitors and enemies. The Mohawk had extended their own influence into the St. Lawrence River Valley and they are believed to have defeated the St. Lawrence Iroquoians in the 16th century, and kept control of their territory. In addition to hunting and fishing, for centuries the Mohawk cultivated productive maize fields on the floodplains along the Mohawk River. The Dutch were primarily merchants and the French also conducted fur trading and their Jesuit missionaries were active among First Nations and Native Americans, seeking converts to Catholicism. In 1614, the Dutch opened a trading post at Fort Nassau, the Dutch initially traded for furs with the local Mahican, who occupied the territory along the Hudson River. European contact resulted in a smallpox epidemic among the Mohawk in 1635. For instance, Johannes Megapolensis, a Dutch minister, recorded the spelling of the three villages as Asserué, Banagiro, and Thenondiogo. While the Dutch later established settlements in present-day Schenectady and Schoharie, further west in the Mohawk Valley, Schenectady was established essentially as a farming settlement, where Dutch took over some of the former Mohawk maize fields in the floodplain along the river. Through trading, the Mohawk and Dutch became allies of a kind, during their alliance, the Mohawks allowed Dutch Protestant missionary Johannes Megapolensis to come into their tribe and teach the Christian message. He operated from the Fort Nassau area about six years, writing a record in 1644 of his observations of the Mohawk, their language, and their culture. While he noted their ritual of torture of captives, he recognized that their society had few other killings, especially compared to the Netherlands of that period
34.
Hudson Valley
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The Hudson Valley comprises the valley of the Hudson River and its adjacent communities in the U. S. state of New York, from the cities of Albany and Troy southward to Yonkers in Westchester County. In the Hudson Highlands, the river enters a cut during previous ice ages. To the west lie the extensive Appalachian highlands, in the Tappan Zee region, the west side of the river has high cliffs produced by an erosion-resistant diabase, these cliffs range from 400–800 feet in height. The Hudson Valley is one section of the larger Ridge-and-Valley province. The northern portions of the Hudson Valley fall within the Eastern Great Lakes, during the last ice age, the valley was filled by a large glacier that pushed south as far as Long Island. Near the end of the last ice age, the Great Lakes drained south down the Hudson River, Lake Ontario is the remnant of that Lake. Large sand deposits remain from where Lake Iroquois drained into the Hudson, the first Dutch settlement was in the 1610s with the establishment of Fort Nassau, a trading post south of modern-day Albany, with the purpose of exchanging European goods for beaver pelts. Fort Nassau was later replaced by Fort Orange, during the French and Indian War in the 1750s, the northern end of the valley became the bulwark of the British defense against French invasion from Canada via Lake Champlain. The valley became one of the regions of conflict during the American Revolution. Part of the strategy of the British was to sever the colonies in two by maintaining control of the river. In 1797, the capital of New York was established permanently at Albany. Following the building of the Erie Canal, the became an important industrial center. The canal opened the Hudson Valley and New York City to commerce with the Midwest, however, in the mid 20th century, many of the industrial towns went into decline. The area is associated with the Hudson River School, a group of American Romantic painters who worked from about 1830 to 1870, a similar 30-mile stretch of the east bank in Dutchess and Columbia counties has been designated a National Historic Landmark. Tourism became an industry as early as 1810, as elite visitors frequented the mineral water at Ballston Spa. With convenient steamboat connections in New York City, and numerous hotels in romantic settings. Early guidebooks providing suggestions on their itinerary, middle-class people who read James Fenimore Coopers novels, or saw the paintings of the Hudson River School, were especially attracted. Hudson Valley Tech Valley is a name for the eastern part of New York State, including the Hudson Valley
35.
