1.
VAW-123
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Carrier Airborne Early Warning Squadron 123 is based at Naval Station Norfolk, flying the E-2C Hawkeye. They are attached to Carrier Air Wing Three while deployed aboard USS Dwight D. Eisenhower, the squadron nickname is the Screwtops. The history of VAW-123 begins in 1945 with the commissioning of Composite Squadron Twelve, redesignated Carrier Airborne Early Warning Squadron Twelve, as a result of the reorganization, CAEWW-12, Detachment 59 was commissioned VAW-123 on 1 April 1967, at NAS Norfolk, Virginia. The commissioning date of April 1,1967, makes VAW-123 one of the oldest VAW Squadron in the United States Navy, in June 1967 VAW-123 set sail aboard USS Forrestal for Vietnam, thus becoming the first East Coast VAW squadron to go to war. USS Forrestal returned to Norfolk with VAW-123 and the rest of the ships crew, VAW-123 had no loss of any personnel or have any personnel injured in the fire but some of the squadrons E-2A aircraft had very minor damage from the fire and explosions aboard the ship. Initially attached to CVW-17 aboard USS Forrestal, the became an integral part of CVW-3 aboard USS Saratoga. In 1972 VAW-123 again made a cruise to Vietnam waters in the Tonkin Gulf before returning to Norfolk in 1973. In October 1980, the transferred to CVW-11 aboard USS America. Following a 1981 Indian Ocean deployment, VAW-123 transferred to CVW-1 on 12 November 1981, since that time, the squadron made several extended Indian Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, and North Atlantic deployments as part of CVW-1/CVA-66, until the decommissioning of USS America in 1997. The squadron participated in the 1986 Gulf of Sidra operations off the coast of Libya and was involved in the first combat use of the AGM-88 HARM. Throughout the years, VAW-123 has received eleven Battle Es and nine Safety Ss, highlights of the commands history include the successful employment of the E-2C in 1973 and the first operational deployment of the E-2C ARPS in 1978. In March 1996, they became the first E-2 squadron on the East Coast to transition to the E-2C Group II aircraft, with its significantly upgraded avionics and engines. In November 1998, they became the first operational squadron on the East Coast to accept delivery of the Navigation Upgrade E-2C Group IIs, VAW-123 supported Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm and were the only E-2 squadron to operate in both the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. The squadron also flew in support of Operations Deny Flight and Deliberate Force over Bosnia-Herzegovina, the squadron, along with the rest of Carrier Air Wing One, attached to USS George Washington for one deployment cycle, returning home on 2 April 1998. On 18 May 1998, Carrier Air Wing One transferred from USS George Washington to USS John F. Kennedy. During July and August 1998, VAW-123 detached to Naval Station Roosevelt Roads, deploying in August 2003 with USS Enterprise, VAW-123 became the first carrier-based Navy squadron to operate an expeditionary detachment in support of special warfare units. In that same deployment, VAW-123 supported conventional units as well as special forces deployed to Iraq in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. In March 2006 and in 2007 VAW-123 again deployed with Carrier Air Wing One and USS Enterprise in support of the Iraq War, in 2011, the squadron deployed with Carrier Air Wing One on a six-month deployment in support of Operation Enduring Freedom and New Dawn
2.
USS Enterprise (CVN-65)
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USS Enterprise, formerly CVA-65, is a decommissioned United States Navy aircraft carrier. She was the worlds first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier and the eighth United States naval vessel to bear the name, like her predecessor of World War II fame, she is nicknamed Big E. At 1,123 ft, she is the longest naval vessel ever built and her 93, 284-long-ton displacement ranked her as the 12th-heaviest supercarrier, after the 10 carriers of the Nimitz class and the USS Gerald R. Ford. Enterprise had a crew of some 4,600 service members, the only ship of her class, Enterprise was, at the time of inactivation, the third-oldest commissioned vessel in the United States Navy after the wooden-hulled USS Constitution and USS Pueblo. Enterprises home port was Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia as of September 2012 and her second home port was Naval Air Station Alameda until its closure in 1997. When in port at NAS Alameda, she was visible to those crossing the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge and she was the flagship of Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz while he lived in Berkeley, California until his death in 1966. Her final deployment, the last before her inactivation, began on 10 March 2012 and she was inactivated on 1 December 2012 and has undergone the 48 month inactivation process that rendered her unfit for further military service. Enterprise was officially decommissioned on February 3,2017, after over 55 years of service and she was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register the same day. The name has been adopted by the future Gerald R. Ford-class aircraft carrier USS Enterprise, Enterprise was meant to be the first of a class of six carriers, but construction costs ballooned and the remaining vessels were never laid down. Because of the huge cost of her construction, Enterprise was launched and commissioned without the planned RIM-2 Terrier missile launchers and these were never installed and the ships self-defense suite instead consisted of three shorter-range RIM-7 Sea Sparrow, Basic Point Defense Missile System launchers. Later upgrades added two NATO Sea Sparrow and three Mk 15 Phalanx CIWS gun mounts, One CIWS mount was later removed and two 21-cell RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile launchers were added. She is the carrier with four rudders, two more than other classes, and features a more cruiser-like hull. Enterprise also had a phased array radar system known as SCANFAR, SCANFAR was intended to be better at tracking multiple airborne targets than conventional rotating antenna radars. SCANFAR consisted of two radars, the AN/SPS-32 and the AN/SPS-33, the AN/SPS-32 was a long-range air search and target acquisition radar developed by Hughes for the US Navy. The AN/SPS-32 operated together with the AN/SPS-33, which was the square used for 3D tracking. It was installed on two vessels, Enterprise and the cruiser USS Long Beach, placing a massive power drain on the ships electric system. The technology of the AN/SPS-32 was based on vacuum tubes and the required constant repairs. The SPS-32 was a phased array radar which had a range of 400 nautical miles against large targets and these early phased arrays, replaced around 1980, were responsible for the distinctive square-looking island
3.
Airborne early warning and control
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AEW&C units are also used to carry out surveillance, including over ground targets and frequently perform C2BM functions similar to an Air Traffic Controller given military command over other forces. Like a ground based radar, it can be detected by opposing forces, the system is used offensively to direct fighters to their target locations, and defensively, directing counterattacks on enemy forces, both air and ground. The designation airborne early warning was used for earlier similar aircraft, AWACS is the name of the specific system installed in the E-3 and Japanese Boeing E-767 AEW&C airframes, but is often used as a general synonym for AEW&C. Modern AEW&C systems can detect aircraft from up to 400 km away, one AEW&C aircraft flying at 9,000 m can cover an area of 312,000 km2. Three such aircraft in overlapping orbits can cover the whole of Central Europe, the intention was to cover the North West approaches where German long range Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor aircraft were threatening shipping. A Vickers Wellington bomber was fitted with an antenna array. It was tested for use against aerial targets and then for possible use against German E boats, another radar equipped Wellington with a different installation was used to direct Bristol Beaufighters toward Heinkel He 111s, which were air-launching V-1 flying bombs. In February 1944 the U. S. Navy ordered the development of a system that could be carried aloft in an aircraft under Project Cadillac. A prototype system was built and flown in August on a modified TBM Avenger torpedo bomber, tests proved successful, with the system being able to detect low flying formations at a range in excess of 100 miles. The U. S. Navy then ordered production of the TBM-3W, tBM-3Ws fitted with the AN/APS-20 radar entered service in March 1945, with some 36–40 eventually being constructed. The Lockheed WV and EC-121 Warning Star, which first flew in 1949 served widely with both the US Air Force and US Navy and provided the main AEW coverage for US forces during the Vietnam war. It was to remain operational until replaced with the E-3 AWACS, in 1958, the Soviet Tupolev Design Bureau was also ordered to design an AEW aircraft. After determining that the projected radar instrumentation wouldnt fit in a Tupolev Tu-95 or a Tupolev Tu-116 and this solved the problems with cooling and operator space that existed with the narrower Tu-95 and Tu-116 fuselage. To meet the range requirements, production examples were fitted with an air-to-air refueling probe. The resulting system, the Tupolev Tu-126, entered service in 1965 with the Soviet Air Forces, many countries have developed their own AEW&C systems, although the Boeing E-3 Sentry and Northrop Grumman E-2 Hawkeye are the most common systems worldwide. The E-3 Sentry was built by the Boeing Defense and Space Group and was based on the Boeing 707-320 aircraft,65 E-3 were built and it is operated by the United States Air Force, NATO, the British Royal Air Force, France and controversially, Saudi Arabia. The specially designed Grumman E-2 Hawkeye entered service in 1965 and has operated by eight different nations. Over 168 have been produced so far and new versions continue to be developed making it the most widely used AEW system, for the Japan Air Self-Defense Force, the E-3 technology has been fitted into the Boeing E-767
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
Grumman
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The Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, later Grumman Aerospace Corporation, was a leading 20th century U. S. producer of military and civilian aircraft. Founded on December 6,1929, by Leroy Grumman and partners, factory in Baldwin on Long Island, New York. All of the early Grumman employees were former Loening employees, the company was named for Grumman because he was its largest investor. The company filed as a business on December 5,1929, keeping busy by welding aluminum tubing for truck frames, the company eagerly pursued contracts with the US Navy. Grumman designed the first practical floats with a landing gear for the Navy. The first Grumman aircraft was also for the Navy, the Grumman FF-1 and this was followed by a number of other successful designs. Grumman ranked 22nd among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts, Grummans first jet aircraft was the F9F Panther, it was followed by the upgraded F9F/F-9 Cougar, and the less well known F-11 Tiger in the 1950s. The companys big postwar successes came in the 1960s with the A-6 Intruder and E-2 Hawkeye and in the 1970s with the Grumman EA-6B Prowler, Grumman products were prominent in the film Top Gun and numerous World War II naval and Marine Corps aviation films. The U. S. Navy still employs the Hawkeye as part of Carrier Air Wings on board aircraft carriers, Grumman was the chief contractor on the Apollo Lunar Module that landed men on the moon. The firm received the contract on November 7,1962, as the Apollo program neared its end, Grumman was one of the main competitors for the contract to design and build the Space Shuttle, but lost to Rockwell International. The company ended up involved in the program nonetheless, as a subcontractor to Rockwell, providing the wings. In 1969 the company changed its name to Grumman Aerospace Corporation, the company built the Grumman Long Life Vehicle, a light transport mail truck designed for and used by the United States Postal Service. The LLV entered service in 1986, Gulfstream business jets continue to be currently manufactured by Gulfstream Aerospace which is a wholly owned subsidiary of General Dynamics. For much of the Cold War period Grumman was the largest corporate employer on Long Island, Grummans products were considered so reliable and ruggedly built that the company was often referred to as the Grumman Iron Works. At its peak in 1986 it employed 23,000 people on Long Island, a portion of the airport property has been used for the Grumman Memorial Park. Northrop Grummans remaining business at the Bethpage campus is the Battle Management and Engagement Systems Division, under the Grumman Olson brand it made the P-600 and P-6800 step vans for UPS. Grumman manufactured fire engines under the name Firecat and aerial tower trucks under the Aerialcat name, the company entered the fire apparatus business in 1976 with its purchase of Howe Fire Apparatus and ended operations in 1992. Grumman canoes were developed in 1944 as World War II was winding down, Company executive William Hoffman used the companys aircraft aluminum to replace the traditional wood design
6.
