1.
Paleohispanic scripts
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The Paleohispanic scripts are the writing systems created in the Iberian peninsula before the Latin alphabet became the dominant script. Most of them are unusual in that they are rather than purely alphabetic, despite having supposedly developed, in part. Some researchers conclude that their origin may lie solely with the Phoenician alphabet, the Paleoiberian scripts are classified into three major groups, southern, northern, and Greco-Iberian, with differences both in the shapes of the glyphs and in their values. Inscriptions in the scripts have been found mainly in the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula. They represent only 5% of the inscriptions found, and mostly read from right to left and they are, the Espanca script, the Tartessian or Southwestern script, also known as South Lusitanian, the Southeastern Iberian script, also known as Meridional. Inscriptions in the scripts have been found mainly in the NE of the Iberian Peninsula. They represent 95% of the inscriptions found, and mostly read from left to right and they are, the Northeastern Iberian script, also known as Levantine, Dual variant Non-dual variant the Celtiberian script Western variant Eastern variant. This unique writing system has been called a semi-syllabary, in addition, the original format did not distinguish voiced from unvoiced plosives, so that ga stood for both /ga/ and /ka/, and da stood for both /da/ and /ta/. On the other hand, the continuants were written with simple alphabetic letters, as in Phoenician, if correct, this innovation would parallel the creation of the Latin letter G by the addition of a stroke to C, which had previously stood for both /k/ and /g/. The Tartessian script is typologically intermediate between a pure alphabet and the Paleohispanic semi-syllabaries, although the letter used to write a plosive was determined by the following vowel, as in a semi-syllabary, the following vowel was also written, as in an alphabet. This redundant typology re-emerged in a few texts of northeastern Iberian and Celtiberian scripts. The only known full Paleoiberian signary, on the undated Espanca tablet, follows the Phoenician/Greek order for the first 13 of its 27 letters, Α Β Γ Δ Ι Κ Λ Μ Ν Ξ Π. However, the order of what appears to be /u/ directly after Τ, the obvious question about the origin and evolution of these scripts is how a purely alphabetic script was changed into, or perhaps unconsciously reinterpreted as, a partial syllabary. It may be instructive to consider an unrelated development in the evolution of the Etruscan alphabet from Greek, Greek had three letters, Γ, Κ, and Ϙ, whose sounds were not distinguished in Etruscan. Nonetheless, all three were borrowed, becoming the letters C, K, and Q. When the Etruscan alphabet was adapted to Latin, the letter C stood for both /k/ and /g/, as Etruscan had had no /g/ sound to maintain the original sound value of Greek Г. Something similar may have happened during the evolution of the Paleoiberian scripts, in Tartessian script, vowels were always written after the plosives, but they were redundant — or at nearly so — and thus it seems they were dropped when the script passed to the Iberians. Among the velar consonants, ka/ga of southeastern Iberian and the southwestern script derives from Phoenician/Greek Γ, ke/ge from Κ, Phoenician/Greek labial letter Β was the source of southwestern be, southeastern ba, the use of Π is uncertain but may have been the source of bi
2.
Sant Just Desvern
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Sant Just Desvern is a town near Barcelona, in the comarca of the Baix Llobregat, Catalonia, Spain. Baix Llobregat has an area of 486. 5km2, population of 643,419 inhabitants, density of 1322.5 inhabitants/km2, Sant Just Desvern is located in the 2, 078317º of longitude and 41, 381611º of latitude. It is situated at 122m over the line of the sea, the maximum height is located at 405 meters above sea level, almost in the top of Turó de Merlès and the lowest spot of this town is about 40 meters, located at the park of Torreblanca. The surface of the town is about 7,8 km2, the town has 35 km of streets. It has good connections to arrive to N-340, the highway A-2 and Rondes de Dalt, in the first division of comarcal, Sant Just Desvern was included in Barcelonès. But in the revision in 1987, along with Esplugas de Llobregat. The municipality borders are Sant Joan Despí to the southwest, Esplugues de Llobregat to the east, Barcelona is almost in the border line. The first mention of the town in a document dates back to the year 965 and its coat of arms depicts a blue bell inside a golden rhombus. The local city council uses the slogan pobleiciutat, Sant Just Desvern is home to several celebrities including players for the F. C. Barcelona football club and politicians including the ex-president of the Generalitat de Catalunya, José Montilla. The population was 15,874 in 2012, the town is home to the Walden 7, designed by Ricardo Bofill. The building has 16 stories high and this surface is 31.140 m2, the building has 446 apartments and nowadays live about thousand people. It has three swimming pools on the top, apart from that, Sant Just has a viewer near to the Walden. The viewer is a concrete chimney designed by engineer Clifford Tomlinson, it’s 105 meters in height and it was the highest chimney in Europe when it was constructed. The viewpoint is on the top accessed by an elevator with transparent floor, besides, the chimney has a widescreen restaurant high in a metallic ring high with panoramic views. The Church of Sant Just Desvern is documented since 987, the actual building is of 1571 and after the Spanish civil war was reconstructed because it was burnt. Moreover, Sant Just has some ancient farmhouses that are regarded like patrimony of the town and those are Can Campreciós, Can Ginestar, Can Segrera, Can Cardona, Can Solanes, Can Pedrosa, Can Carbonelletc. Just is based by industrial sector and the sector, which have a high specialization. The most important industries are chemical-pharmaceutical, perfume, machinery manufacturing, electrical equipment manufacturing, for services are machinery rental, whole sale trade and income distribution
3.
