1.
American Indian Wars
–
These conflicts occurred in the current boundaries of the United States from the time of earliest colonial settlements until 1924. In many cases, wars resulted from competition for resources and land ownership as Europeans, Warfare and raiding also took place as a result of conflicts between European governments and later the United States. These governments enlisted Native Americans tribes to help them conduct warfare against each others settlements, after 1776, many conflicts were local, involving disputes over land use, and some entailed cycles of reprisal. In the 1800s, conflicts were spurred by ideologies such as Manifest Destiny, in the years leading up to the Indian Removal Act of 1830 there were many armed conflicts between settlers and Native Americans. Prior to the Act of 1830, some conflicts were resolved through sale or exchange of territory through treaties between the government and specific tribes. The 1830 act authorized the removal of indigenous peoples who lived East of the Mississippi River to the West. As United States citizens continued to settle areas towards the Pacific, the policy of removal was refined to move some indigenous peoples to very specific reservations. The 2010 census found 2,932,248 Americans who identified themselves as being Native American, no consensus exists on how many native people lived in the Americas before the arrival of Columbus, but extensive research has been and continues to be conducted. Estimates on the population of pre-Colombus North America range from a low of 2.1 million to 7 million people to 18 million, scholars believe that the overwhelming main causes were new infectious diseases carried by European explorers and traders. Native Americans had no acquired immunity to diseases, which had been chronic in Eurasian populations for over five centuries. For instance, some estimates indicate case fatality rates of 80–98% in Native American populations during smallpox epidemics. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, the actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the number given. Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate, from about 1600 onwards, the process of European colonization of North America by the English, French, Spanish, Dutch and Swedish was contested by various indigenous tribes. Similarly, in the American Revolution and the War of 1812, the British planned to set up an Indian nation in what is now the Ohio-Wisconsin area to block further American expansion. The U. S. protested and finally, in 1812, most Indian tribes, especially those allied with Tecumseh, supported the British and were ultimately defeated by General William Henry Harrison. The latter were defeated by General Andrew Jackson, during and after such warfare, many refugees from defeated tribes went over the border to Canada, those in the South went to Florida while it was under Spanish control. During the early 19th century, the government was under pressure by settlers in many regions to expel Native Americans from their areas. Some resisted fiercely, most notably the Seminoles in a series of wars in Florida and they were never finally defeated, although some Seminole did remove to Indian Territory
American Indian Wars
–
An 1899
chromolithograph of
US cavalry pursuing Native Americans, artist unknown
American Indian Wars
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The Battle of Fallen Timbers
American Indian Wars
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Treaty with the Creeks, Fort Jackson, 1814
American Indian Wars
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A dead Sauk and her surviving child with a U.S. officer at the
Bad Axe Massacre, 1832.
2.
Treaty of Greenville
–
The Treaty of Greenville was signed on August 3,1795, at Fort Greenville, now Greenville, Ohio, it followed negotiations after the Native American loss at the Battle of Fallen Timbers a year earlier. It ended the Northwest Indian War in the Ohio Country and limited strategic parcels of land to the north, the parties to the treaty were a coalition of Native American tribes, known as the Western Confederacy, and United States government represented by General Anthony Wayne for local frontiersmen. The treaty is considered the beginning of modern Ohio history, the treaty established what became known as the Greenville Treaty Line, which was for several years a boundary between Native American territory and lands open to European-American settlers. The latter frequently disregarded the treaty line as they continued to encroach on Native American lands, the United States was represented by General Mad Anthony Wayne, who led the victory at Fallen Timbers. Other Americans at the treaty include William Wells, William Henry Harrison, William Clark, Caleb Swan, Native American leaders who signed the treaty included leaders of these bands and tribes, Wyandot Chiefs Tarhe, Leatherlips, Roundhead, Delaware. Shawnee, Chief Blue Jacket, Ottawa, Chippewa, Potawatomi, Miami, Chief Little Turtle, Wea, Kickapoo, William Clark of the Lewis and Clark Expedition was present at Greenville. That treaty brought support from those tribes for the US during the War of 1812, the line continued down the Tuscarawas to Fort Laurens near present-day Bolivar. From there, the line ran west-southwest to near present-day Fort Loramie on a branch of the Great Miami River, from there, the line ran west-northwest to Fort Recovery, on the Wabash River near the present-day boundary between Ohio and Indiana. From Fort Recovery, the line ran south-southwest to the Ohio River at a point opposite the mouth of the Kentucky River in present-day Carrollton, a painting commemorating the treaty hangs in the Ohio Statehouse. It was completed by the Ohio artist Howard Chandler Christy, at 23 feet wide, it is the largest painting in the Ohio Statehouse. Video explaining painting at the Ohio Statehouse
Treaty of Greenville
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First page of the Treaty of Greenville.
Treaty of Greenville
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This depiction of the treaty negotiations may have been painted by one of
Anthony Wayne 's officers, c. 1795.
Treaty of Greenville
Treaty of Greenville
3.
Anthony Wayne
–
Anthony Wayne was a United States Army officer, statesman, and member of the United States House of Representatives. He later served as General in Chief of the Army and commanded the Legion of the United States, Wayne was one of four children born to Isaac Wayne and Elizabeth Iddings Wayne in Easttown Township, near present-day Paoli, Chester County, Pennsylvania. His father had immigrated from Ireland, and was part of a Protestant Anglo-Irish family, Wayne was born on January 1,1745, on his familys Waynesborough estate. He was educated as a surveyor at his uncles private academy in Philadelphia, as well as at the College of Philadelphia, in 1767 he returned to work in his fathers tannery, while continuing work as a surveyor. He became a prominent figure in Chester County and served in the Pennsylvania legislature from 1774–80 and he married Mary Penrose in 1766 and they had two children. Their daughter Margretta was born in 1770 and their son Isaac Wayne, representative from Pennsylvania, was born in 1772. At the onset of the war in 1775, Wayne raised a unit and, in 1776. His service resulted in a promotion to general on February 21,1777. On September 11,1777, Wayne commanded the Pennsylvania Line at Brandywine, the two forces fought for three hours until the American line withdrew, and Wayne was ordered to retreat. Later, Wayne was ordered to harass the British rear in order to slow General Howes advance towards Pennsylvania, Waynes camp was attacked on the night of September 20–21, in the Battle of Paoli. General Charles Grey ordered his men to remove their flints and attack with bayonets in order to keep their assault secret, the attack earned General Grey the nickname No Flint, but the Americans used the tactics and casualties as propaganda regarding British brutality. General Waynes own reputation was tarnished by the American losses, only days later, on October 4,1777, Wayne again led his forces against the British in the Battle of Germantown. Waynes soldiers pushed ahead of other American units, and, according to his report, generals Wayne and Sullivan advanced too quickly, however, and became entrapped when they reached two miles ahead of other American units. As General Howe arrived and reformed the British line, American forces retreated, General Wayne was again ordered to hold off the British and cover the rear of the retreating body. After winter quarters at Valley Forge, Wayne led the American attack at the 1778 Battle of Monmouth, during this battle, Waynes forces were abandoned by General Charles Lee and pinned down by a numerically superior British force. Wayne held out until relieved by reinforcements sent by Washington, Wayne reformed his troops and continued to fight. Because the body of Lt. Colonel Henry Monckton was discovered by the 1st Pennsylvania Regiment, in July 1779 Washington named Wayne to command the Corps of Light Infantry, a temporary unit of four regiments of light infantry companies drawn from all the regiments in the Main Army. Waynes successful attack on British positions at Stony Point, New York in the Battle of Stony Point was the point of his revolutionary war service
Anthony Wayne
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Anthony Wayne
Anthony Wayne
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A statue of General "Mad" Anthony Wayne stands in Fort Wayne's Freimann Square.