Northrop Grumman
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Northrop Grumman Corporation is an American global aerospace and defense technology company formed by Northrops 1994 purchase of Grumman. The company was named as the fifth-largest defense contractor in the world in 2015, Northrop Grumman employs over 68,000 people worldwide. It reported revenues of $23.526 billion in 2015, Northrop Grumman ranks No.124 on the 2015 Fortune 500 list of Americas largest corporations and ranks in the top ten military-friendly employers. It is headquartered in West Falls Church, Virginia, Northrop Grumman is made up of three business sectors, Aerospace Systems, Mission Systems, and Technology Services. Aerospace Systems, headquartered in Redondo Beach, California produces aircraft, spacecraft, high-energy laser systems and microelectronics for the US and other nations. The B-2 Spirit strategic bomber, the E-8C Joint STARS surveillance aircraft, the RQ-4 Global Hawk, the US Army uses Northrop Grummans RQ-5 Hunter unmanned air vehicle, which has been in operational use since 1995. The U. S. Navy uses Northrop Grumman-built aerial vehicles such as the BQM-74 Chukar, RQ-4 Global Hawk based BAMS UAS, Grumman C-2 Greyhound, Grumman E-2 Hawkeye, and the EA-6B Prowler. Northrop Grumman provides major components and assemblies for different aircraft such as F/A-18 Hornet, F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, Electronic Systems produces and maintains the AWACS aerial surveillance systems for the U. S. the United Kingdom, NATO, Japan, and others. Northrop Grumman is the contractor for the development and integration of the Air Forces $2-billion Multi-Platform Radar Technology Insertion Program. Many other smaller products are made by Northrop Grumman, such as night vision goggles, information Systems, headquartered in McLean, Virginia, supports the U. S. Vinnell, a Technical Services Northrop Grumman subsidiary, provides training and communications for the military. In 2003, it landed a $48 million contract to train the Iraqi Army, in 2005 the company won a $2 billion contract with Virginia to overhaul most of the states IT operations. Later that year, The United Kingdom paid $1.2 billion in a contract with the company to provide maintenance of the countrys defensive radar, Northrop Grumman performs various functions in the War on Drugs. The company sends planes to spray herbicides on suspected cocaine fields in Colombia, remotec, a subsidiary, is the foremost manufacturer of remote control vehicles for explosive ordnance disposal and hazardous material handling. A UK-based subsidiary, Park Air Systems, provides VHF and UHF ground-to-air communications systems for the civil, Northrop Grumman has also worked closely with Antenna Associates, Inc. a manufacturer of Identification friend or foe /Secondary Surveillance Radar antennas located in Massachusetts. In August 2007, Northrop Grumman acquired Scaled Composites in which it had owned a 40% stake. Originally formed in California in 1939 by Jack Northrop, the Northrop Corporation was reincorporated in Delaware in 1985, in 1994, Northrop Aircraft bought Grumman Aerospace, famous for building the Apollo Lunar Module to create Northrop Grumman. In 1996, the new company acquired Westinghouse Electronic Systems, a manufacturer of radar systems. In 1997, the defense computer contractor Logicon was added, which had acquired Geodynamics Corporation in March 1996, in 1998, a merger between Northrop Grumman and competitor Lockheed Martin was considered but abandoned after resistance from the Department of Defense and Department of Justice
7.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
8.
Grumman C-2 Greyhound
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The Grumman C-2 Greyhound is a twin-engine, high-wing cargo aircraft, designed to carry supplies, mail, and passengers to and from aircraft carriers of the United States Navy. Its primary mission is carrier onboard delivery, the aircraft provides critical logistics support to carrier strike groups. The aircraft is used to transport high-priority cargo, mail. Prototype C-2s first flew in 1964 and production followed the next year, the initial Greyhound aircraft were overhauled in 1973. In 1984, more C-2As were ordered under the name Reprocured C-2A or C-2A, the C-2As received updated propellers and navigation. The C-2 Greyhound, a derivative of the E-2 Hawkeye, shares wings and power plants with the E-2, the first of two prototypes flew in 1964. After successful testing, Grumman began production of the aircraft in 1965, the C-2 replaced the piston-engined Grumman C-1 Trader in the COD role. The original C-2A aircraft were overhauled to extend their life in 1973. Powered by two Allison T56 turboprop engines, the C-2A can deliver up to 10,000 pounds of cargo and it can also carry litter patients in medical evacuation missions. A cage system or transport stand restrains cargo during carrier launch, the large aft cargo ramp and door and a powered winch allow straight-in rear cargo loading and unloading for fast turnaround. The Greyhounds ability to airdrop supplies and personnel, fold its wings, the C-2 has four vertical stabilizers, of which three are fitted with rudders. A single vertical stabilizer large enough for adequate directional control would have made the aircraft too tall to fit on an aircraft carrier hangar deck. The inner-left stabilizer lacks a rudder, with it sometimes have referred to as the executive tail. A single C-2 was equipped with a refueling probe but this was not installed in other aircraft. In 1984, the Navy ordered 39 new C-2A aircraft to replace older airframes, dubbed the Reprocured C-2A or C-2A due to the similarity to the original, the new aircraft has airframe improvements and better avionics. The older C-2As were phased out in 1987, and the last of the new models was delivered in 1990, the 36 C-2As underwent a critical Service Life Extension Program. The C-2As lifespan was 10,000 hours, or 15,000 carrier landings, the lower landing limit was approaching for most airframes, and the SLEP will increase their projected life to 15,000 hours or 36,000 landings. Once complete, the SLEP will allow the 36 aircraft to operate until 2027, the first upgraded C-2A left NAVAIR Depot North Island on 12 September 2005, after sitting on the ground for three and a half years while the SLEP was developed and installed
9.
Carrier-based aircraft
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Carrier-based aircraft, sometimes known as carrier-capable aircraft or carrier-borne aircraft, are naval aircraft designed specifically for operations from aircraft carriers. The term is applied only to fixed-wing aircraft, as naval helicopters are able to operate from a wider variety of ships, including helicopter carriers. Carrier-based aircraft must be able to launch in a short distance, in addition, carrier aircraft commonly have mechanisms to fold the wings to allow more such aircraft to be carried on board. Seaplanes and seaplane tender support ships, such as HMS Engadine and this evolution was well underway by the early 1920s, resulting in ships such as HMS Argus, Hōshō, USS Langley, and the Béarn. With these developments, the need for specialized aircraft adapted for takeoffs, following the war, carrier operations continued to increase in size and importance. Modern carrier-based aircraft are built in three different versions to suit the needs of its various users. The following terms are those used currently by the U. S. Navy, CATOBAR is a system used for the launch and recovery of aircraft from the deck of an aircraft carrier. Under this technique, aircraft are launched using a catapult-assisted take-off, although this system is more costly than alternative methods, it provides greater flexibility in carrier operations, since it allows the aircraft to operate with higher payloads. Ships with CATOBAR currently include, the U. S. Nimitz class, with the F-18 series, Frances Charles De Gaulle with Rafales, the use of catapults allows an aircraft carrier to launch large fixed-wing aircraft. For example, the U. S. Navy launches its E-2 Hawkeye AEW aircraft, STOVL takeoffs are accomplished with ski-jumps, instead of a catapult. STOVL use usually allows aircraft to carry a larger payload as compared to during VTOL use, the best known example is the Hawker Siddeley Harrier Jump Jet, despite being capable of VTOL takeoffs, is usually operated as a STOVL aircraft to increase its fuel and weapons load. STOBAR is a used for the launch and recovery of aircraft from the deck of an aircraft carrier. Aircraft launch under their own using a ski-jump to assist take-off. These are conventional aircraft however and require arresting wires to land on the ship, the Russian Navy aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov operated the Su-33, in this manner. Others include the Indian Vikramaditya and the future Vikrant class aircraft carrier, prior to World War II, the weight of most aircraft allowed them to be launched from aircraft carriers under their own power, but required assistance in stopping. Catapults were installed but were used only when the ship was stationary or adequate wind over the deck could not be arranged by sailing into the wind, even aircraft as large as the North American B-25 Mitchell were launched in this manner. This was possible because the speed with even the lightest prevailing winds. Conventional aircraft, such as the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk, Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, Supermarine Spitfire and they would be loaded onto an aircraft carrier in port by cranes, flown off the carrier at sea near their destination under their own power, and land on a friendly airfield ashore
10.
Turboprop
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A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives an aircraft propeller. In contrast to a turbojet, the engines exhaust gases do not contain enough energy to create significant thrust, in its simplest form a turboprop consists of an intake, compressor, combustor, turbine, and a propelling nozzle. Air is drawn into the intake and compressed by the compressor, fuel is then added to the compressed air in the combustor, where the fuel-air mixture then combusts. The hot combustion gases expand through the turbine, some of the power generated by the turbine is used to drive the compressor. The rest is transmitted through the reduction gearing to the propeller, further expansion of the gases occurs in the propelling nozzle, where the gases exhaust to atmospheric pressure. The propelling nozzle provides a small proportion of the thrust generated by a turboprop. Exhaust thrust in a turboprop is sacrificed in favor of shaft power, owing to the additional expansion in the turbine system, the residual energy in the exhaust jet is low. Consequently, the exhaust jet typically produces around or less than 10% of the total thrust, turboprops can have bypass ratios up to 50-100 although the propulsion airflow is less clearly defined for propellers than for fans. The propeller is coupled to the turbine through a gear that converts the high RPM, low torque output to low RPM. The propeller itself is normally a constant speed type similar to that used with larger reciprocating aircraft engines, unlike the small diameter fans used in turbofan jet engines, the propeller has a large diameter that lets it accelerate a large volume of air. This permits a lower velocity for a given amount of thrust. Propellers lose efficiency as speed increases, so turboprops are normally not used on high-speed aircraft above Mach 0. 6-0.7. However, propfan engines, which are similar to turboprop engines. To increase propeller efficiency, a mechanism can be used to alter their pitch relative to the airspeed, a variable-pitch propeller, also called a controllable-pitch propeller, can also be used to generate negative thrust while decelerating on the runway. Additionally, in the event of an outage, the pitch can be adjusted to a vaning pitch. While most modern turbojet and turbofan engines use axial-flow compressors, turboprop engines usually contain at least one stage of centrifugal compression, centrifugal compressors have the advantage of being simple and lightweight, at the expense of a streamlined shape. While the power turbine may be integral with the gas generator section and this enables the propeller to rotate freely, independent of compressor speed. Residual thrust on a turboshaft is avoided by further expansion in the turbine system and/or truncating and turning the exhaust 180 degrees, apart from the above, there is very little difference between a turboprop and a turboshaft
11.