Massachusetts Bay Colony
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Territory claimed but never administered by the colonial government extended as far west as the Pacific Ocean. The earlier Dutch colony of New Netherlands disputed many of these claims, arguing that they held rights to lands beyond Rhode Island up to the side of Cape Cod. The Massachusetts Bay Colony began in 1628 and was the second attempt at colonization. The colony was successful, with about 20,000 people migrating to New England in the 1630s, the population was strongly Puritan, and its governance was dominated by a small group of leaders who were strongly influenced by Puritan religious leaders. Its governors were elected, and the electorate were limited to freemen who had been examined for their religious views, as a consequence, the colonial leadership exhibited intolerance to other religious views, including Anglican, Quaker, and Baptist theologies. The colonists initially had decent relationships with the local Indian populations and these led first to the Pequot War and then to King Philips War, after which most of the Indians in southern New England made peace treaties with the colonists. The colony was successful, engaging in trade with England. A shortage of currency in the colony prompted it to establish a mint in 1652. Political differences with England after the English Restoration led to the revocation of the charter in 1684. King James II established the Dominion of New England in 1686 to bring all of the New England colonies under firmer crown control, Sir William Phips arrived in 1692 bearing the charter and formally took charge of the new province. The political and economic dominance of New England by the state of Massachusetts was made possible in part by the early dominance in these spheres by the Massachusetts Bay colonists. The total Indian population in 1620 has been estimated to be 7,000 with the population of New England at 15–18,000, the land-use patterns of the natives included plots cleared for agricultural purposes, and woodland territories for the hunting of game. Land divisions between the tribes were well understood, during the early 17th century, several European explorers charted the area, including Samuel de Champlain and John Smith. Plans began in 1606 for the first permanent British settlements on the east coast of North America, on April 10,1606, King James I of England granted a charter forming two joint-stock companies. Under this charter, the first Colony and the second Colony were to be ruled by a Council composed of 13 individuals in each colony, the charter provided for an additional council of 13 persons to have overarching responsibility for the combined enterprise. No name was given to either the company or council governing the respective colonies, the first Colony ranged from the 34th- to 41st-degree latitude north, the second Colony ranged from the 38th- to 45th-degree latitude. The London Company proceeded to establish Jamestown, the Plymouth Company under the guidance of Sir Ferdinando Gorges covered the more northern area, including present-day New England, and established the Sagadahoc Colony in 1607 in present-day Maine. The experience proved exceptionally difficult for the 120 settlers, however, Gorges noted that there was no more speech of settling plantations in those parts for a number of years
36.
Wampanoag
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The Wampanoag /ˈwɑːmpənɔːɡ/, also called joto and also rendered Wôpanâak, is a Native American people in North America. They were a loose confederacy made up of several tribes, many Wampanoag people today are enrolled in two federally recognized tribes, the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe and the Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head, or four state-recognized tribes in Massachusetts. Their population numbered in the due to the richness of the environment and their cultivation of corn, beans. Three thousand Wampanoag lived on Marthas Vineyard alone, from 1615 to 1619 the Wampanoag suffered an epidemic, long suspected to be smallpox. Early twenty-first century research has suggested that it was leptospirosis, a bacterial infection known as Weils syndrome or 7-day fever. It caused a fatality rate and nearly destroyed the society. Researchers say that the losses from the epidemic were so large that English colonists were more able to found their settlements in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in later years. More than 50 years later, the King Philips War of Indian allies against the English colonists resulted in the deaths of 40 percent of the surviving tribe, most of the male Wampanoag were sold into slavery in Bermuda or the West Indies. Many women and children were enslaved by colonists in New England, while the tribe largely disappeared from historical records from the late 18th century, its people and descendants persisted. The project is working on curriculum and teacher development. Wampanoag means Easterners or literally People of the Dawn, the word Wapanoos was first documented on Adriaen Blocks 1614 map, which was the earliest-known European representation of Wampanoag territory. Other interpretations include Wapenock, Massasoit and exonym Philips Indians, in 1616, John Smith erroneously referred to the entire Wampanoag confederacy as the Pakanoket, one of the tribes. Pokanoket was used in the earliest colonial records and reports, the Pokanoket tribal seat was located near present-day Bristol, Rhode Island. Traditionally Wampanoag people have been semi-sedentary, with seasonal movements between fixed sites in present-day southern New England, the men often traveled far north and south along the Eastern seaboard for seasonal fishing expeditions, and sometimes stayed in those distant locations for weeks and months at a time. The women cultivated varieties of the three sisters as the staples of their diet, supplemented by fish and game caught by the men. Each community had authority over a territory from which the people derived their livelihood through a seasonal round of fishing, planting, harvesting. Because southern New England was thickly populated by peoples, hunting grounds had strictly defined boundaries. The Wampanoag, like many indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands, have a system, in which women controlled property
37.