Anthony Wayne
–
Statue of Wayne at
Valley Forge, facing toward his home in nearby
Paoli, Pennsylvania
Anthony Wayne
–
Major-General Anthony Wayne (Pastel by
James Sharples, Sr ca. 1795)
4.
Northwest Territory
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In the 18th century, Great Britain and the France disputed for control of this region. The French had claimed it in the 17th century as part of New France and this activity stimulated the development of the eastern parts of the eventual National Road by private investors. Most of the territory and its successors was settled by emigrants passing through the Cumberland Narrows, the Congress of the Confederation enacted the Northwest Ordinance in 1787 to provide for the administration of the territories and set rules for admission of jurisdictions as states. On August 7,1789, the new U. S. Congress affirmed the Ordinance with slight modifications under the Constitution, the territory included all the land of the United States west of Pennsylvania and northwest of the Ohio River. It covered all of the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan. The area covered more than 260,000 square miles, European exploration of the region began with French-Canadian voyageurs in the 17th century, followed by French missionaries and French fur traders. French-Canadian explorer Jean Nicolet was the first recorded European entrant into the region, landing in 1634 at the current site of Green Bay, Wisconsin. The French exercised control from widely separate posts in the region, France ceded the territory to the Kingdom of Great Britain as part of the Indian Reserve in the 1763 Treaty of Paris, after being defeated in the French and Indian War. A new colony, named Charlotina, was proposed for the southern Great Lakes region, however, facing armed opposition by Native Americans, the British issued the Proclamation of 1763, which prohibited white colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. This action angered American colonists interested in expansion, as well as those who had settled in the area. In 1774, by the Quebec Act, Britain annexed the region to the Province of Quebec in order to provide a civil government, the prohibition of settlement west of the Appalachians remained, contributing to the American Revolution. In February 1779, George Rogers Clark of the Virginia Militia captured Kaskaskia, the Old Northwest Territory included all the then-owned land of the United States west of Pennsylvania, east of the Mississippi River, and northwest of the Ohio River. It covered all of the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan. The area covered more than 260,000 square miles and was a significant addition to the United States, several states then had competing claims on the territory. As a concession in order to obtain ratification, these states ceded their claims on the territory to the government, New York in 1780, Virginia in 1784, Massachusetts. So the majority of the territory became public land owned by the U. S. government, Virginia and Connecticut reserved the land of two areas to use as compensation to military veterans, The Virginia Military District and the Connecticut Western Reserve. In this way, the United States included territory and people outside any of the states, Thomas Jeffersons Land Ordinance of 1784 was the first organization of the territory by the United States. Some older French communities property claims based on systems of long
Northwest Territory
–
Check signed by
Arthur St. Clair while Governor of the Northwest Territory (1796)
Northwest Territory
–
Flag
Northwest Territory
–
Plaque at
Marietta, Ohio commemorating the first American settlement of the Northwest Territory
Northwest Territory
–
Seal of the Northwest territory over a time capsule outside the
Campus Martius Museum. Latin phrase “He has planted one better than the one fallen,” signifies the replacement of wilderness by civilization.
5.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
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Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
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Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
6.
Chickasaw
–
The Chickasaw are an indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands. Their traditional territory was in the Southeastern United States of Mississippi, Alabama and they are of the Muskogean language family and are federally recognized as the Chickasaw Nation. That is where they encountered European explorers and traders, having relationships with French, the United States considered the Chickasaw one of the Five Civilized Tribes, as they adopted numerous practices of European Americans. Most Chickasaw now live in Oklahoma, the Chickasaw Nation in Oklahoma is the 13th largest federally recognized tribe in the United States. Its members are related to the Choctaw and share a history with them. The Chickasaw are divided in two groups, the Impsaktea and the Intcutwalipa and they traditionally followed a system of matrilineal descent, in which children were considered to be part of the mothers clan, whence they gained their status. Some property was controlled by women, and hereditary leadership in the tribe passed through the maternal line, the name Chickasaw, as noted by anthropologist John Swanton, belonged to a Chickasaw leader. Chickasaw is the English spelling of Chikashsha, meaning rebel or comes from Chicsa, Chickasaw The origin of the Chickasaw is uncertain. When Europeans first encountered them, the Chickasaw were living in villages in what is now Northeastern Mississippi and their oral history says they migrated along with the Choctaw from west of the Mississippi River into present-day Mississippi in prehistoric times. The Mississippian Ideological Interaction Sphere spanned the Eastern Woodlands, the Mississippian cultures emerged from previous moundbuilding societies by 880 CE. They built complex, dense villages supporting a society, with centers throughout the Mississippi and Ohio River Valleys. In the 15th century, proto-Chickasaw people left the Tombigbee Valley after the collapse of the Moundville chiefdom and settled into the upper Yazoo, historians Arrell Gibson and anthropology John R. Swanton believed the Chickasaw Old Fields were in Madison County, Alabama. Another version of the Chickasaw creation story is that they arose at Nanih Waiya and it is also sacred to the Choctaw, who have a similar story about it. The mound was built about 1400 years before the coalescence of each of these peoples as ethnic groups, after various disagreements, the American Indians attacked the De Soto expedition in a nighttime raid, nearly destroying it. The Chickasaw began to trade with the British after the colony of Carolina was founded in 1670, with British-supplied guns, the Chickasaw raided their neighbors and enemies the Choctaw, capturing some members and selling them into Indian slavery to the British. When the Choctaw acquired guns from the French, power between the tribes became more equalized and the raids stopped. Allied with the British, the Chickasaw were often at war with the French, skirmishes continued until France ceded its claims to the region east of the Mississippi River after being defeated by the British in the Seven Years War. Following the American Revolutionary War, in 1793-94, Chickasaw fought as allies of the new United States under General Anthony Wayne against the Indians of the old Northwest Territory
Chickasaw
–
Top row: Young Chickasaw man,
Tom Cole, Winchester Colbert Middle row:
Holmes Colbert,
John Herrington, J. D. James Bottom row: Mary Hightower (Shunahoyah), Ashkehenaniew, Annie Guy
Chickasaw
–
The second leg of the de Soto Expedition, from
Apalachee to the Chicaza
Chickasaw
–
Sculpture of a stylized 18th-century Chickasaw warrior by
Enoch Kelly Haney, at the
Chickasaw Cultural Center in Oklahoma
Chickasaw
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A sketch of a Chickasaw by Bernard Romans, 1775
7.