Grumman E-1 Tracer
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The Grumman E-1 Tracer was the first purpose built airborne early warning aircraft used by the United States Navy. It was a derivative of the Grumman C-1 Trader and first entered service in 1958 and it was replaced by the more modern Grumman E-2 Hawkeye by the 1970s. The E-1 was designated WF under the 1922 United States Navy aircraft designation system, the E-1 featured folding wings for compact storage aboard aircraft carriers. Unlike the S-2 and C-1 in which the wings folded upwards, the Tracer was fitted with the Hazeltine AN/APS-82 in its radome and fuselage. The energy reflected from an aircraft changes position rapidly compared to the energy reflected from the surrounding sea, separating a moving object from stationary background is accomplished by suitable hardware. During the early years of the Vietnam War, E-1s saw extensive service, providing combat air patrol fighters with target vectors, with a radius of 250–300 miles, the E-1B served as an early warning to strike aircraft, of enemy MiGs activity. By May 1973, most E-1Bs were retired, with only four VAW-121 Tracers based at NAS Norfolk, Virginia and these aircraft were soon retired during mid-summer 1977 following a final cruise on board the USS Franklin D. Roosevelt and were ferried to the Davis-Monthan storage facility. The E-1B Tracer was struck from the inventory by 1977, XTF-1W aerodynamic prototype without electronics, later rebuilt as a standard C-1A, retaining the twin tail. XWF-1 The XTF-1W re-designated in the W-Warning category, wF-2 Production Airborne Early Warning version of the TF-1 Trader, redesignated E-1B in 1962,88 built
12.
Radar
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Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, Radio waves from the transmitter reflect off the object and return to the receiver, giving information about the objects location and speed. Radar was developed secretly for military use by several nations in the period before, the term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging or RAdio Direction And Ranging. The term radar has since entered English and other languages as a common noun, high tech radar systems are associated with digital signal processing, machine learning and are capable of extracting useful information from very high noise levels. Other systems similar to make use of other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. One example is lidar, which uses ultraviolet, visible, or near infrared light from lasers rather than radio waves, as early as 1886, German physicist Heinrich Hertz showed that radio waves could be reflected from solid objects. In 1895, Alexander Popov, an instructor at the Imperial Russian Navy school in Kronstadt. The next year, he added a spark-gap transmitter, in 1897, while testing this equipment for communicating between two ships in the Baltic Sea, he took note of an interference beat caused by the passage of a third vessel. In his report, Popov wrote that this phenomenon might be used for detecting objects, the German inventor Christian Hülsmeyer was the first to use radio waves to detect the presence of distant metallic objects. In 1904, he demonstrated the feasibility of detecting a ship in dense fog and he obtained a patent for his detection device in April 1904 and later a patent for a related amendment for estimating the distance to the ship. He also got a British patent on September 23,1904 for a radar system. It operated on a 50 cm wavelength and the radar signal was created via a spark-gap. In 1915, Robert Watson-Watt used radio technology to advance warning to airmen. Watson-Watt became an expert on the use of direction finding as part of his lightning experiments. As part of ongoing experiments, he asked the new boy, Arnold Frederic Wilkins, Wilkins made an extensive study of available units before selecting a receiver model from the General Post Office. Its instruction manual noted that there was fading when aircraft flew by, in 1922, A. Hoyt Taylor and Leo C. Taylor submitted a report, suggesting that this might be used to detect the presence of ships in low visibility, eight years later, Lawrence A. Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa followed prewar Great Britain, and Hungary had similar developments during the war. Hugon, began developing a radio apparatus, a part of which was installed on the liner Normandie in 1935
13.
Radio
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When radio waves strike an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form, Radio systems need a transmitter to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it, for example using amplitude modulation or angle modulation. Radio systems also need an antenna to convert electric currents into radio waves, an antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving. The electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allow individual stations to be selected, the electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna. Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz, a radio communication system sends signals by radio. The term radio is derived from the Latin word radius, meaning spoke of a wheel, beam of light, however, this invention would not be widely adopted. The switch to radio in place of wireless took place slowly and unevenly in the English-speaking world, the United States Navy would also play a role. Although its translation of the 1906 Berlin Convention used the terms wireless telegraph and wireless telegram, the term started to become preferred by the general public in the 1920s with the introduction of broadcasting. Radio systems used for communication have the following elements, with more than 100 years of development, each process is implemented by a wide range of methods, specialised for different communications purposes. Each system contains a transmitter, This consists of a source of electrical energy, the transmitter contains a system to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This modulation might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more subtle such as amplitude, frequency, phase. Amplitude modulation of a carrier wave works by varying the strength of the signal in proportion to the information being sent. For example, changes in the strength can be used to reflect the sounds to be reproduced by a speaker. It was the used for the first audio radio transmissions. Frequency modulation varies the frequency of the carrier, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal. FM has the capture effect whereby a receiver only receives the strongest signal, Digital data can be sent by shifting the carriers frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying. FM is commonly used at Very high frequency radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music, analog TV sound is also broadcast using FM. Angle modulation alters the phase of the carrier wave to transmit a signal
14.
Electronics
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Electronics is the science of controlling electrical energy electrically, in which the electrons have a fundamental role. Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry consisting primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors supplemented with passive elements, the science of electronics is also considered to be a branch of physics and electrical engineering. The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible, until 1950 this field was called radio technology because its principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers, and vacuum tubes. Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control and this article focuses on engineering aspects of electronics. Components are generally intended to be connected together, usually by being soldered to a circuit board. Components may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as integrated circuits, some common electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc. Components are often categorized as active or passive, vacuum tubes were among the earliest electronic components. They were almost solely responsible for the revolution of the first half of the Twentieth Century. They took electronics from parlor tricks and gave us radio, television, phonographs, radar, long distance telephony and they played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power transmission as well as television receivers until the middle of the 1980s. Since that time, solid state devices have all but completely taken over, vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist applications such as high power RF amplifiers, cathode ray tubes, specialist audio equipment, guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices. The 608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors, thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design. From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic, circuits and components can be divided into two groups, analog and digital. A particular device may consist of circuitry that has one or the other or a mix of the two types, most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a range of voltage or current as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits. The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a circuit can be defined as anything from a single component, analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, one rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog. These days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance and this type of circuit is usually called mixed signal rather than analog or digital. Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation, an example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit
15.
Integrated circuit
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An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit is a set of electronic circuits on one small flat piece of semiconductor material, normally silicon. The ICs mass production capability, reliability and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of using discrete transistors. ICs are now used in all electronic equipment and have revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other home appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the small size. These advances, roughly following Moores law, allow a computer chip of 2016 to have millions of times the capacity, ICs have two main advantages over discrete circuits, cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time, furthermore, packaged ICs use much less material than discrete circuits. Performance is high because the ICs components switch quickly and consume little power because of their small size, the main disadvantage of ICs is the high cost to design them and fabricate the required photomasks. This high initial cost means ICs are only practical when high production volumes are anticipated, Circuits meeting this definition can be constructed using many different technologies, including thin-film transistor, thick film technology, or hybrid integrated circuit. However, in general usage integrated circuit has come to refer to the single-piece circuit construction originally known as a integrated circuit. Jacobi disclosed small and cheap hearing aids as typical industrial applications of his patent, an immediate commercial use of his patent has not been reported. The idea of the circuit was conceived by Geoffrey Dummer. Dummer presented the idea to the public at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in Washington and he gave many symposia publicly to propagate his ideas, and unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956. A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic squares, Components could then be integrated and wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid. This idea, which seemed very promising in 1957, was proposed to the US Army by Jack Kilby, however, as the project was gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary design, the IC. In his patent application of 6 February 1959, Kilby described his new device as a body of semiconductor material … wherein all the components of the circuit are completely integrated. The first customer for the new invention was the US Air Force, Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit. His work was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009, half a year after Kilby, Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor developed his own idea of an integrated circuit that solved many practical problems Kilbys had not. Noyces design was made of silicon, whereas Kilbys chip was made of germanium, Noyce credited Kurt Lehovec of Sprague Electric for the principle of p–n junction isolation, a key concept behind the IC
16.
Boeing E-3 Sentry
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The Boeing E-3 Sentry, commonly known as AWACS, is an American airborne early warning and control aircraft developed by Boeing as the prime contractor. The E-3 is distinguished by the rotating radar dome above the fuselage. Production ended in 1992 after 68 aircraft had been built, in the mid-1960s, the US Air Force was seeking an aircraft to replace its piston-engined Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star, which had been in service for over a decade. After issuing preliminary development contracts to three companies, the USAF picked Boeing to construct two airframes to test Westinghouse Electric and Hughess competing radars, both radars used pulse-Doppler technology, with Westinghouses design emerging as the contract winner. Testing on the first production E-3 began in October 1975, the first USAF E-3 was delivered in March 1977, and during the next seven years, a total of 34 aircraft were manufactured. NATO, as an identity, also had 18 aircraft manufactured. The E-3 was also sold to the United Kingdom and France, in 1991, when the last aircraft had been delivered, E-3s participated in Operation Desert Storm, playing a crucial role of directing coalition aircraft against the enemy. Throughout the aircrafts service life, numerous upgrades were performed to enhance its capabilities, in 1963, the USAF asked for proposals for an Airborne Warning and Control System to replace its EC-121 Warning Stars, which had served in the airborne early warning role for over a decade. The new aircraft would take advantage of improvements in technology and in computer aided radar data analysis. Contracts were issued to Boeing, Douglas, and Lockheed, the latter being eliminated in July 1966, in 1967, a parallel program was put into place to develop the radar, with Westinghouse Electric and the Hughes Aircraft being asked to compete in producing the radar system. In 1968, it was referred to as Overland Radar Technology during development tests on the modified EC-121Q, the Westinghouse radar antenna was going to be used by whichever company won the radar competition, since Westinghouse had pioneered in the design of high-power RF phase-shifters. Boeing initially proposed an aircraft, but tests indicated it would not outperform the already-operational 707. To increase endurance, this design was to be powered by eight General Electric TF34s and it would carry its radar in a rotating dome mounted at the top of a forward-swept tail, above the fuselage. Boeing was selected ahead of McDonnell Douglass DC-8-based proposal in July 1970, initial orders were placed for two aircraft, designated EC-137D as test beds to evaluate the two competing radars. The first EC-137 made its flight on 9 February 1972. Favorable test results led to the selection of Westinghouses radar for the production aircraft, Hughess radar was initially thought to be a certain winner, simply because much of its design was also going into the new F-15 Eagles radar program. The Westinghouse radar used a pipelined fast fourier transform to digitally resolve 128 Doppler frequencies, Westinghouses engineering team won this competition by using a programmable 18-bit computer whose software could be modified before each mission. This computer was the AN/AYK-8 design from the B-57G program, and this radar also multiplexed a beyond-the-horizon pulse mode that could complement the pulse-Doppler radar mode
17.