King Philip's War
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King Philips War was an armed conflict between American Indian inhabitants of present-day New England and English colonists and their Indian allies in 1675–78. The war is named for Metacomet, the Wampanoag chief who adopted the English name Philip due to the relations between his father and the Mayflower Pilgrims. The war continued in the most northern reaches of New England until the signing of the Treaty of Casco Bay in April 1678, Metacom was the second son of Wampanoag chief Massasoit, who had coexisted peacefully with the Pilgrims. Metacom succeeded his brother in 1662 and reacted against the European settlers continued encroaching onto Wampanoag lands, at Taunton in 1671, he was humiliated when colonists forced him to sign a new peace agreement that included the surrender of Indian guns. Officials in Plymouth Colony hanged three Wampanoags in 1675 for the murder of an Indian, and Metacoms followers and allies launched an assault on colonial towns throughout the region. Metacoms forces gained initial victories in the first year, but then the Indian alliance began to unravel, by the end of the conflict, the Wampanoags and their Narragansett allies were almost completely destroyed. Metacom anticipated their defeat and returned to his home at Mt. Hope. More than half of New Englands towns were attacked by Indians, King Philips War began the development of a greater European-American identity. The colonists trials, without significant English government support, gave them an identity separate. The Pilgrims who arrived on the Mayflower and founded Plymouth Plantation expended great effort in forging friendship and they traveled long distances to make peace with Chief Massasoit, and Governor William Bradford made a gift of his magnificent and prized red horse coat upon seeing that the chief admired it. By 1675, the efforts at friendship failed. Plymouth, Massachusetts was established in 1620 with significant early help from local Indians, particularly Squanto and Massasoit, the colonists progressively expanded throughout the territories of the several Algonquian-speaking tribes in the region. Prior to King Philips War, tensions fluctuated between Indian tribes and the colonists, but relations were generally peaceful, many of the neighboring tribes had been traditional competitors and enemies. As the colonial population increased, the New Englanders expanded their settlements along the coastal plain. By 1675, they had established a few towns in the interior between Boston and the Connecticut River settlements. The Wampanoag tribe under Metacomets leadership had entered into an agreement with the Plymouth Colony, however, in the decades preceding the war it, became clear to them that the treaty did not mean that the Colonists were not allowed to settle in new territories. Metacomet became sachem of the Pokanoket and Grand Sachem of the Wampanoag Confederacy after the death in 1662 of his older brother, the latter had succeeded their father Massasoit as chief. Well known to the English before his ascension as paramount chief to the Wampanoag, the Plymouth colonists had put in place laws making it illegal to do commerce with the Wampanoags
38.
Southampton, Massachusetts
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Southampton is a town in Hampshire County, Massachusetts, United States. It was established first as a district of Northampton in 1753, the name Southampton was given to it during its first town meeting in 1773. Southampton is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area, the town had a population of 5,792 at the 2010 census. Southampton was rated having the best tasting tap water in the country in 2008 by the National Rural Water Association, senator Ted Kennedy was involved in a plane crash there in 1964. Lewis Strong Clarke, a Louisiana sugarcane planter and 19th century Republican politician, was there in 1837. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 29.1 square miles. Southampton is located 17 miles northwest of Springfield and 100 miles to the west of Boston, as of the census of 2000, there were 5,387 people,1,985 households, and 1,556 families residing in the town. The population density was 191.4 people per square mile, there were 2,025 housing units at an average density of 71.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 98. 29% White,0. 20% African American,0. 13% Native American,0. 63% Asian,0. 20% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 87% of the population. 16. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 6. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.71 and the average family size was 3.07. In the town, the population was out with 25. 5% under the age of 18,6. 3% from 18 to 24,29. 1% from 25 to 44,29. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 94.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.0 males, the median income for a household in the town was $61,831, and the median income for a family was $64,960. Males had an income of $41,544 versus $31,250 for females. The per capita income for the town was $26,205, about 1. 8% of families and 2. 4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2. 8% of those under age 18 and 6. 5% of those age 65 or over
listen)[12]) is the county seat of Hampshire County, Massachusetts, United States.[13] As of the 2010 census, the population of Northampton (including its outer villages, Florence and Leeds) was 28,549.[14]_(NYPL_b12610608-421421).jpg)
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