Choctaw
–
The Choctaw are Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States. The Choctaw language belongs to the Muskogean language family group, the Choctaw are descendants of the peoples of the Hopewell and Mississippian cultures, who lived throughout the east of the Mississippi River valley and its tributaries. About 1,700 years ago, the Hopewell people built Nanih Waiya, an earthwork mound. The early Spanish explorers of the mid-16th century encountered Mississippian-culture villages, the anthropologist John Swanton suggested that the Choctaw derived their name from an early leader. Henry Halbert, a historian, suggests that their name is derived from the Choctaw phrase Hacha hatak and these included the French, based on the Gulf Coast and in Louisiana, the English of the Southeast, and the Spanish of Florida and Louisiana during the colonial era. During the American Revolution, most Choctaw supported the Thirteen Colonies bid for independence from the British Crown and they never went to war against the United States prior to Indian Removal. In the 19th century, the Choctaw became known as one of the Five Civilized Tribes because they adopted numerous practices of their United States neighbors. The Choctaw and the United States agreed to nine treaties and and they were the first Native Americans forced under the Indian Removal Act. The Choctaw were exiled because the U. S. wanted to expand territory available for settlement by European Americans, to save the tribe from extinction, the Choctaw negotiated the largest area and most desirable lands in Indian Territory. Their early government had three districts, each with its own chief, who together with the town chiefs sat on the National Council and they appointed a Choctaw Delegate to represent them with the US government in Washington, DC. By the 1831 Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, those Choctaw who chose to stay in the formed state of Mississippi were one of the first major non-European ethnic groups to become U. S. citizens. During the American Civil War, the Choctaw in both Oklahoma and Mississippi mostly sided with the Confederate States of America, the Confederacy suggested it would support a state under Indian control if it won the war. After the Civil War, the Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana Choctaw fell into obscurity for some time, in 1978, the United Supreme Court of the United states held that all remnants of the Choctaw Nation are entitled to all rights of the Nation. The Choctaw in Oklahoma struggled to build a nation, transferring the Choctaw Academy there, in the aftermath of the Dawes Act, the US dissolved tribal governments and appointed chiefs. During World War I, Choctaw soldiers served in the U. S. military as the first Native American codetalkers, after the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, the Choctaw reconstituted their government, and the Choctaw Nation had kept their culture alive despite years of pressure for assimilation. The third largest federally recognized tribe, since the century, they have created new institutions, such as a tribal college, housing authority. Federal Court of Appeals was upheld by the United States Supreme Court in 2002, many thousands of years ago groups classified by anthropologists as Paleo-Indians lived in what today is referred to as the American South. These groups were hunter-gatherers who hunted a wide range of animals, including a variety of megafauna, cushman wrote, the ancient Choctaw through their tradition they saw the mighty beasts of the forests, whose tread shook the earth
Choctaw
–
Pushmataha
Choctaw
Choctaw
–
A Choctaw woman
Choctaw
–
A Mississippian-era priest holding a ceremonial flint mace.
8.
George Washington
–
George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
George Washington
–
George Washington by
Gilbert Stuart, 1797
George Washington
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Washington's birthplace
George Washington
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Washington's map, accompanying his Journal to the Ohio (1753–1754)
George Washington
–
A
mezzotint of
Martha Washington, based on a 1757 portrait by
Wollaston
9.
Josiah Harmar
–
Josiah Harmar was an officer in the United States Army during the American Revolutionary War and the Northwest Indian War. He was the officer in the Army for seven years. Josiah Harmar was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and educated at a Quaker school and he started his military career during the American Revolutionary War, receiving a commission as a captain in 1775. He served under George Washington and Henry Lee during the war, a lieutenant colonel at its conclusion, he was chosen by Congress in 1784 to relay the ratified Treaty of Paris to commissioner Benjamin Franklin in Paris. Harmar was an member of the Pennsylvania Society of the Cincinnati when it was founded on October 4,1783. The same day, he was elected as the Societys first secretary, Harmar served as secretary of the Society for two years. In the 1780s, many Americans wished to settle the Old Northwest as the Midwest was known at the time, supported by the British who still held fur-trading forts in the Old Northwest, the Indians were resolved to oppose the Americans. In 1784, the newly independent United States had almost no army, in 1784, the entire United States Army comprised just 55 artillerymen at West Point and 25 more at Fort Pitt. For defense, the United States relied upon the state militias, as the largest contingent came from Pennsylvania, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania was allowed to choose the commander of the regiment. Thomas Mifflin, a powerful Pennsylvania politician successfully pushed for his friend Josiah Harmar to become commander, Harmar was described as a political general with a fondness for alcohol who was only given the position due to his political connections. As commander of the First American Regiment, Harmar was the officer in the United States Army from 1784 to 1791. In 1785, he wrote to a friend, I wish you were here to view the beauties of Fort MIntosh, what think you of pike of 24 lbs, a perch of 15 to 20 lbs, cat-fish of 40 lbs, bass, pickerel, sturgeon &c &c. He also consumed huge quantities of wine, cognac, whiskey and he signed the Treaty of Fort McIntosh in 1785, the same year that he ordered the construction of Fort Harmar near Marietta, Ohio. Such are the glories of industry, short-sightedness on the part of the military was the reason that no preparatory training in guerrilla warfare was ever imposed on the Army. No federal unit under Harmar or St. Clair was ever instructed in the method of war. It is very unlikely that the Continental Army would had won the Revolutionary War without Steubens training, Harmar also supervised the construction of Fort Steuben near present-day Steubenville, Ohio. He was brevetted as a general in July 1787. He directed the construction in 1789 of Fort Washington on the Ohio River, the fort was named in honor of President Washington
Josiah Harmar
–
Josiah Harmar
Josiah Harmar
–
Fort Harmar
10.