Turbofan
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The turbofan or fanjet is a type of airbreathing jet engine that is widely used in aircraft propulsion. Thus, whereas all the air taken in by a turbojet passes through the turbine, a turbofan thus can be thought of as a turbojet being used to drive a ducted fan, with both of those contributing to the thrust. The ratio of the mass-flow of air bypassing the engine compared to the mass-flow of air passing through the core is referred to as the bypass ratio. Most commercial aviation jet engines in use today are of the high-bypass type, afterburners are not used on high-bypass turbofan engines but may be used on either low-bypass turbofan or turbojet engines. Other noise sources are the fan, compressor and turbine, Jet noise is reduced with chevrons, sawtooth patterns on the exhaust nozzles, on the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 and General Electric GEnx engines used on the Boeing 787. Turbofans are thus the most efficient engines in the range of speeds from about 500 to 1,000 km/h, turbofans retain an efficiency edge over pure jets at low supersonic speeds up to roughly Mach 1.6. Modern turbofans have either a large single-stage fan or a fan with several stages. An early configuration combined a low-pressure turbine and fan in a single rear-mounted unit, early turbojet engines were not very fuel-efficient as their overall pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature were severely limited by the technology available at the time. In 1939-1941 Soviet designer Arkhip Lyulka elaborated the design for the worlds first turbofan engine, although several prototypes were built and ready for testing, Lyulka was in 1941 forced to abandon his research and evacuate to the Urals following the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union. So the first turbofan to run was apparently the German Daimler-Benz DB670 with a first run date of 27 May 1943, turbomachinery testing, using an electric motor, had started on 1 April 1943. The engine was abandoned later while the war went on and problems could not be solved, the British wartime Metrovick F.2 axial flow jet was given a fan, as the Metrovick F.3 in 1943, to create the first British turbofan. The original low-bypass turbofan engines were designed to improve efficiency by reducing the exhaust velocity to a value closer to that of the aircraft. The Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, had a ratio of 0.3. Civilian turbofan engines of the 1960s, such as the Pratt & Whitney JT8D and the Rolls-Royce Spey had bypass ratios closer to 1, the first General Electric turbofan was the aft-fan CJ805-23 based on the CJ805-3 turbojet. It was followed by the aft-fan General Electric CF700 engine with a 2.0 bypass ratio and this was derived from the General Electric J85/CJ610 turbojet to power the larger Rockwell Sabreliner 75/80 model aircraft, as well as the Dassault Falcon 20 with about a 50% increase in thrust. The CF700 was the first small turbofan in the world to be certified by the Federal Aviation Administration, there were at one time over 400 CF700 aircraft in operation around the world, with an experience base of over 10 million service hours. The CF700 turbofan engine was used to train Moon-bound astronauts in Project Apollo as the powerplant for the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle. A high-specific-thrust/low-bypass-ratio turbofan normally has a fan, developing a relatively high pressure ratio and, thus
18.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
19.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
20.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
21.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
22.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
23.
Singapore
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Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
24.
Taiwan
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Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, is a state in East Asia. Neighbours include China to the west, Japan to the northeast, Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations, and the one with the largest economy. The island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th century. After a brief rule by the Kingdom of Tungning, the island was annexed by the Qing dynasty, the Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese War. While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China was established on the mainland in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty, following the Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945, the ROC took control of Taiwan. However, the resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the ROCs loss of the mainland to the Communists, and the flight of the ROC government to Taiwan in 1949. As a founding member of the United Nations, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971, in the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialization, creating a stable industrial economy. In the 1980s and early 1990s, it changed from a one-party military dictatorship dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party democracy with universal suffrage, Taiwan is the 22nd-largest economy in the world, and its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy. It is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, health care, public education, economic freedom, the PRC has consistently claimed sovereignty over Taiwan and asserted the ROC is no longer in legitimate existence. Under its One-China Policy the PRC refused diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the ROC, the PRC has threatened the use of military force in response to any formal declaration of independence by Taiwan or if PRC leaders decide that peaceful unification is no longer possible. There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today, the former name Formosa dates from 1542, when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means beautiful island. The name Formosa eventually replaced all others in European literature and was in use in English in the early 20th century. This name was adopted into the Chinese vernacular as the name of the sandbar. The modern word Taiwan is derived from this usage, which is seen in forms in Chinese historical records. Use of the current Chinese name was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture, through its rapid development, the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as Taiwan. The official name of the state is the Republic of China and it was a member of the United Nations representing China until 1971, when it lost its seat to the Peoples Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become known as Taiwan. In some contexts, especially ones from the ROC government
25.
Douglas A-1 Skyraider
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The Douglas A-1 Skyraider is an American single-seat attack aircraft that saw service between the late 1940s and early 1980s. The Skyraider had a long and successful career, it became a piston-powered, propeller-driven anachronism in the jet age. In U. S. service, it was replaced by the LTV A-7 Corsair II swept wing subsonic jet in the early 1970s. Designed by Ed Heinemann of the Douglas Aircraft Company, prototypes were ordered on 6 July 1944 as the XBT2D-1, the XBT2D-1 made its first flight on 18 March 1945 and in April 1945, the USN began evaluation of the aircraft at the Naval Air Test Center. In December 1946, after a change to AD-1, delivery of the first production aircraft to a fleet squadron was made to VA-19A. The AD-1 was built at Douglas El Segundo plant in Southern California. S, the low-wing monoplane design started with a Wright R-3350 radial engine, later upgraded several times. Its distinctive feature was large straight wings with seven points apiece. S. Heinemann immediately had his design engineers begin a program for finding weight-saving on the XBT2D-1 design, in the end, Heinemann and his design engineers found over 1,800 lb of weight savings on the original XBT2D-1 design. The Navy AD series was painted in ANA623 Glossy Sea Blue, but during the 1950s following the Korean War. Initially using the gray and white Navy pattern, by 1967 the USAF began to paint its Skyraiders in a camouflaged pattern using two shades of green, and one of tan. Used by the USN over Korea and Vietnam, the A-1 was a close air support aircraft for the USAF and VNAF during the Vietnam War. The A-1 was famous for being able to take hits and keep flying, there was added armor plating around the cockpit area for added pilot protection. The Skyraider went through seven versions, starting with the AD-1, then AD-2 and AD-3 with various minor improvements, the AD-5 was significantly widened, allowing two crew to sit side-by-side, it also came in a four-seat night-attack version, the AD-5N. The AD-6 was an improved AD-4B with improved low-level bombing equipment, in addition to serving during Korea and Vietnam as an attack aircraft, the Skyraider was modified to serve as a carrier-based airborne early warning aircraft, replacing the Grumman TBM-3W Avenger. It fulfilled this function in the USN and Royal Navy, being replaced by the Grumman E-1 Tracer and Fairey Gannet, respectively, Skyraider production ended in 1957 with a total of 3,180 having been built. In 1962, the existing Skyraiders were redesignated A-1D through A-1J and its weapons load and 10-hour flying time far surpassed the jets that were available at the time. On 2 May 1951, Skyraiders made the aerial torpedo attack of the war, hitting the Hwacheon Dam. AD-3N and -4N aircraft carrying bombs and flares flew night-attack sorties, during the Korean War, AD Skyraiders were flown only by the U. S. Navy and U. S. Marine Corps, and were normally painted in dark navy blue
26.
Grumman S-2 Tracker
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The Grumman S-2 Tracker was the first purpose-built, single airframe anti-submarine warfare aircraft to enter service with the U. S. Navy. Designed and initially built by Grumman, the Tracker was of conventional design with twin reciprocating propeller engines, the type was exported to a number of navies around the world. Argentina and Brazil are the last countries to use the Tracker. The Tracker combined both functions in one aircraft, grummans design was for a large high-wing monoplane with twin Wright Cyclone R-1820 nine cylinder radial engines, a yoke type arrestor hook and a crew of four. Both the two prototypes XS2F-1 and 15 production aircraft, S2F-1 were ordered at the time, on 30 June 1950. The first flight was conducted on 4 December 1952, and production aircraft entered service with VS-26, follow-on versions included the WF Tracer and TF Trader, which became the Grumman E-1 Tracer and Grumman C-1 Trader in the tri-service designation standardization of 1962. The S-2 carried the nickname Stoof throughout its career. At least 99 and possibly 100 aircraft carrying the CS2F designation were manufactured in Canada under license by de Havilland Canada, U. S. -built versions of the Tracker were sold to various nations, including Australia, Japan, Turkey and Taiwan. The Tracker carried an internal torpedo bay capable of carrying two torpedoes or one nuclear depth charge. There were six underwing hard points for rocket pods and conventional depth charges or up to four additional torpedoes, a ventrally mounted retractable radome for AN/APS-38 radar and a Magnetic Anomaly Detector AN/ASQ-8 mounted on an extendable rear mounted boom were also fitted. Early model Trackers had an Electronic Surveillance Measures pod mounted dorsally just aft of the front seat overhead hatches and were fitted with a smoke particle detector or sniffer. Later S-2s had the sniffer removed and had the ESM antennae moved to four rounded extensions on the wingtips, a 70 million candlepower searchlight was mounted on the starboard wing. The engine nacelles carried JEZEBEL sonobouys in the rear, smoke dispensers were mounted on the port ventral surface of the nacelles in groups of three each. The Tracker was eventually superseded in U. S. military service by the Lockheed S-3 Viking, the last Navy S-2 was withdrawn from service on 29 August 1976. For many years the TS-2A version of the Tracker was used by U. S, a number of Trackers live on as firefighting aircraft while the design also continued to provide excellent service with the naval forces of other countries for years after the U. S. retired them. For example, the Royal Australian Navy continued to use Trackers as front line ASW assets until the mid-1980s, the Argentine Naval Aviation received seven S-2A in 1962, six S-2E in 1978 and three S-2G in the 1990s. They were used both aircraft carriers, ARA Independencia and ARA Veinticinco de Mayo and used in the COD, Maritime Patrol. In the 1990s, six remaining airframes where refurbished by Israel Aerospace Industries with turboprop engines as S-2T Turbo Trackers, between 1967 and 1984 the Royal Australian Navy operated two Squadrons of S-2E and S-2G variants, based at NAS Nowra
27.