Navarre
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The first documented use of a name resembling Navarra, Nafarroa, or Naparroa is a reference to navarros, in Eginhards early 9th Century chronicle of the feats of the Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne. Other Royal Frankish Annals feature nabarros, there are two proposed etymologies for the name. Basque nabar, brownish, multicolor (i. e. in contrast to the mountainous lands north of the original County of Navarre. Basque naba, valley, plain + Basque herri, the linguist Joan Coromines considers naba to be linguistically part of a wider Vasconic or Aquitanian language substrate, rather than Basque per se. During the Roman Empire, the Vascones, a tribe who populated the southern slopes of the Pyrenees. In the mountainous north, the Vascones escaped large-scale Roman settlement, not so the flatter areas to the south, which were amenable to large-scale Roman farming—vineyards, olives, and wheat crops. Neither the Visigoths nor the Franks ever completely subjugated the area, the Vascones included neighbouring tribes as of the 7th century. In AD778, the Basques defeated a Frankish army at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass and that kingdom reached its zenith during the reign of King Sancho III, comprising most of the Christian realms to the south of the Pyrenees, and even a short overlordship of Gascony. When Sancho III died in 1035, the Kingdom of Navarre was divided between his sons and it never fully recovered its political power, while its commercial importance increased as traders and pilgrims poured into the kingdom throughout the Way of Saint James. In 1200, Navarre lost the key western Basque districts to Alphonse VIII of Castile, Navarre then contributed with a small but symbolic force of 200 knights to the decisive Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 against the Almohads. The native line of kings came to an end in 1234, however, the Navarrese kept most of their strong laws and institutions. To the south of the Pyrenees, Navarre was annexed to the Crown of Castile, but keeping a separate status. A Chartered Government was established, and the managed to keep home rule. After the 1839 Convention of Bergara, a version of home rule was passed in 1839. The relocation of customs from the Ebro river to the Pyrenees in 1841 prompted the collapse of Navarre’s customary cross-Pyrenean trade, amid instability in Spain, Carlists took over in Navarre and the rest of the Basque provinces. The end of the Third Carlist War saw a wave of Spanish centralization directly affecting Navarre. In 1893-1894 the Gamazada popular uprising took place centred in Pamplona against Madrids governmental decisions breaching the 1841 chartered provisions. Except for a faction, all parties in Navarre agreed on the need for a new political framework based on home rule within the Laurak Bat
4.