Arthur St. Clair
–
Arthur St. Clair was an American soldier and politician. Born in Thurso, Scotland, he served in the British Army during the French and Indian War before settling in Pennsylvania, where he held local office. During the American Revolutionary War, he rose to the rank of general in the Continental Army. After the war, he served as President of the Continental Congress and he was then made governor of the Northwest Territory in 1788, and then the portion that would become Ohio in 1800. In 1791, St. Clair commanded the American forces in what was the United Statess worst ever defeat against the American Indians, politically out-of-step with the Jefferson administration, he was replaced as governor in 1802. St. Clair was born in Thurso, Caithness, Scotland, little is known of his early life. Early biographers estimated his year of birth as 1734, but subsequent historians uncovered a birth date of March 23,1736 and his parents, unknown to early biographers, were probably William Sinclair, a merchant, and Elizabeth Balfour. He reportedly attended the University of Edinburgh before being apprenticed to the renowned physician William Hunter, in 1757, St. Clair purchased a commission in the British Army, Royal American Regiment, and came to America with Admiral Edward Boscawens fleet for the French and Indian War. He served under General Jeffrey Amherst at the capture of Louisburg, on April 16,1762, he resigned his commission, and, in 1764, he settled in Ligonier Valley, Pennsylvania, where he purchased land and erected mills. He was the largest landowner in Western Pennsylvania, in 1774, the colony of Virginia took claim of the area around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and some residents of Western Pennsylvania took up arms to eject them. St. Clair issued an order for the arrest of the leading the Virginia troops. Lord Dunmores War eventually settled the boundary dispute, by the mid-1770s, St. Clair considered himself more of an American than a British subject. In January 1776, he accepted a commission in the Continental Army as a colonel of the 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment and he first saw service in the later days of the Quebec invasion, where he saw action in the Battle of Trois-Rivières. He was appointed a general in August 1776, and was sent by Gen. George Washington to help organize the New Jersey militia. He took part in George Washingtons crossing of the Delaware River on the night of December 25–26,1776, many biographers credit St. Clair with the strategy that led to Washingtons capture of Princeton, New Jersey on January 3,1777. St. Clair was promoted to general in February 1777. In April 1777, St. Clair was sent to defend Fort Ticonderoga and his small garrison could not resist British General John Burgoynes larger force in the Saratoga campaign. St. Clair was forced to retreat at the Siege of Fort Ticonderoga on July 5,1777 and he withdrew his forces and played no further part in the campaign
Arthur St. Clair
–
Major General Arthur St. Clair II
Arthur St. Clair
–
A Narrative printed by
Jane Aitken
Arthur St. Clair
–
St.Clair signed check while Governor of Northwest Territory (1796)
11.
James Wilkinson
–
James Wilkinson was an American soldier and statesman, who was associated with several scandals and controversies. He served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, after his death, he was discovered to have been a paid agent of the Spanish crown. Wilkinsons actions have since been condemned by a number of historians and politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt. James Wilkinson was born three miles northeast of Benedict, Charles County, Maryland, on a farm south of Hunting Creek. His grandfather had been sufficiently wealthy to buy a property known as Stoakley Manor in Calvert County. The family felt that although their property was smaller, they fell in with a higher social class. James grew up with the idea that the image of respectability excused the reality of betrayal and his father, Joseph Wilkinson, inherited the property but, by that time, the family was in debt. In 1764, Stoakley Manor was broken up and sold and his older brother, Joseph, inherited the property after his father died and, as the second son, James was left with nothing. Historian Andro Linklater argued that his upbringing led to James aggressive reaction towards insults of his behavior and his father had left with the last words of My son, if you ever put up with an insult, I will disinherit you. Wilkinson married Ann Biddle of the prominent Biddle family of Philadelphia on November 12,1778 in Philadelphia and she was a first cousin of Charles Biddle, an associate of Aaron Burr, and Wilkinsons marriage to the dynamic Biddle only helped his career as a politician and general. She died on February 23,1807, the couple had four sons, John, James Biddle, Joseph Biddle, and Walter. James and Walter both served as Captains in the US Army, theofannie died as a child in early 1822. Wilkinson first served in Thompsons Pennsylvania rifle battalion, 1775–76, and was commissioned a captain in September 1775 and he became aide to Arnold just prior to the final retreat and left Canada with Arnold on the very last boat out. Shortly thereafter, he left Arnolds service and became an aide to General Horatio Gates in August 1776, when Gates sent him to Congress with official dispatches about the victory at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777, Wilkinson kept Congress waiting while he attended to personal affairs. When he finally showed up, he embellished his own role in the victory, and was brevetted as a general on November 6,1777. Gates soon had enough of Wilkinson, and the officer was compelled to resign in March 1778. On July 29,1779, Congress appointed him clothier-general of the Army and he moved to Kentucky in 1784, and he was active there in efforts to achieve independence from Virginia. In April 1787, Wilkinson made a controversial trip to New Orleans
James Wilkinson
–
James Wilkinson
12.
Little Turtle
–
Little Turtle, or Mihšihkinaahkwa, was a chief of the Miami people, and one of the most famous Native American military leaders of his time. Historian Wiley Sword calls him perhaps the most capable Indian leader then in the Old Northwest, Mihšihkinaahkwa led his followers in several major victories against United States forces in the 1790s during the Northwest Indian Wars, also called Little Turtles War. In 1791, they defeated General St. Clair, who lost 900 men, in historic records, his name was spelled in a variety of ways, including Michikinikwa, Meshekunnoghquoh, Michikinakoua, Michikiniqua, Me-She-Kin-No-Quah, Meshecunnaquan and Mischecanocquah. Mihšihkinaahkwa is the correct spelling of the name in the Miami-Illinois language. The name Little Turtle is an English translation of his name in the Miami-Illinois language, in his language, the word names a species of terrapin, probably the Midland Painted Turtle. There is no diminutive on this name in the original Miami-Illinois, there is little documentary evidence for most of Little Turtles life, and the exact year and place of his birth are uncertain. He was born just before or just after the period that his parents lived in the Miami village of Pickawillany, some historians give 1752 as his probable date of birth, others prefer 1747. He was born in what is now Whitley County, Indiana, at either a small Miami village by Devils Lake, Little Turtle has been described as nearly six feet tall. He disdained drunkenness and presented himself as a man, but was fond of wearing silver on his ears. Little Turtle was selected as the war chief of the Atchatchakangouen division of the Miami tribe through his demonstration of military prowess in battle, Little Turtle earned it during the American Revolutionary War in action against a French force allied with the Patriots. Although he became the war chief of the division of the tribe, Little Turtle was never the head chief of the Miami. Little Turtle emerged as a war chief by defeating the French military adventurer Augustin de La Balme, in October 1780, La Balme plundered the principal Miami village of Kekionga, as part of his campaign to attack the British in Detroit. On 5 November 1780, Little Turtle led an attack on La Balmes camp along the Eel River, killing La Balme and 30 of his men and bringing an end to the campaign. The victory established Little Turtles reputation as a war leader, and through the 1780s, he led raids against colonial American settlements in Kentucky, fighting on the side of the British. The Miami were not unified in support of the British, however, the Americans considered the region to be theirs by right of conquest. Through the creation of the Northwest Territory in 1787, they began to divide the north of the Ohio River for settlement. Little Turtle emerged as one of the leaders of this confederacy, which included the Shawnee under Blue Jacket, the war which followed has become known by historians as the Northwest Indian War, once known as Little Turtles War. In 1790, the United States sent an expedition under the command of General Josiah Harmar to end the border war, in October 1790, Little Turtle and Blue Jacket won two victories against Harmars men
Little Turtle
–
This lithograph of Little Turtle is reputedly based upon a lost portrait by
Gilbert Stuart, destroyed when the British
burned Washington, D.C. in 1814.
Little Turtle
–
Chief Little Turtle's burial marker, near his grave in Fort Wayne.
13.