Anti-submarine warfare
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Anti-submarine warfare is a branch of underwater warfare that uses surface warships, aircraft, or other submarines to find, track and deter, damage or destroy enemy submarines. Successful anti-submarine warfare depends on a mix of sensor and weapon technology, training, sophisticated sonar equipment for first detecting, then classifying, locating and tracking the target submarine is a key element of ASW. To destroy submarines both the torpedo and mine are used, launched from air, surface and underwater platforms, other means of destruction have been used in the past but are now obsolete. ASW also involves protecting friendly ships, the first self-propelled torpedo was invented in 1863 and launched from surface craft. The first submarine with a torpedo was Nordenfelt I built in 1884-1885, in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5, the submarine was a significant threat. By the start of the First World War nearly 300 submarines were in service, some warships were fitted with an armoured belt as protection against torpedoes. There were, however, no means to detect submerged U-boats, the Royal Navy torpedo establishment, HMS Vernon, studied explosive grapnel sweeps, these sank four or five U-boats in the First World War. A similar approach featured a string of 70 lb charges on a cable, fired electrically. Also tried were dropping 18.5 lb hand-thrown guncotton bombs, the Lance Bomb was developed, also, this featured a 35–40 lb cone-shaped steel drum on a 5 ft shaft, intended to be thrown at a submarine. Firing Lyddite shells, or using trench mortars, was tried, use of nets to ensnare U-boats was also examined, as was a destroyer, HMS Starfish, fitted with a spar torpedo. Problems with the lanyards tangling and failing to function led to the development of a chemical pellet trigger as the Type B and these were effective at a distance of around 20 ft. The best concept arose in a 1913 RN Torpedo School report, describing a device intended for countermining, at Admiral John Jellicoes request, the standard Mark II mine was fitted with a hydrostatic pistol preset for 45 ft firing, to be launched from a stern platform. Weighing 1,150 lb, and effective at 100 ft, the mine was a potential hazard to the dropping ship. During the First World War, submarines were a major menace and they operated in the Baltic, North Sea, Black Sea and Mediterranean as well as the North Atlantic. Previously they had limited to relatively calm and protected waters. The vessels used to them were a range of small, fast surface ships using guns. They mainly relied on the fact a submarine of the day was often on the surface for a range of reasons, the first approach to protect warships was chainlink nets strung from the sides of battleships, as defense against torpedoes. Nets were also deployed across the mouth of a harbour or naval base to stop submarines entering or to stop torpedoes of the Whitehead type fired against ships, British warships were fitted with a ram with which to sink submarines, and U-15 was thus sunk in August 1914
28.
Naval Tactical Data System
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It took reports from multiple sensors on different ships and collated it to produce a single unified map of the battlespace. This information could then be relayed back to the ships and to the weapons operators, warships have rooms known as Combat Information Centers, or CICs, that collect, sort and then communicate all of the battlefield information known to that ship. Information about targets would be forwarded to the CIC by the operators of the radar and sonar systems, commanders used the map to direct weapons to particular targets. The system was similar to the Battle of Britain Bunker system, there were two major problems with this system. One was that ship had its own view of the battlespace. This could be addressed by adding inter-ship radio or flag signals as another input to the map and this led to the second major problem, the high inherent manpower requirements and lack of shipboard space. To give the task force enough reaction time to deal with threats, pickets were posted at a distance from the force to allow their radars to pick up the targets while still on the approach. The information from these ships then had to be relayed, normally by voice, as the data was now being collected almost entirely from electronic devices and displays, a system that picked up this data directly from those displays would be ideal. The first known attempt at such a system was carried out by the Royal Navy in the immediate post-war era using analog systems that tracked the rate of motion of blips on radar screens. The operators used a joystick to align a pointer with the target, the circuitry then adjusted the rate of predicted movement of the blip and displayed a pointer that moved over time. Updating no longer required any inputs, unless the predicted motion began to differ at which point additional button pushes could be used to update it. The data for each of these tracks, a series of voltages, could then be transmitted around the ship and this work suffered from the reliability of the analog circuits used to run the system. Data from one computer simply needed to be copied directly to another, the Royal Canadian Navy began work on such a system under their DATAR project, which included the first working example of the trackball concept. Unfortunately their design used tubes, and the machine was so large it took up almost all of the free space on the Bangor class minesweeper it was installed on. Efforts to build a version of the DATAR did not receive funding. The work by the RN and RCN teams was known to the USN starting as early as 1946. They also built their own version of the Royal Navys concept as the Electronic Data System, in 1953 they produced a new system for air direction known as the Intercept Tracking and Control Console which could track two incoming and two outgoing formations. However, the system was huge and did not include inter-ship transmission, however, all of these solutions had problems that limited their usefulness
29.
Essex-class aircraft carrier
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The Essex class was a class of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy that constituted the 20th centurys most numerous class of capital ships. The class consisted of 24 vessels, which came in both short-hull and long-hull versions, thirty-two ships were originally ordered, however as World War II wound down, six were canceled before construction, and two were canceled after construction had begun. No Essex-class ships were lost to enemy action, despite several vessels sustaining very heavy damage, at the time of the repudiations, both Italy and Japan had colonial ambitions, intending on or already conducting military conquests. A longer, wider deck and a deck-edge elevator facilitated more efficient aviation operations. Machinery arrangement and armor protection was improved from previous designs. These features, plus the provision of more guns, gave the ships much enhanced survivability. Some ships in the class would serve until well after the end of the Vietnam War, debates raged, and continue to this day, regarding the effect of strength deck location. British designers comments tended to disparage the use of deck armor. After the abrogation of disarmament treaties by Japan in 1936, the U. S. took a look at its naval strength. With the Naval Expansion Act of Congress passed on 17 May 1938 and this permitted the building of Hornet, which was the third Yorktown-class CV, and Essex, which was the lead ship of a new class. CV-9 was to be the prototype of the 27, 000-ton aircraft carrier, considerably larger than Enterprise, the Navy ordered the first three of the new design, CV-9, CV-10 and CV-11, from Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock on 3 July 1940. These were to become known as Essex-class carriers, under the terms of the Two-Ocean Navy Act, ten more of these carriers were programmed. After the US declaration of war, Congress appropriated funds for nineteen more Essexes, ten were ordered in August 1942 and three more in June 1943. Only two of these were completed in time to see active World War II service, six ships ordered in 1944 were canceled before construction was begun. The first eight hulls were originally assigned names from historic Navy ships, Lexington was originally laid down as Cabot, but was renamed during construction after the original USS Lexington was lost in the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942. Yorktown, originally to be named Bon Homme Richard, was renamed after the original USS Yorktown was lost at the Battle of Midway on 7 June 1942, Lexington and Yorktown share the unique distinction of being named after both historic ships and historic battles. The erstwhile Valley Forge was renamed Princeton after USS Princeton was sunk in the Battle of Leyte Gulf in October 1944, at the conclusion of the war, the six ships ordered but never laid down were canceled. Of the nine still unfinished six were completed, two were scrapped, and Oriskany was taken in hand for modification to an improved design, in drawing up the preliminary design for Essex, particular attention was directed at the size of both the flight and hangar decks
30.
VAW-120
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Carrier Airborne Early Warning Squadron 120 is a United States Navy Fleet Replacement Squadron responsible for training crews on the E-2 Hawkeye and the C-2 Greyhound. The squadron was established on 6 July 1948 as Carrier Airborne Early Warning Squadron TWO at NAS Oceana. It later relocated to NAS Norfolk, with over 200 officers and 800 enlisted personnel, VAW-12 was reorganized as an Air Wing, and on 1 April 1967, Admiral T. E. Atlantic Fleet, commissioned Carrier Airborne Early Warning Wing Twelve with six operating squadrons, later renamed RVAW-120, it became the Atlantic Fleet Replacement Squadron The squadron received the E-2B Hawkeye aircraft in 1970, followed by the arrival of the E-2C on 31 May 1973. This continued until 1980 when all east coast VAW squadrons completed the transition to the APS-125, in 1983, RVAW-120 officially became VAW-120, reflecting the task load of a fleet squadron and a training squadron. NFO training was moved to a new site in April 1983, pilot training was also moved to the new E-2 Training Building in late 1984 for consolidation of the training mission. In June 1985, VAW-120 received the first re-procured C-2As delivered to the Navy and this delivery marked the commencement of a long-range procurement program designed to greatly enhance the Carrier onboard delivery capability for Carrier Battle Groups. In November 1993, VAW-120 received its first E-2C+ aircraft, the E-2C continued its technological growth and in February 1994 the command took custody of its first E-2C aircraft. This version of the E-2C introduced the APS-145 radar and Global Positioning System to aid in navigation, VAW-120 became the single site Fleet Replacement Squadron in September 1994 when VAW-110, its west coast counterpart, was decommissioned. In response to the September 11 attacks, VAW-120 launched aircraft in support of homeland defense operations and their missions included airborne surveillance, ground communication relay, and track management along the east coast. In 2010, VAW-120 received its first C-2A Greyhound aircraft upgraded with a new 8-bladed propeller, in addition, VAW-120 received the E-2D Advanced Hawkeye. History of the United States Navy List of United States Navy aircraft squadrons VAW-120s official website Why I serve - VAW-120 - Youtube
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VAW-115
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Carrier Airborne Early Warning Squadron 115, also known as the Liberty Bells, is a United States Navy airborne early warning and control squadron that flies the E-2D Hawkeye. The squadron was established on 20 April 1967, flying the E-1B Willie Fudd with Attack Carrier Wing Two. VAW-115 joined CVW-5 in 1970 and made two deployments to the Gulf of Tonkin between May 1971 and April 1973 on board USS Midway. In September 1973, CVW-5 moved to Yokosuka, Japan as a component of the Forward Deployed Naval Forces, VAW-115 E-2B Hawkeyes performed a command and control role in Operation Frequent Wind, supporting the evacuation of Saigon in April 1975. VAW-115 made eleven deployments to the Indian Ocean and North Arabian Sea, in 1983, VAW-115 participated in rescue and salvage operations following the Korean Air Lines Flight 007 shootdown. In response to the Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait, VAW-115 deployed to the Persian Gulf in October 1990 as part of Operation Desert Shield, in January 1991, Desert Shield transitioned to Desert Storm and saw VAW-115 flying 179 combat sorties. In August 1991, USS Midway was decommissioned and CVW-5 embarked on USS Independence, during the ensuing years, the squadron deployed to the Persian Gulf four times in support of Operation Southern Watch, enforcing a No-Fly Zone over the skies of southern Iraq. In January 1998, VAW-115 and the Independence Battle Group were called upon to participate in various Persian Gulf contingency operations in support of United Nations sanctions, after transitioning to the E-2C Group II Navigation Upgrade aircraft, VAW-115 cross-decked with CVW-5 to USS Kitty Hawk in mid 1998. During that operation, the squadron flew 363.8 hours in support of Army, in February 2010 the squadron began reequipping with the E-2C Hawkeye 2000. The improved E-2C Hawkeye 2000 carries advanced capabilities over its predecessor in the areas of detection, processing, VAW-115 has achieved 23 years and 46,000 hours of Class-A mishap-free flight hours receiving eight Battle Efficiency E awards, seven AEW Excellence awards, and six Safety S awards. On 2 February 2017, VAW-125 arrived at Marine Corps Air Station Iwakuni, in Summer 2017 the squadron will move to Naval Air Station Point Mugu to transition to the E-2D Advanced Hawkeye. History of the United States Navy List of United States Navy aircraft squadrons VAW-115 official website
32.