Iberian scripts
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The Iberian scripts are the Paleohispanic scripts that were used to represent the extinct Iberian language. Most of them are very unusual in that they are semi-syllabic rather than purely alphabetic. The oldest Iberian inscriptions date to the 4th or possibly the 5th century BCE, and it was used mainly in Alicante and Murcia. The northeastern Iberian script is known simply as the Iberian script. These have been mainly in the northeastern quadrant of the Iberian Peninsula, mostly along the coast from Languedoc-Roussillon to Alicante. The southeastern Iberian script is poorly attested, and there are gaps in the records, There are no positively identified symbols for /gu/, /do/. Unlike the northeastern Iberian script the decipherment of the southeastern Iberian script is not still closed, the southeastern inscriptions have been found mainly in the southeastern quadrant of Iberia, Eastern Andalusia, Murcia, Albacete, Alicante, and Valencia. If correct, this innovation would parallel the creation of the Latin letter G from C by the addition of a stroke and that is, in written Iberian, ga displayed no resemblance to ge, and bi had no connection to bo. This possibly unique writing system is called a semi-syllabary, the southeastern script was written right to left, as was the Phoenician alphabet, whereas the northeastern script reversed this to left to right, as in the Greek alphabet. The relation between the northeastern and southeastern Iberian scripts is not straightforward and it appears that either the glyphs themselves were changed, or that they assumed new values. For example, southern /e/ derives from Phoenician/Greek Ο, whereas northern /e/ resembles Phoenician/Greek Ε, however, it is clear that they had a common origin, and the most commonly accepted hypothesis is that the northeastern script derives from the southeastern script. Some researchers conclude that their origin lies solely with the Phoenician alphabet. Iberian language Paleohispanic scripts Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula Anderson, correa, José Antonio, «Los semisilabarios ibéricos, algunas cuestiones», ELEA4, pp. 75–98. Correa, José Antonio, «Representación gráfica de la oposición de sonoridad en las oclusivas ibéricas », AIΩN14, ferrer i Jané, Joan Novetats sobre el sistema dual de diferenciació gràfica de les oclusives sordes i sonores, Palaeohispanica 5, pp. 957–982. Gómez-Moreno, Manuel, «De Epigrafia ibérica, el plomo de Alcoy», Revista de filología española 9, hoz, Javier de, «La escritura greco-ibérica», Veleia 2–3, pp. 285–298. Hoz, Javier de, «El nuevo plomo inscrito de Castell y el problema de las oposiciones de sonoridad en ibérico», Symbolae Ludouico Mitxelena septuagenario oblatae, maluquer de Motes, Joan, Epigrafía prelatina de la península ibérica, Barcelona. Rodríguez Ramos, Jesús, Análisis de Epigrafía Íbera, Vitoria-Gasteiz 2004, rodríguez Ramos, Jesús, «La escritura ibérica meridional», Zephyrus 55, pp. 231–245. Untermann, Jürgen, Monumenta Linguarum Hispanicarum, Wiesbaden, II Die iberischen Inschriften aus Sudfrankreicht
5.
Southeastern Iberian script
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The main difference is that southeastern Iberian script doesn’t show the vocalic redundancy of the syllabic signs. From the writing point of view they are neither alphabets nor syllabaries, rather. The inscriptions that use the southeastern Iberian script had been mainly in the southeastern quadrant of the Iberian Peninsula, eastern Andalusia, Murcia, Albacete, Alicante. The southeastern Iberian inscriptions were made on different object types, but they number around 50, between them there are the lead plaque from Gador and the lead plaque from La Bastida de les Alcuses. The inscriptions that use this script almost always use the right to left direction of writing, the oldest inscriptions in southeastern Iberian script date to the 4th century BCE, and the modern ones date from the end of the 2nd century BCE. Ferrer i Jané, Joan, «El sistema dual de lescriptura ibèrica sud-oriental», Veleia 27, hoz, Javier de, «El desarrollo de la escritura y las lenguas de la zona meridional», Tartessos, pp. 523-587. Rodríguez Ramos, Jesús, «La escritura ibérica meridional», Zephyrus 55, III Die iberischen Inschriften aus Spanien, Wiesbaden. Velaza, Javier, Epigrafía y lengua ibéricas, Barcelona, the meridional Iberian writing - Jesús Rodríguez Ramos
6.
Greco-Iberian alphabet
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The inscriptions that use the Greco-Iberian alphabet had been found mainly in Alicante and Murcia and the direction of the writing is left to right. To represent the second rhotic rho gets an additional stroke, eta is used instead of epsilon to represent /e/. The only letter not found in the variant of the Greek alphabet is sampi. The letter forms are petroglyphic since the writing surface affords angular glyphs with straight lines, hoz, Javier de, «La escritura greco-ibérica», Veleia 2–3, pp. 285–298. Hoz, Javier de, «Epigrafía griega de occidente y escritura greco-ibérica», Los griegos en España, Rodríguez Ramos, Jesús, «Introducció a l’estudi de les inscripcions ibèriques», Revista de la Fundació Privada Catalana per l’Arqueologia ibèrica,1, pp. 13–144. III Die iberischen Inschriften aus Spanien, Wiesbaden, velaza, Javier, Epigrafía y lengua ibéricas, Barcelona. The Greek-Iberian writing- Jesús Rodríguez Ramos Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia
7.