Egushawa
–
Egushawa, also spelled Egouch-e-ouay, Agushaway, Agashawa, Negushwa, and many other variants, was a war chief and principal political chief of the Ottawa tribe of North American Indians. His name is translated as The Gatherer or Brings Together. He was a prominent leader among the Detroit Ottawa, a prominent group in southeast Michigan, Egushawa is considered a successor to Chief Pontiac. As a leader in two wars against the United States, Egushawa was one of the most influential Native Americans of the Great Lakes region in the eighteenth century. Nothing is known for certain about his life before that time and he was likely born in the Detroit River region, in what is now Michigan or Ontario. The Odawa were prominent in this area and many had settled around Fort Detroit after it was constructed by the French in 1701 and their influence and territory extended into present-day northwest Ohio, along the Maumee River. Egushawa came to prominence as a successor to Pontiac, the famous Ottawa leader, Egushawa may have fought against the British during the French and Indian War as an ally of the French. When the American Revolutionary War began, Egushawa was living in a village at the mouth of the Maumee River, Egushawa supported the efforts of the British in Fort Detroit to recruit American Indians allies in order to attack U. S. settlements in Kentucky. In April 1777, he traveled with British officials to Vincennes to help forge an alliance with some of the Wabash tribes, for his efforts, Henry Hamilton, British lieutenant governor at Detroit, awarded Egushawa a sword in June 1777. Egushawa saw much action in the war and he accompanied St. Legers expedition in upstate New York, taking part in the bloody Battle of Oriskany on 6 August 1777. In 1778, he was the chief with Hamiltons expedition to recapture Vincennes after it had been taken by Colonel George Rogers Clark of Virginia. Clark made a return to Vincennes in 1779 and captured Hamilton. In 1780, his war band accompanied Captain Henry Birds invasion of Kentucky, in the 1783 peace treaty which ended the Revolutionary War, the British ceded the land of their Native American allies to the United States. Egushawa opposed these treaties and did not consider them to be binding, after the Revolutionary War, Shawnee of the Ohio Country began to forge a confederacy to oppose U. S. occupation of the land ceded by the British in what became called the Northwest Territory. These efforts were supported by the British, who had refused to abandon Fort Detroit. Egushawa was initially reluctant to part in the Northwest Indian War. As a war chief, recruiter, and a diplomat to the British, in 1794, Egushawa was seriously wounded in the American Indian defeat at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in the future Ohio, north of the Maumee River. The British did not support this effort and had turned away Native American refugees at their fort and this decisive defeat brought an end to the war
Egushawa
–
The Treaty of Greenville
14.
Harmar Campaign
–
The Harmar Campaign was an attempt by the United States to subdue Native Americans in the Northwest Territory in the Autumn of 1790. They were seeking to expel American settlers whom they considered interlopers in their territory, the campaign was led by General Josiah Harmar and is considered an early part of the Northwest Indian War. The campaign consisted of a series of battles that were all overwhelming victories for the Native Americans, however, there was no general war. American settlers were eager to enter these lands and started to do so, St. Clair decided the tribes wanted war, and called for militia forces to be assembled at Fort Washington and Vincennes, Indiana. The primary objective of the campaign was the destruction of the large, main Miami village of Kekionga, St. Clair and Harmar also planned to build a fort there. But when St. Clair presented his plan to Washington at New York in August 1790, at this time, British forces still occupied Fort Detroit, in violation of the Treaty of Paris. St. Clair wrote to the British at Fort Detroit to assure them that the expedition was against only Indian tribes, General Harmar gathered 320 regulars of the First American Regiment and 1,133 militia from Kentucky and Pennsylvania, for a total of 1,453 men. The force also had three horse-drawn 6-pounder cannons, few experienced frontiersmen took part in the campaign, many instead paid recent immigrants to take their place. Lt. Ebenezer Denny wrote that the appear to be raw. The troops were assembled in September, and the campaign had to be completed before winter set in, the pack horses which carried the troops supplies were fed by grazing, and would starve on the frontier in winter. The Army had no time to train the militia, the campaign was launched from Fort Washington on 7 October 1790. General Harmar began the march north, along the Great Miami River, a smaller army led by Jean François Hamtramck marched north from Vincennes to distract the Wabash Indians. Hamtramcks force was delayed, and returned to Vincennes, by 14 October, Harmars force had marched to within 25 miles of Kekionga. On that day, Kentuckian scouts captured a Shawnee, after some intense interrogation, the Indian said that the Miami and Shawnee were gathering at Kekionga to meet Harmars army. Before dawn on 15 October, Harmar dispatched 600 men under Colonel John Hardin on a march to surprise the Indians at Kekionga. When Colonel Hardins detachment reached Kekionga, they found the village abandoned and they burned it together with any stores they found, and camped south of the destroyed town. Harmar reached other Miami villages near Kekionga on 17 October, the Miami had warning of the attack, and had evacuated their villages with as much food as they could carry. Some British-affiliated traders had been living among the Miami, they fled to Fort Detroit with their families and they had distributed all available arms and ammunition to Miami warriors
Harmar Campaign
–
General Josiah Harmar
Harmar Campaign
–
Harmar Campaign
Harmar Campaign
–
Little Turtle
15.
Big Bottom massacre
–
The Big Bottom massacre occurred on January 2,1791, near present-day Stockport now in Morgan County, Ohio, United States. Following the American Revolutionary War, the United States government was selling land in the Ohio Country, the settlement was raided by Lenape and Wyandot warriors seeking to expel the interlopers. They stormed the incomplete blockhouse and killed men, one woman. The Indians captured three settlers, with at least one dying later, while four others escaped into the woods, the Ohio Company of Associates sought to provide greater protection for settlers in the Northwest Territory, as the conflicts became more widespread. A coalition of Native American tribes fought to expel the newcomers, the war did not end until 1794. The Ohio History Connection manages the three-acre Big Bottom Park site, in addition to the markers noted below, the site features a twelve-foot marble obelisk, picnic tables, and information signs about the sites history. The attack took place at their Gnadenhutten settlement on the part of the Muskingum River. The terminus of river was south at the Ohio. Later in 1787, the Treaty of Fort Harmar was signed between the United States and what an American recorded as an. unrepresentative gathering of undistinguished chiefs. The land of the Wyandot was reduced by the treaty, but in Ohio control of their, tensions increased as American settlers began entering the area. The Ohio Company of Associates, formed by a group of several New England veterans of the American Revolution, organized for land speculation and development. They purchased approximately 1,500,000 acres in the Northwest Territory from the United States in 1787, early settlers on these lands followed national guidelines for settling the West and respected the government a great deal, likely because of their role in the Revolution. The founders of the Ohio Company promoted orderly and nationalistic western expansion, armed confrontations with American Indian tribes threatened the Companys settlement at Marietta. A financial crisis in New York was hurting the investors as well as the company treasury, the company struggled to integrate interests between settlers and investors in the East and those in the West. The Companys power structure favored the Eastern part of the territory, westerners wanted protection from Indians, but funds were low and the Ohio company refused. had bought a vast tract of land from the United States and was selling it off. Armed conflict broke out between settlers and the Native American tribes who wanted to expel them, a group of about 36 Company settlers had gone upriver from Marietta, squatting east of the Muskingum on land where the Company did not hold title. Tensions were rising with Native Americans in the area, in late December 1790, Colonel William Stacy, a war veteran, ice skated 30 miles up the frozen Muskingum River to warn two of his sons at the Big Bottom settlement about the risk of an Indian attack. Several days later on January 2,1791, the settlement was raided from the north by Lenape and Wyandot warriors, whites have called this the Big Bottom Massacre
Big Bottom massacre
–
Big Bottom Massacre Site
Big Bottom massacre
–
imagined Blockhouse at Big Bottom, 1791
Big Bottom massacre
–
Wife of Isaac Meeks resisting during the massacre at Big Bottom
16.