Grumman F-14 Tomcat
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The Grumman F-14 Tomcat is an American supersonic, twin-engine, two-seat, variable-sweep wing fighter aircraft. The Tomcat was developed for the United States Navys Naval Fighter Experimental program after the collapse of the F-111B project, the F-14 was the first of the American teen-series fighters, which were designed incorporating air combat experience against MiG fighters during the Vietnam War. The F-14 first flew in December 1970 and made its first deployment in 1974 with the U. S. Navy aboard USS Enterprise, replacing the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II. The F-14 served as the U. S. Navys primary maritime air superiority fighter, fleet defense interceptor, the Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night pod system were added in the 1990s and the Tomcat began performing precision ground-attack missions. In the 1980s F-14s were used as land-based interceptors by the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force during the Iran–Iraq War, where they saw combat against Iraqi warplanes. Iranian F-14s reportedly shot down at least 160 Iraqi aircraft during the war, while only 12 to 16 Tomcats were lost, the Tomcat was retired from the U. S. Navys active fleet on 22 September 2006, having been supplanted by the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. The F-14 remains in service with the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, the U. S. Navy needed a Fleet Air Defense aircraft with a more powerful radar and longer range missiles than the F-4 Phantom II carried to intercept both enemy bombers and missiles. The Navy was directed to participate in the Tactical Fighter Experimental program with the U. S. Air Force by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara. The Navy strenuously opposed the TFX as it feared compromises necessary for the Air Forces need for an attack aircraft would adversely impact the aircrafts performance as a fighter. Weight and performance issues plagued the U. S. Navy F-111B variant for TFX, the F-111 manufacturer General Dynamics partnered with Grumman on the Navy F-111B. With the F-111B program in distress, Grumman began studying improvements, in 1966, the Navy awarded Grumman a contract to begin studying advanced fighter designs. Grumman narrowed down these designs to its 303 design, the Navy studied the need for VFAX, an additional fighter that was agiler than the F-4 Phantom for air-combat and ground-attack roles. Grumman continued work on its 303 design and offered it to the Navy in 1967, the company continued to refine the design into 1968. In July 1968, the Naval Air Systems Command issued a request for proposals for the Naval Fighter Experimental program, VFX called for a tandem two-seat, twin-engined air-to-air fighter with a maximum speed of Mach 2.2. It would also have a built-in M61 Vulcan cannon and a close air support role. The VFXs air-to-air missiles would be either six AIM-54 Phoenix or a combination of six AIM-7 Sparrow, bids were received from General Dynamics, Grumman, Ling-Temco-Vought, McDonnell Douglas and North American Rockwell, four bids incorporated variable-geometry wings. McDonnell Douglas and Grumman were selected as finalists in December 1968, Grumman was selected for the contract award in January 1969. Upon winning the contract for the F-14, Grumman greatly expanded its Calverton, Long Island, much of the testing, including the first of many compressor stalls and multiple ejections, took place over Long Island Sound
33.
AIM-54 Phoenix
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The AIM-54 Phoenix is a radar-guided, long-range air-to-air missile, carried in clusters of up to six missiles on the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, its only operational launch platform. The Phoenix was the United States only long-range air-to-air missile, the combination of Phoenix missile and the AN/AWG-9 guidance radar was the first aerial weapons system that could simultaneously engage multiple targets. Both the missile and the aircraft were used by the United States Navy and are now retired, the AIM-54 Phoenix in 2004 and they were replaced by the shorter-range AIM-120 AMRAAM, employed on the F/A-18 Hornet and F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. Following the retirement of the F-14 by the U. S. Navy, brevity code Fox Three was used when firing the AIM-54. Since 1951, the Navy faced the threat from the Tupolev Tu-4K Bull carrying anti-ship missiles. The Navy would require a long-range, long-endurance interceptor aircraft to defend carrier battle groups against this threat, the proposed F6D Missileer was intended to fulfill this mission and oppose the attack far from the fleet it was defending. The weapon needed for aircraft, the Bendix AAM-N-10 Eagle, was to be an air-to-air missile of unprecedented range when compared to contemporary AIM-7 Sparrow missiles. It would work together with Westinghouse AN/APQ-81 radar, the Missileer project was cancelled in December 1960. In the early 1960s, the U. S. Navy made the next interceptor attempt with the F-111B, the AIM-54 Phoenix, developed for the F-111B fleet air defense fighter, had an airframe with four cruciform fins that was a scaled-up version of the AIM-47. The F-111B was canceled in 1968 and its weapons system, the AIM-54 working with the AWG-9 radar, migrated to the new U. S. Navy fighter project, the VFX, which would later become the F-14 Tomcat. The AIM-54/AWG-9 combination had multiple track capability and launch, the large 1,000 lb missile is equipped with a conventional warhead, on the F-14, four missiles can be carried under the fuselage tunnel attached to special aerodynamic pallets, plus two under glove stations. Most other US aircraft relied on the smaller, semi-active medium-range AIM-7 Sparrow, semi-active guidance meant the aircraft no longer had a search capability while supporting the launched Sparrow, reducing situational awareness. The Tomcats radar could track up to 24 targets in track-while-scan mode, the pilot or radar intercept officer could then launch the Phoenix missiles once parameters were met. The Link-4 datalink allowed US Navy Tomcats to share information with the E-2C Hawkeye AEW aircraft, during Desert Shield in 1990, the Link-4A was introduced, this allowed the Tomcats to have a fighter-to-fighter datalink capability, further enhancing overall situational awareness. The F-14D entered service with the JTIDS that brought the even better Link-16 datalink picture to the cockpit, Phoenix uses this high altitude to gain gravitational potential energy, which is later converted into kinetic energy as the missile dives at high velocity towards its target. At around 11 miles from the target, the missile activates its own radar to provide terminal guidance, minimum engagement range for the Phoenix is around 2 nmi and active homing would initiate upon launch. On January 5,1999, a pair of US F-14s fired two Phoenixes at Iraqi MiG-25s southeast of Baghdad, both AIM-54s rocket motors failed and neither missile hit its target. On September 9,1999 another US F-14 launched an AIM-54 at an Iraqi MiG-23 that was heading south into the zone from Al Taqaddum air base west of Baghdad
34.
Operations room
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The Operations Room is the tactical center of a warship or AWAC aircraft providing processed information for command and control of the near battlespace or area of operations. Regardless of the vessel or command locus, each CIC organizes and processes information into a more convenient. Such polar plots are used routinely in navigation and military action management to display time-stamped range, a single mark bears little actionable decision-making information by itself. CIC is sometimes referred to by Operations Specialists as Christ Im Confused, on US aircraft carriers this area is called the combat direction center. In British usage this area may be known as an Aircraft Direction Room, the British Aircraft Direction Room evolved from the Fighter Direction Office, a primitive means of controlling an aircraft carriers aircraft through radio and radar. The idea of such a control room is surprisingly old. E. Smith, Ph. D. and influenced by the works of his friend and collaborator Robert Heinlein, a retired American naval officer. In short the CICs continually grew for a time, superseding old organizational structure, the tasks and facilities put at the service of the CICs also grew within a ship. From that beginning, were added the corporate experiences of the series of naval air and naval surface actions around. Navy was prepared to take the offensive and began evolving CIC procedures, there has been an evolution of electronics equipment and user interfaces used in such installations over time. Modern Operations Room equipment is built up from many connected embedded systems
35.
Hamilton Sundstrand
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Hamilton Sundstrand was an American globally active corporation that manufactured and supported aerospace and industrial products for worldwide markets. A subsidiary of United Technologies Corporation, it was headquartered in Windsor Locks, the company was formed from the merger of Hamilton Standard and Sundstrand Corporation in 1999. In 2012, Hamilton Sundstrand was merged with Goodrich Corporation to form UTC Aerospace Systems, on June 10,1999, Hamilton Standard and the Sundstrand Corp. were merged, forming Hamilton Sundstrand. Hamilton Sundstrand traces its roots to the founding of the Sundstrand Corp. in 1905, in early 2001, Claverham Ltd was sold to Hamilton Sundstrand. In 2012, Hamilton Sundstrand was merged with Goodrich Corporation to form UTC Aerospace Systems, Hamilton Sundstrand was among the largest global suppliers of technologically advanced aerospace and industrial products. Their three major businesses were Aircraft Systems, Industrial and Energy, and Space and Defense, Hamilton Sundstrand supplied integrated systems solutions for military, commercial, regional, and corporate aircraft. In 2013, The four industrial companies became subsidiaries of new parent company Accudyne Industries, Claverham Limited, was an international subsidiary of Hamilton Sundstrand based in Bristol, England
36.