Phoenician alphabet
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The Phoenician alphabet, called by convention the Proto-Canaanite alphabet for inscriptions older than around 1050 BC, is the oldest verified alphabet. The Phoenician alphabet is an abjad consisting of 22 letters, all consonants and it was used for the writing of Phoenician, a Northern Semitic language, used by the civilization of Phoenicia. The Phoenician alphabet is derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs and it became one of the most widely used writing systems, spread by Phoenician merchants across the Mediterranean world, where it evolved and was assimilated by many other cultures. The Paleo-Hebrew alphabet was derived from Phoenician. Another derivative script is the Aramaic alphabet, which was the ancestor of the modern Arabic script, the Modern Hebrew script is a stylistic variant of the Aramaic script. The Greek alphabet was derived from Phoenician. Phoenician was usually written from right to left, although there are texts written in boustrophedon. The earliest known inscriptions are the so-called Proto-Sinaitic script sporadically attested in the Sinai and in Canaan in the late Middle. The script was not widely used until the rise of new Semitic kingdoms in the 13th and 12th centuries BC, the Phoenician alphabet is a direct continuation of the Proto-Canaanite script of the Bronze Age collapse period. Beginning in the 9th century BC, adaptations of the Phoenician alphabet -- such as Greek, Old Italic, Anatolian, and the Paleohispanic scripts -- were very successful. This simple system contrasted with the scripts in use at the time, such as cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs. Another reason for its success was the trading culture of Phoenician merchants. Phoenician inscriptions have been found in sites at a number of former Phoenician cities and colonies around the Mediterranean, such as Byblos. Later finds indicate earlier use in Egypt, Phoenician had long-term effects on the social structures of the civilizations that came in contact with it. As mentioned above, the script was the first widespread phonetic script and its simplicity not only allowed it to be used in multiple languages, but it also allowed the common people to learn how to write. The Phoenician alphabet was first uncovered in the 17th century, and it was at first believed that the script was a direct variation of Egyptian hieroglyphs. This idea was popular due to the recent decipherment of hieroglyphs. However, scholars could not find any link between the two writing systems, nor to hieratic or cuneiform, the theories of independent creation ranged from the idea of a single man conceiving it, to the Hyksos people forming it from corrupt Egyptian
8.
Greek alphabet
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It is the ancestor of the Latin and Cyrillic scripts. In its classical and modern forms, the alphabet has 24 letters, Modern and Ancient Greek use different diacritics. In standard Modern Greek spelling, orthography has been simplified to the monotonic system, examples In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-phonemic, among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants and aspirated plosives in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. This leads to groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the spellings in most of these cases. The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers, Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern, in other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek. Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components, among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the three mentioned above, there is also ⟨ου⟩, pronounced /u/, the Ancient Greek diphthongs ⟨αυ⟩, ⟨ευ⟩ and ⟨ηυ⟩ are pronounced, and respectively in voicing environments in Modern Greek. The Modern Greek consonant combinations ⟨μπ⟩ and ⟨ντ⟩ stand for and respectively, ⟨τζ⟩ stands for, in addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter ⟨γ⟩, before another velar consonant, stands for the velar nasal, thus ⟨γγ⟩ and ⟨γκ⟩ are pronounced like English ⟨ng⟩. There are also the combinations ⟨γχ⟩ and ⟨γξ⟩ and these signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. The letter rho, although not a vowel, also carries a rough breathing in word-initial position, if a rho was geminated within a word, the first ρ always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing leading to the transiliteration rrh. The vowel letters ⟨α, η, ω⟩ carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the iota subscript. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, ⟨ᾱι, ηι, ωι⟩, another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis, indicating a hiatus. In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as monotonic, was adopted for use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό. There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script, the form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, ⟨κ⟩ is replaced with ⟨c⟩, the diphthongs ⟨αι⟩ and ⟨οι⟩ are rendered as ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ respectively, and ⟨ει⟩ and ⟨ου⟩ are simplified to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ respectively
Media related to Iberian scripts at Wikimedia Commons