Fort St. Clair
–
Fort St. Clair was a fort built during the Northwest Indian War near the modern town of Eaton, Preble County, Ohio. Northwest Territory Governor Arthur St. Clair ordered a chain of forts to be built North from Cincinnati in order to project United States power into Native American territory. Following St. Clairs Defeat in November 1791, the United States Army retreated to Fort Jefferson, Fort Hamilton, Major General St. Clair departed for Philadelphia in January 1792, and Lieutenant Colonel James Wilkinson assumed command of the United States forces at Fort Washington. Wilkinson noted that it took two days to travel from Fort Hamilton to Fort Jefferson, which contributed to the suffering of the wounded who could not leave Fort Jefferson following St. Clairs Defeat. Wilkinson ordered the construction of Fort Saint Clair between the two forts in order to secure communications and supply convoys between the chain of United States outposts. Clair, and reached Fort Hamilton on 3 November with the intention of an attack near the United States settlements on the anniversary of St. Clairs Defeat. They captured two prisoners and learned that a convoy of packhorses had left for Fort Jefferson and was due back in a matter of days. Little Turtle moved North and found the convoy, nearly 100 horses and 100 Kentucky militia led by Major John Adair, little Turtle attacked at dawn, just as Major Adair recalled his sentries. The militia conducted a retreat to the fort, losing six killed and four missing. Major Adair later criticized Fort St. Clairs commandant, Captain Bradley, little Turtles force lost two warriors, but captured the camp and all provisions. All horses were killed, wounded, or driven off, only 23 were later recovered, Wilkinson considered the horses to be a loss that would make the advanced forts un-defendable. Anthony Waynes Legion in the Old Northwest, encyclopedia of Historic Forts, The Military, Pioneer, and Trading Posts of the United States, Macmillan, New York,1988, 10th printing, ISBN 0-02-926880-X, page 646 Sword, Wiley. The Struggle for the Old Northwest, 1790-1795, norman, Oklahoma, University of Oklahoma Press
Fort St. Clair
–
Fort St. Clair
17.
Fort Jefferson (Ohio)
–
Fort Jefferson was a fortification erected by soldiers of the United States Army during the Northwest Indian War. Built to support a campaign, it saw several years of active fighting. Today, the site is a historic site. A square of approximately 100 feet on each side, the fort was built of wood and intended primarily as a depot, accordingly. One month later, after St. Clairs army was defeated in battle near modern-day Fort Recovery to the north. It is believed that the garrison was under the command of Captain Joseph Shaylor, the defeat of the American army left Fort Jefferson deep in enemy territory. Determined to drive the American soldiers back to the Ohio River and this raid began with an attack of one hundred warriors against a party gathering hay for the forts supplies on June 25, sixteen soldiers were killed or left missing by the fight. While Shaylor escaped the pursuit, his son was killed. The siege continued intermittently for three years, as continued Native American attacks were made to neutralize the fort, nevertheless, they relied heavily on the supplies of Fort Jefferson in their campaign during the following year. After the end of the war, white settlers began to take up residence in the vicinity of the abandoned fort. A blockhouse was built by one resident in 1810, by 1820, more settlers had built houses, a mill. The new community was named Fort Jefferson, in the fall of 1907, the Greenville Historical Society dedicated a memorial on the site of the fort. Fort Jefferson was further recognized in 1970 when it was added to the National Register of Historic Places, the area designated as historic encompasses approximately 6.5 acres. The Forts of Ohio, A Guide to Military Stockades, Fort Jefferson - official site at Ohio Historical Society
Fort Jefferson (Ohio)
–
Fort Jefferson Site
18.
Battle of Fallen Timbers
–
This land had been ceded to the United States in accordance with the Treaty of Paris, but the Native Americans refused to comply with the treaty and relinquish control. British army bases were maintained there to support their Native allies and this ultimately led to the American offensive and subsequent British-Indian withdrawal from the territory altogether following the Treaty of Greenville. The battle, which was a victory for the United States, ended major hostilities in the region until Tecumsehs War. The Ohio River boundary line established by Britain in the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix recognized certain lands as belonging to the Native American nations, the Native Americans involved rejected the idea of the British or Americans to dispose of their tribal lands without their consent. They had no representation at the Paris Treaty negotiations, had not signed the treaty, as American settlers began moving into the Ohio Country, the Native Americans viewed them as unwelcome intruders. The United States government, on the hand, insisted it had the right to occupy the lands. The Western Confederacy, an alliance of Native American nations, was formed to defend their traditional lands, the confederacy achieved several victories over poorly led United States military forces in 1790 and 1791, alarming the administration of President George Washington. Washington understood that the settlers were to blame for much of the violence, nevertheless, he took steps to defeat the alliance as the conflict became more serious. In 1792, Washington ordered Revolutionary War hero General Mad Anthony Wayne to build, Wayne realized that the previous campaigns had failed because of poor training and a lack of discipline. Peace negotiations were undertaken in the summer of 1793, which meant he had time to build and they rejected the subsequent treaties awarding the lands north of the Ohio River to the United States, since they had never signed them. The American government found itself fighting a war over Ohio under the direction of Secretary of War Henry Knox, matters came to a head in what became known as Little Turtles War. As more American settlers moved into the part of the area following its division under the Land Ordinance of 1785. The Miami chieftain Michikinikwa led a confederation of tribes against ill-conceived expeditions led by General Josiah Harmar in 1790 and General Arthur St. Clair in 1791, harmars and St. Clairs armies consisted mainly of untrained militia, frontiersmen with rifles but little training or discipline. The green soldiers often broke ranks and ran when confronted by Native American warriors. In late August 1794, Little Turtle and his Shawnee ally, Weyapiersenwah, faced a new U. S. Army, Wayne had spent the better part of two years turning his soldiers into professionals. Waynes new army, the Legion of the United States, marched north from Fort Washington in Cincinnati in 1793, Wayne commanded about 2,000 men, with Choctaw and Chickasaw men serving as his scouts. Blue Jacket took a position along the Maumee River, not far from present-day Toledo, Ohio. They thought the trees would slow the advance of Waynes Legion, Fort Miami, a nearby British outpost on American soil, had supplied the Native American confederacy with provisions
Battle of Fallen Timbers
–
An 1896 depiction of the battle from
Harper's Magazine.