VAW-125
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Carrier Airborne Early Warning Squadron 125, known as the Torch Bearers or Tigertails, was established on 1 October 1968, at Naval Air Station Norfolk. The squadrons initial supporting command was Carrier Air Wing Three deploying aboard USS Saratoga, the squadron is equipped with the E-2 Hawkeye. VAW-125 is believed to be the first Navy unit to win all three awards in the same year, on 14 January 1978, the squadron suffered the loss of an aircraft and the deaths of three aviators. In June, VAW-125 took the E-2Cs newest weapons system upgrade, the squadron then assigned to Carrier Air Wing Seventeen in November 1979, with the squadron making their eighth Mediterranean Sea deployment, this time aboard USS Forrestal. While on a deployment in October 1985, the squadron assisted in the successful intercept of the Egyptian airliner carrying the hijackers of the Italian cruise ship. From January to March 1986, the participated in Freedom of Navigation operations off the coast of Libya which escalated with the Action in the Gulf of Sidra in March. In August 1988, the squadron deployed aboard USS Independence for an Around the Horn cruise to San Diego, in August 1990, CVW-17 aboard USS Saratoga responded to the invasion of Kuwait by deploying to the Red Sea. VAW-125 and VAW-126 E-2Cs flew around-the-clock as the force build-up of Operation Desert Shield continued, VAW-125 flew over 890 combat hours controlling strikes on Iraqi targets while providing AEW coverage for the Red Sea Battle Group. On a 17 January 1991 strike, squadron aircrew detected two Iraqi MiG-21s threatening the strike group, controllers vectored two VFA-81 F/A-18s toward the MiGs which recorded the only Navy fixed-wing air-to-air kills of Operation Desert Storm. In January 1994, the squadron deployed aboard USS Saratoga for her final cruise, during the deployment, the squadron joined NATO forces flying in support of Operations Deny Flight and Provide Promise. With the decommissioning of USS Saratoga, VAW-125 and CVW-17 were deployed aboard USS Enterprise, after completing a two-month Counter-Drug assignment at NS Roosevelt Roads, the squadron deployed to the Mediterranean Sea aboard USS Enterprise in June 1996. In July, the squadron again joined NATO forces in the former Yugoslavia, in September, USS Enterprise moved to respond to mounting tensions in Southwest Asia, supporting Operation Southern Watch over the next three months. Within hours of the September 11 attacks, squadron personnel were embarked at sea, Squadron aircraft flew numerous command and control missions in the New York City vicinity in the days following the attacks as commercial air traffic slowly resumed. During this cruise, the squadron surpassed a 32-year Class A mishap-free milestone with over 64,000 flight hours, the squadron participated in the Operational Evaluation of the AN/USG-3 airborne node of the Navy’s net-centric CEC sensor fusion system. In January 2010, the squadron was deployed to Naval Station Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, the squadron then joined the USS Carl Vinson on its trip around South America as it returned from Norfolk to its home port in San Diego. In March 2015, the squadron departed with the USS Theodore Roosevelt to the Middle East as part the first deployment of Naval Integrated Fire Control-Counter Air Carrier Strike Group, on 2 February 2017, VAW-125 arrived at Marine Corps Air Station Iwakuni, Japan. It replaced VAW-115 in Carrier Air Wing Five aboard the aircraft carrier USS Ronald Reagan. org – VAW-125
37.
Naval Station Norfolk
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Naval Station Norfolk, is a United States Navy base in Norfolk, Virginia. It supports naval forces in the United States Fleet Forces Command, those operating in the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, the installation occupies about 4 miles of waterfront space and 11 miles of pier and wharf space of the Hampton Roads peninsula known as Sewells Point. Over 150,000 passengers and 264,000 tons of mail and cargo depart annually on Air Mobility Command aircraft, the area where the base is located was the site of the original 1907 Jamestown Exposition. In April 1917, not long after the United States entered World War I, a bill was passed for the purchase of the land, and money was set aside in the amount of $1.6 million for the development of the base. The Fifth Naval Headquarters was established along with the Naval Operating Base, by 1918, there were 34,000 enlisted men at the base. However, by the end, the base was reduced in personnel. New facilities were built including new runways for aircraft, part of NAS Norfolk and it also had ramps built to be used by seaplanes to be operated by the navy during the war. About 400 acres was acquired and by 1943, the air station had become an airfield for operations. Due to the expansion, it contributed to ending the war due to the training it provided to air units. On 1 January 1953, the name of the base was changed to Naval Station Norfolk after being known as the NOB. In 1968, the Naval Air Station was given a role in John F. Kennedys vision of putting a man on the moon. The air station became Recovery Control Center Atlantic, which provided command, control, due to the end of the Cold War. A drawdown began in the 1990s, and the navy began reducing shore installations to help with operating cost. Due to this, the navy merged the separate Naval Station and Naval Air Station into an installation to be called Naval Station Norfolk. Following the attack on the USS Cole and September 11,2001 terrorist attacks, the base had some major upgrades to its security gates costing more than $12.5 million. On 26 January 2017, NS Norfolk celebrated its centennial at the Pennsylvania House, Naval Station Norfolk is homeport for the USS Cole, which was the victim of an Al-Qaeda terrorist attack in October 2000 while it was harbored and being refueled in the port of Aden, Yemen. 17 American sailors were killed, and 39 were injured in the attack, the USS Cole remains in active service and remains homeported at Norfolk. On March 24,2014, a shooting at NS Norfolk resulted in the death of a sailor, the shooting occurred around 11,20 p. m. EST aboard the USS Mahan
38.
Glass cockpit
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A glass cockpit is an aircraft cockpit that features electronic flight instrument displays, typically large LCD screens, rather than the traditional style of analog dials and gauges. This simplifies aircraft operation and navigation and allows pilots to focus only on the most pertinent information and they are also popular with airline companies as they usually eliminate the need for a flight engineer, saving costs. In recent years the technology has become available in small aircraft. As aircraft displays have modernized, the sensors that feed them have modernized as well, traditional gyroscopic flight instruments have been replaced by electronic attitude and heading reference systems and air data computers, improving reliability and reducing cost and maintenance. GPS receivers are usually integrated into glass cockpits, glass cockpits originated in military aircraft in the late 1960s and early 1970s, an early example is the Mark II avionics of the F-111D, which featured a multi-function display. Prior to the 1970s, air operations were not considered sufficiently demanding to require advanced equipment like electronic flight displays. Also, computer technology was not at a level where sufficiently light, the increasing complexity of transport aircraft, the advent of digital systems and the growing air traffic congestion around airports began to change that. The success of the NASA-led glass cockpit work is reflected in the acceptance of electronic flight displays beginning with the introduction of the MD-80 in 1979. Airlines and their passengers alike have benefited, the safety and efficiency of flights have been increased with improved pilot understanding of the aircrafts situation relative to its environment. By the end of the 1990s, liquid-crystal display panels were increasingly favored among aircraft manufacturers because of their efficiency, earlier LCD panels suffered from poor legibility at some viewing angles and poor response times, making them unsuitable for aviation. The glass cockpit has become standard equipment in airliners, business jets and it was fitted into NASAs Space Shuttle orbiters Atlantis, Columbia, Discovery, and Endeavour, and the current Russian Soyuz TMA model spacecraft that was launched in 2002. By the end of the century glass cockpits began appearing in general aviation aircraft as well, in 2003, Cirrus Designs SR20 and SR22 became the first light aircraft equipped with glass cockpits, which they made standard on all Cirrus aircraft. The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II features a panoramic cockpit display touchscreen that replaces most of the switches and toggles found in an aircraft cockpit and they look and behave very similarly to other computers, with windows and data that can be manipulated with point-and-click devices. They also add terrain, approach charts, weather, vertical displays, the improved concepts enable aircraft makers to customize cockpits to a greater degree than previously. All of the manufacturers involved have chosen to do so in one way or another—such as using a trackball, many of the modifications offered by the aircraft manufacturers improve situational awareness and customize the human-machine interface to increase safety. Modern glass cockpits might include Synthetic Vision or Enhanced Vision systems, Enhanced Vision systems add real-time information from external sensors, such as an infrared camera. All new airliners such as the Airbus A380, Boeing 787 and private jets such as Bombardier Global Express, many modern general aviation aircraft are available with glass cockpits. Systems such as the Garmin G1000 are now available on many new GA aircraft, many small aircraft can also be modified post-production to replace analogue instruments
39.
Aerial refueling
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The procedure allows the receiving aircraft to remain airborne longer, extending its range or loiter time on station. A series of air refuelings can give range limited only by crew fatigue, alternatively, a shorter take-off roll can be achieved because take-off can be at a lighter weight before refueling once airborne. Aerial refueling has also considered as a means to reduce fuel consumption on long-distance flights greater than 3,000 nautical miles. Potential fuel savings in the range of 35-40% have been estimated for long haul flights, usually, the aircraft providing the fuel is specially designed for the task, although refueling pods can be fitted to existing aircraft designs if the probe-and-drogue system is to be used. There is no known regular civilian in-flight refueling activity, for instance, in the Gulf War and the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the Iraq War, all coalition air sorties were air-refueled except for a few short-range ground attack sorties in the Kuwait area. The first mid-air refueling, based on the development of Alexander P. de Seversky, as the 1920s progressed, greater numbers of aviation enthusiasts vied to set new aerial long-distance records, using inflight air refueling. One such enthusiast, who would revolutionize aerial refueling was Sir Alan Cobham, member of the Royal Flying Corps in World War I, and a pioneer of long-distance aviation. During the 1920s, he made long-distance flights to places as far afield as Africa and Australia and this craft was eventually modified by Airspeed to Cobhams specification, for a non-stop flight from London to India, using in-flight refueling to extend the planes flight duration. Meanwhile, in 1929, a group of U. S. Army Air Corps fliers, led by then Major Carl Spaatz, set an endurance record of over 150 hours with the Question Mark over Los Angeles. Aerial refueling remained a dangerous process until 1935 when brothers Fred and Al Key demonstrated a spill-free refueling nozzle. They exceeded the Hunters record by nearly 100 hours in a Curtiss Robin monoplane, the US was mainly concerned about transatlantic flights for faster postal service between Europe and America. In 1931 W. Irving Glover, the assistant postmaster, wrote an extensive article for Popular Mechanics concerning the challenges. In his article he even mentioned the use of Aerial refueling after take off as a possible solution, by 1931 they had demonstrated refueling between two Vickers Virginias, with fuel flow controlled by an automatic valve on the hose which would cut off if contact was lost. Royal Air Force officer Richard Atcherley had observed the dangerous aerial-refueling techniques in use at barnstorming events in the US and determined to create a workable system. In 1934, Cobham sold off the airline Cobham Air Routes Ltd to Olley Air Service, atcherlys system was bought up by Cobhams company, and with some refinement and continuous improvement through the late 30s, it became the first practical refueling system. Sir Alan Cobhams Grappled-line looped-hose air-to-air refueling system borrowed from techniques patented by David Nicolson and John Lord, and was publicly demonstrated for the first time in 1935. In the system the aircraft, at one time an Airspeed Courier, trailed a steel cable which was then grappled by a line shot from the tanker. The line was drawn back into the tanker where the receivers cable was connected to the refueling hose
40.