Battle of Fallen Timbers
–
Fallen Timbers Battlefield
Battle of Fallen Timbers
–
Site of Fort Miami
Battle of Fallen Timbers
–
Lines of trees at the battlefield park
19.
Native Americans in the United States
–
In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
Native Americans in the United States
–
Pushmataha
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States
–
Charles Eastman
Native Americans in the United States
–
Wilma Mankiller
20.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
21.
Great Britain
–
Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of 209,331 km2, Great Britain is the largest European island, in 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the worlds third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan. The island of Ireland is situated to the west of it, the island is dominated by a maritime climate with quite narrow temperature differences between seasons. Politically, the island is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island. The term Great Britain often extends to surrounding islands that form part of England, Scotland, and Wales. A single Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the union of the Kingdom of England, the archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years, the term British Isles derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a name for the British Isles. However, with the Roman conquest of Britain the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, the oldest mention of terms related to Great Britain was by Aristotle, or possibly by Pseudo-Aristotle, in his text On the Universe, Vol. III. To quote his works, There are two large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne. The name Britain descends from the Latin name for Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The French form replaced the Old English Breoton, Breoten, Bryten, Breten, Britannia was used by the Romans from the 1st century BC for the British Isles taken together. It is derived from the writings of the Pytheas around 320 BC. Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, described the group as αἱ Πρεττανικαὶ νῆσοι. The peoples of these islands of Prettanike were called the Πρεττανοί, Priteni is the source of the Welsh language term Prydain, Britain, which has the same source as the Goidelic term Cruithne used to refer to the early Brythonic-speaking inhabitants of Ireland. The latter were later called Picts or Caledonians by the Romans, the Greco-Egyptian scientist Ptolemy referred to the larger island as great Britain and to Ireland as little Britain in his work Almagest. The name Albion appears to have out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Britain. After the Anglo-Saxon period, Britain was used as a term only. It was used again in 1604, when King James VI and I styled himself King of Great Brittaine, France, Great Britain refers geographically to the island of Great Britain, politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination
Great Britain
–
Satellite image of Great Britain in April 2002
Great Britain
–
Prima Europe tabula. A copy of
Ptolemy 's 2nd century map of Roman Britain
Great Britain
–
The
robin is popularly known as "Britain's favourite bird".
Great Britain
–
Heather growing wild in the
Highlands at
Dornoch.
22.
Treaty of Paris (1783)
–
The treaty set the boundaries between the British Empire and the United States, on lines exceedingly generous to the latter. Details included fishing rights and restoration of property and prisoners of war, only Article 1 of the treaty, which is the legal underpinning of United States existence as a sovereign country, remains in force. Peace negotiations began in April 1782, and continued through the summer, representing the United States were Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, Henry Laurens, and John Adams. David Hartley and Richard Oswald represented Great Britain, the treaty was signed at the Hotel dYork in Paris on September 3,1783, by Adams, Franklin, Jay, and Hartley. Regarding the American Treaty, the key episodes came in September,1782, France was exhausted by the war, and everyone wanted peace except Spain, which insisted on continuing the war until it could capture Gibraltar from the British. Vergennes came up with the deal that Spain would accept instead of Gibraltar, the United States would gain its independence but be confined to the area east of the Appalachian Mountains. Britain would take the north of the Ohio River. In the area south of that would be set up an independent Indian state under Spanish control and it would be an Indian barrier state. However, the Americans realized that they could get a deal directly from London. John Jay promptly told the British that he was willing to negotiate directly with them, cutting off France, the British Prime Minister Lord Shelburne agreed. He was in charge of the British negotiations and he now saw a chance to split the United States away from France. The western terms were that the United States would gain all of the area east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, the northern boundary would be almost the same as today. The United States would gain fishing rights off Canadian coasts, and it was a highly favorable treaty for the United States, and deliberately so from the British point of view. Prime Minister Shelburne foresaw highly profitable trade between Britain and the rapidly growing United States, as indeed came to pass. Great Britain also signed agreements with France and Spain. In the treaty with Spain, the territories of East and West Florida were ceded to Spain, Spain also received the island of Minorca, the Bahama Islands, Grenada, and Montserrat, captured by the French and Spanish, were returned to Britain. The treaty with France was mostly about exchanges of captured territory, the United States Congress of the Confederation ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14,1784. Copies were sent back to Europe for ratification by the parties involved
Treaty of Paris (1783)
–
Benjamin West 's painting of the delegations at the Treaty of Paris:
John Jay,
John Adams,
Benjamin Franklin,
Henry Laurens, and
William Temple Franklin. The British delegation refused to pose, and the painting was never completed.
Treaty of Paris (1783)
–
Last page of the Treaty of Paris
23.
American Revolutionary War
–
From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
American Revolutionary War
–
Clockwise from top left:
Surrender of Lord Cornwallis after the
Siege of Yorktown,
Battle of Trenton,
The Death of General Warren at the
Battle of Bunker Hill,
Battle of Long Island,
Battle of Guilford Court House
American Revolutionary War
–
Notice of Stamp Act of 1765 in newspaper
American Revolutionary War
–
This iconic 1846 lithograph by
Nathaniel Currier was entitled "The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor"; the phrase "Boston Tea Party" had not yet become standard. Contrary to Currier's depiction, few of the men dumping the tea were actually disguised as Indians.
American Revolutionary War
–
The British marching to
Concord in April 1775
24.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
United Kingdom
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Stonehenge, in
Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.
United Kingdom
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Flag
United Kingdom
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The
Bayeux Tapestry depicts the
Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.
United Kingdom
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The
Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.
25.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Quechua women in
Peru
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Pai Tavytera Indians in
Amambay Department,
Paraguay, 2012
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Paleo-Indians hunting a
glyptodont
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Drawing accompanying text in Book XII of the 16th-century
Florentine Codex (compiled 1540–1585), showing
Nahuas of conquest-era central Mexico suffering from smallpox
26.