Active electronically scanned array
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AESAs main use is in radar, and these are known as active phased array radar. The AESA is an advanced, sophisticated, second-generation of the original PESA phased array technology. PESAs can only emit a beam of radio waves at a single frequency at a time. The AESA can radiate multiple beams of radio waves at multiple frequencies simultaneously, most of the radar systems used in modern combat aircraft are AESA systems. Bell Labs proposed replacing the Nike Zeus radars with a phased array system in 1960, the result was the Zeus Multi-function Array Radar, an early example of an active electronically steered array radar system. MAR was made of a number of small antennas, each one connected to a separate computer-controlled transmitter or receiver. MAR allowed the battle over a wide space to be controlled from a single site. Each MAR, and its associated battle center, would process tracks for hundreds of targets, the system would then select the most appropriate battery for each one, and hand off particular targets for them to attack. One battery would normally be associated with the MAR, while others would be distributed around it, remote batteries were equipped with a much simpler radar whose primary purpose was to track the outgoing Sprint missiles before they became visible to the potentially distant MAR. These smaller Missile Site Radars were passively scanned, forming only a single instead of the MARs multiple beams. First Soviet APA radar was developed in 1963-1965 as a part of S-225 ABM system, after some modifications in the system concept in 1967 it was built at Sary Shagan Test Range in 1970-1971 and nicknamed Flat Twin in the West. Four years later another radar of this design was built on Kura Test Range, the first military ground-based AESA was the J/FPS-3 which became fully operational with the 45th Aircraft Control and Warning Group of the Japan Self-Defense Forces in 1995. The first series production ship-based AESA was the OPS-24 Fire-control radar introduced on the Asagiri-class destroyer DD-155 Hamagiri launched in 1988, the first airborne series production AESA was the EL/M-2075 Phalcon on a Chilean Air Force Boeing 707 that entered service in 1994. The first AESA on an aircraft was the J/APG-1 introduced on the Mitsubishi F-2 in 1995. The first AESA on a missile is the head for the AAM-4B air-to-air missile. US based manufacturers of the AESA radars used in the F-22 and Super Hornet include Northrop Grumman and these companies also design, develop and manufacture the transmit/receive modules which comprise the building blocks of an AESA radar. The requisite electronics technology was developed in-house via Department of Defense research programs such as MMIC Program, Radar systems generally work by connecting an antenna to a powerful radio transmitter to emit a short pulse of signal. The transmitter is disconnected and the antenna is connected to a sensitive receiver which amplifies any echos from target objects
41.
Identification friend or foe
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Identification, friend or foe is an identification system designed for command and control. It enables military and national interrogation systems to identify aircraft, vehicles or forces as friendly and to determine their bearing, IFF may be used by both military and civilian aircraft. IFF was first developed during the Second World War, with the arrival of radar, despite the name, IFF can only positively identify friendly targets, not hostile ones. If an IFF interrogation receives no reply or a reply, the object cannot be identified as friendly. There are in addition many reasons that friendly aircraft may not properly reply to IFF, the broadest characterization is that of friend, enemy, neutral, or unknown. CID not only can reduce friendly fire incidents, but also contributes to overall tactical decision-making and this led to incidents such as the battle of Barking Creek, over Britain, and the air attack on the fortress of Koepenick, over Germany. Already before the deployment of their Chain Home radar system, the RAF had considered the problem of IFF, robert Watson-Watt had filed patents on such systems in 1935 and 1936 respectively. By 1938, researchers at Bawdsey Manor began experiments with reflectors consisting of a dipole antennas tuned to resonate at the frequency of the CH radars. When a pulse from the CH transmitter hit the aircraft, the antennas would resonate for a short time, the antenna was connected to a motorized switch that periodically shorted it out, preventing it from producing a signal. This caused the return on the CH set to periodically lengthen and shorten as the antenna was turned on and off. It was suspected this system would be of use in practice. This consisted of a set of tracking stations using HF/DF radio direction finders and their aircraft radios were modified to send out a 1 kHz tone for 14 seconds every minute, allowing the tracking stations ample time to measure the aircrafts bearing. Known as pip-squeak, the system worked but was labour-intensive and did not display its information directly to the radar operators, a system that worked directly with the radar was clearly desirable. The first active IFF transponder was the IFF Mark I and was put into operation in 1939, on receipt of a signal from the CH radar, an oscillator in the system began to ring with the same frequency. This signal was amplified and sent out an omnidirectional monopole antenna, the oscillator circuit rang only for a short time, causing the signal to quickly disappear again. Since the signal was received at the time as the original reflection of the CH signal. Mark I was technically complete as the war began, but a lack of sets meant it was not available in quantity, pip-squeak was kept in operation during this period, but as the Battle ended, IFF Mark I was quickly put into operation. Pip-squeak was still used for areas over land where CH did not cover, the primary problem with the Mark I was that it operated at a single set frequency
42.
RIM-174 Standard ERAM
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The RIM-174 Standard Extended Range Active Missile, or Standard Missile 6 is a missile in current production for the United States Navy. It can also be used as a high speed anti-ship missile, the missile uses the airframe of the earlier SM-2ER Block IV missile, adding the active radar homing seeker from the AIM-120C AMRAAM in place of the semi-active seeker of the previous design. This will improve the capability of the Standard missile against highly agile targets, initial operating capability was planned for 2013 and was achieved on November 27,2013. The SM-6 is not meant to replace the SM-2 series of missiles and it was approved for export in January 2017. The Standard ERAM is a missile with a booster stage. It is similar in appearance to the RIM-156A Standard missile, the radar seeker is an enlarged version adapted from the AIM-120C AMRAAM seeker. The missile is capable of terminal ballistic missile defense as a supplement to the Standard Missile 3. Unlike other missiles of the Standard family, the Standard ERAM can be tested and certified without removal from the vertical launching system. The multi-mission SM-6 is engineered with the aerodynamics of an SM-2, the propulsion booster stack of the SM-3, estimates of the SM-6s range vary, its official published range is 150 mi, but it could be anywhere from 200 nautical miles to as much as 250 nmi. Raytheon entered a contract in 2004 to develop the missile for the United States Navy, development started in 2005, followed by testing in 2007. The missile was officially designated RIM-174A in February 2008, initial low rate production was authorized in 2009. Raytheon received a $93 million contract to begin production of the RIM-174A in September 2009, the first low-rate production missile was delivered in March 2011. SM-6 was approved for production in May 2013. On November 27,2013, the Standard ERAM achieved IOC when it was fielded on board USS Kidd, during exercises from 18–20 June 2014, USS John Paul Jones fired four SM-6 missiles. One part of the exercise, designated NIFC-CA AS-02A, resulted in the then-longest surface-to-air engagement in naval history, on 14 August 2014, an SM-6 was test fired against a subsonic, low-altitude cruise missile target and successfully intercepted it over land. A key element of the test was to assess its ability to discern a slow-moving target among ground clutter, on 24 October 2014, Raytheon announced that two SM-6 missiles intercepted anti-ship and cruise missile targets during engage on remote scenarios. Advanced warning and cueing from other ships allows the missiles capability to be more greatly utilized so a single ship is able defend a larger area. In May 2015, the SM-6 was moved from low-rate to full-rate production, significantly increasing production numbers and this adds to the fleets missile defense capabilities by allowing it to intercept ballistic missiles that could not be hit by SM-3 missiles, which targets missiles in the midcourse phase
43.
Fire-control system
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A fire-control system is a number of components working together, usually a gun data computer, a director, and radar, which is designed to assist a weapon system in hitting its target. It performs the task as a human gunner firing a weapon. The best known United States device was the Norden bombsight, simple systems, known as lead computing sights also made their appearance inside aircraft late in the war as gyro gunsights. These devices used a gyroscope to measure turn rates, and moved the gunsights aim-point to take this into account, the only manual input to the sight was the target distance, which was typically handled by dialing in the size of the targets wing span at some known range. Small radar units were added in the period to automate even this input. By the start of the Vietnam War, a new computerized bombing predictor, called the Low Altitude Bombing System, the key advantage is that the weapon can be released accurately even when the plane is maneuvering. Most bombsights until this time required that the plane maintain a constant attitude, the LABS system was originally designed to facilitate a tactic called toss bombing, to allow the aircraft to remain out of range of a weapons blast radius. The principle of calculating the point, however, was eventually integrated into the fire control computers of later bombers and strike aircraft, allowing level, dive. In addition, as the control computer became integrated with ordnance systems. By the start of World War II, aircraft altitude performance had increased so much that anti-aircraft guns had similar predictive problems, the main difference between these systems and the ones on ships was size and speed. The USN Mk 37 system made similar assumptions except that it could predict assuming a constant rate of altitude change. The Kerrison Predictor is an example of a system that was built to solve laying in real time, simply by pointing the director at the target and then aiming the gun at a pointer it directed. It was also designed to be small and light, in order to allow it to be easily moved along with the guns it served. The radar-based M-9/SCR-584 Anti-Aircraft System was used to air defense artillery since 1943. In combination with the VT proximity fuze, this system accomplished the feat of shooting down V-1 cruise missiles with less than 100 shells per plane. This system was instrumental in the defense of London and Antwerp against the V-1, although listed in Land based fire control section anti-aircraft fire control systems can also be found on naval and aircraft systems. In the United States, Coast Artillery fire control systems began to be developed at the end of the 19th Century, early systems made use of multiple observation or base end stations to find and track targets attacking American harbors. Fire control in the Coast Artillery became more and more sophisticated in terms of correcting firing data for such factors as weather conditions, provisions were also made for adjusting firing data for the observed fall of shells
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