French people
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The French are an ethnic group and nation who are identified with the country of France. This connection may be legal, historical, or cultural, modern French society can be considered a melting pot. To be French, according to the first article of the French Constitution, is to be a citizen of France, regardless of origin, race. The debate concerning the integration of this view with the underlying the European Community remains open. A large number of foreigners have traditionally been permitted to live in France, indeed, the country has long valued its openness, tolerance and the quality of services available. Application for French citizenship is often interpreted as a renunciation of previous state allegiance unless a dual citizenship agreement exists between the two countries, the European treaties have formally permitted movement and European citizens enjoy formal rights to employment in the state sector. Seeing itself as a nation with universal values, France has always valued. However, the success of such assimilation has recently called into question. There is increasing dissatisfaction with, and within, growing ethno-cultural enclaves, the 2005 French riots in some troubled and impoverished suburbs were an example of such tensions. However they should not be interpreted as ethnic conflicts but as social conflicts born out of socioeconomic problems endangering proper integration, the name France etymologically derives from the word Francia, the territory of the Franks. The Franks were a Germanic tribe that overran Roman Gaul at the end of the Roman Empire, in the pre-Roman era, all of Gaul was inhabited by a variety of peoples who were known collectively as the Gaulish tribes. Gaul was militarily conquered in 58-51 BCE by the Roman legions under the command of General Julius Caesar, the area then became part of the Roman Empire. Over the next five centuries the two cultures intermingled, creating a hybridized Gallo-Roman culture, the Gaulish vernacular language disappeared step by step to be replaced everywhere by Vulgar Latin, which would later develop under Frankish influence into the French language in the North of France. With the decline of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, a federation of Germanic peoples entered the picture, the Franks were Germanic pagans who began to settle in northern Gaul as laeti, already during the Roman era. They continued to filter across the Rhine River from present-day Netherlands, at the beginning, they served in the Roman army and reached high commands. Their language is spoken as a kind of Dutch in northern France. Another Germanic people immigrated massively to Alsace, the Alamans, which explains the Alemannic German spoken there and they were competitors of the Franks, thats why it became at the Renaissance time the word for German in French, Allemand. By the early 6th century the Franks, led by the Merovingian king Clovis I and his sons, had consolidated their hold on much of modern-day France, the Vikings eventually intermarried with the local people, converting to Christianity in the process
French people
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Louis XIV of France "The Sun-King"
French people
–
Row 1:
Joan of Arc
French people
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Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix
French people
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French people in Paris, August 1944
27.
United States Army
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The United States Army is the largest branch of the United States Armed Forces and performs land-based military operations. After the Revolutionary War, the Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784, the United States Army considers itself descended from the Continental Army, and dates its institutional inception from the origin of that armed force in 1775. As a uniformed service, the Army is part of the Department of the Army. As a branch of the forces, the mission of the U. S. The branch participates in conflicts worldwide and is the major ground-based offensive and defensive force of the United States, the United States Army serves as the land-based branch of the U. S. Section 3062 of Title 10, U. S, the army was initially led by men who had served in the British Army or colonial militias and who brought much of British military heritage with them. As the Revolutionary War progressed, French aid, resources, a number of European soldiers came on their own to help, such as Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, who taught Prussian Army tactics and organizational skills. The army fought numerous pitched battles and in the South in 1780–81 sometimes used the Fabian strategy and hit-and-run tactics, hitting where the British were weakest, to wear down their forces. Washington led victories against the British at Trenton and Princeton, but lost a series of battles in the New York and New Jersey campaign in 1776, with a decisive victory at Yorktown, and the help of the French, the Continental Army prevailed against the British. After the war, though, the Continental Army was quickly given land certificates, State militias became the new nations sole ground army, with the exception of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one battery of artillery guarding West Points arsenal. However, because of continuing conflict with Native Americans, it was realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The War of 1812, the second and last war between the United States and Great Britain, had mixed results. After taking control of Lake Erie in 1813, the U. S. Army seized parts of western Upper Canada, burned York and defeated Tecumseh, which caused his Western Confederacy to collapse. Following U. S. victories in the Canadian province of Upper Canada, British troops, were able to capture and burn Washington, which was defended by militia, in 1814. Two weeks after a treaty was signed, Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans and Siege of Fort St. Philip, U. S. troops and sailors captured HMS Cyane, Levant, and Penguin in the final engagements of the war. Per the treaty, both sides, the United States and Great Britain, returned to the status quo. Both navies kept the warships they had seized during the conflict, the armys major campaign against the Indians was fought in Florida against Seminoles. It took long wars to defeat the Seminoles and move them to Oklahoma
United States Army
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Storming of Redoubt #10 in the
Siege of Yorktown during the
American Revolutionary War prompted the British government to begin negotiations, resulting in the
Treaty of Paris and British recognition of the United States of America.
United States Army
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Emblem of the United States Department of the Army
United States Army
–
General
Andrew Jackson stands on the parapet of his makeshift defenses as his troops repulse attacking
Highlanders during the
defense of New Orleans, the final major battle of the War of 1812
United States Army
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The
Battle of Gettysburg, the turning point of the American Civil War
28.
Legion of the United States
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The Legion of the United States was a reorganization and extension of the United States Army from 1792 to 1796 under the command of Major General Anthony Wayne. The impetus for the legion came from General Arthur St. Clairs disastrous defeat at the Battle of the Wabash by Blue Jacket, the Founding Fathers had been suspicious of standing armies, believing that the militia would be suited to all the nations defensive needs. However, the defeat of St. Clair and his predecessor, Josiah Harmar, whose forces were drawn principally from state militias, after consulting with his cabinet, he picked Wayne to lead the new professional army, although Washington originally considered him too vain. Congress agreed with this proposal and agreed to augment the small standing army until the United States shall be at peace with the Indian tribes, the legion was composed of four sub-legions, each commanded by a lieutenant colonel. These sub-legions were self-contained units with two battalions of infantry, a battalion, a troop of dragoons and a battery of artillery. With their combined arms organization, the sub-legions can be seen as forerunners of todays brigade combat teams, the legion was recruited and raised in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It was eventually divided into four sub-legions and these were created from elements of the 1st and 2nd Regiments of the US Army. These units then became the First and Second Sub-Legions, the Third and Fourth Sub-Legions were raised from further recruits. From June 1792 to November 1792, the legion remained cantoned at Fort LaFayette in Pittsburgh, the legion then moved to the United States Militarys first basic training facility at Legionville in western Pennsylvania on the banks of the Ohio River. The frontier fort was built on the orders of General Anthony Wayne, General Wayne also established various forts along his line of march to ensure adequate re-supply, and garrisoned these forts with freshly trained legionnaires. The Legion of the United States was engaged in attacks on their convoys as the expedition pushed further into Native American strongholds. For a period of three years, starting on June 25,1792, Fort Jefferson, along with the Legion ammunition supply trains en route to the fort, were under constant siege by native forces. After Major McMahon was killed and the rest of the fled to the protection within the fort. Fortunately, for the defenders, most of the men, approximately 125 soldiers, were expert riflemen, Fort Recovery also had artillery support to back them up. The battle raged for two days, but the fort was never taken, some scholars believe there were more native warriors involved in the attack of Fort Recovery than at the climatic Battle of Fallen Timbers. The most notable engagement in which the legion participated was the Battle of Fallen Timbers, near present-day Toledo, as the legions front was attacked by the Indians, the troops closed quickly and pressed with the bayonet. The Indian forces could not hold the force of the attack and broke. The British in Fort Miami refused to open the gates and the survivors were essentially on their own, although a short battle, Fallen Timbers was the culmination of an arduous campaign and owes its success to the intense training and discipline of the Legion of the United States
Legion of the United States
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Major General
Anthony Wayne with the Legion of the United States, 1794
Legion of the United States
–
Monument at the site of Legionville
United States
