1.
Hawaiian Islands
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Formerly the group was known to Europeans and Americans as the Sandwich Islands, a name chosen by James Cook in honor of the then First Lord of the Admiralty John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich. The contemporary name is derived from the name of the largest island, the Hawaiian monarchy was overthrown in 1893 and the United States annexed the islands in 1898. The Hawaiian Islands are the peaks of a great undersea mountain range known as the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. The islands are about 1,860 miles from the nearest continent and this name was in use until the 1840s, when the local name Hawaii gradually began to take precedence. The Hawaiian Islands have a land area of 6,423.4 square miles. Except for Midway, which is a territory of the United States. The eight main islands of Hawaii are listed here and this number includes all minor islands and islets, or very small island, offshore of the main islands and individual islets in each atoll. Thus, the southeast island is volcanically active, whereas the islands on the northwest end of the archipelago are older and typically smaller, the age of the archipelago has been estimated using potassium-argon dating methods.4 Ma. The only active volcanism in the last 200 years has been on the island, Hawaiʻi. The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory of the USGS documents recent volcanic activity and provides images, almost all of the magma of the hotspot has the composition of basalt, and so the Hawaiian volcanoes are composed almost entirely of this igneous rock. There is very little coarser-grained gabbro and diabase, nephelinite is exposed on the islands but is extremely rare. Hawaiʻi island is the biggest and youngest island in the chain, mauna Loa, taking up over half of the Big Island, is the largest shield volcano on the Earth. The measurement from sea level to summit is more than 2.5 miles, the Hawaiian Islands have many earthquakes, generally caused by volcanic activity. Most of the earthquake monitoring took place in Hilo, by missionaries Titus Coan, Sarah J. Lyman. From 1833 to 1896, approximately 4 or 5 earthquakes were reported per year, Hawaii accounted for 7. 3% of the United States reported earthquakes with a magnitude 3.5 or greater from 1974 to 2003, with a total 1533 earthquakes. Hawaii ranked as the state with the third most earthquakes over this period, after Alaska. On October 15,2006, there was an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.7 off the northwest coast of the island of Hawaii, the initial earthquake was followed approximately five minutes later by a magnitude 5.7 aftershock. Minor-to-moderate damage was reported on most of the Big Island, several major roadways became impassable from rock slides, and effects were felt as far away as Honolulu, Oahu, nearly 150 miles from the epicenter
2.
Island
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An island or isle is any piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be called islets, skerries, an island in a river or a lake island may be called an eyot or ait, and a small island off the coast may be called a holm. A grouping of geographically or geologically related islands is called an archipelago, an island may be described as such, despite the presence of an artificial land bridge. Example, Singapore and its causeway, or the various Dutch delta islands, there are two main types of islands in the sea, continental and oceanic. The word island derives from Middle English iland, from Old English igland, Old English ieg is actually a cognate of Swedish ö and German Aue, and related to Latin aqua. There is a difference between islands and continents in terms of geology, continents sit on continental lithosphere which is part of tectonic plates floating high on Earths mantle. Oceanic crust is also part of tectonic plates, but it is denser than continental lithosphere, Islands are either extensions of the oceanic crust or geologically they are part of some continent sitting on continental lithosphere. This holds true for Australia, which sits on its own continental lithosphere, continental islands are bodies of land that lie on the continental shelf of a continent. A special type of island is the microcontinental island, which is created when a continent is rifted. Examples are Madagascar and Socotra off Africa, the Kerguelen Islands, New Caledonia, New Zealand, another subtype is an island or bar formed by deposition of tiny rocks where water current loses some of its carrying capacity. While some are transitory and may disappear if the volume or speed of the current changes, others are stable, oceanic islands are islands that do not sit on continental shelves. The vast majority are volcanic in origin, such as Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, the few oceanic islands that are not volcanic are tectonic in origin and arise where plate movements have lifted up the ocean floor above the surface. Examples are Saint Peter and Paul Rocks in the Atlantic Ocean, one type of volcanic oceanic island is found in a volcanic island arc. These islands arise from volcanoes where the subduction of one plate under another is occurring, examples are the Aleutian Islands, the Mariana Islands, and most of Tonga in the Pacific Ocean. The only examples in the Atlantic Ocean are some of the Lesser Antilles, another type of volcanic oceanic island occurs where an oceanic rift reaches the surface. There are two examples, Iceland, which is the second largest volcanic island, and Jan Mayen. A third type of oceanic island is formed over volcanic hotspots. A hotspot is more or less stationary relative to the tectonic plate above it
3.
Atoll
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An atoll, sometimes called a coral atoll, is a ring-shaped coral reef including a coral rim that encircles a lagoon partially or completely. There may be coral islands/cays on the rim, the coral of the atoll often sits atop the rim of an extinct seamount or volcano which has eroded or subsided partially beneath the water. The lagoon forms over the crater or caldera while the higher rim remains above water or at shallow depths that permit the coral to grow. For the atoll to persist, continued erosion or subsidence must be at a slow enough to permit reef growth upwards and outwards to replace the lost height. The word atoll comes from the Dhivehi word atholhu, meaning an administrative subdivision, the distribution of atolls around the globe is instructive, most of the worlds atolls are in the Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean. The Atlantic Ocean has no large groups of atolls, other than eight atolls east of Nicaragua that belong to the Colombian department of San Andres and Providencia in the Caribbean. Reef-building corals will thrive only in tropical and subtropical waters of oceans and seas. The northernmost atoll of the world is Kure Atoll at 28°24 N, the southernmost atolls of the world are Elizabeth Reef at 29°58 S, and nearby Middleton Reef at 29°29 S, in the Tasman Sea, both of which are part of the Coral Sea Islands Territory. The next southerly atoll is Ducie Island in the Pitcairn Islands Group, at this latitude coral reefs would not develop without the warming waters of the Gulf Stream. However, Bermuda is termed a pseudo-atoll because its general form, while there is no atoll directly on the equator, the closest atoll to the Equator is Aranuka of Kiribati, with its southern tip just 12 km north of the equator. In most cases, the area of an atoll is very small in comparison to the total area. Atoll islands are low lying, with their elevations less than 5 meters, measured by total area, Lifou is the largest raised coral atoll of the world, followed by Rennell Island. More sources however list as the largest atoll in the world in terms of land area Kiritimati, the remains of an ancient atoll as a hill in a limestone area is called a reef knoll. The second largest atoll by dry land area is Aldabra with 155 km², the largest atoll in terms of island numbers is Huvadhu Atoll in the south of the Maldives with 255 islands. In 1842, Charles Darwin explained the creation of coral atolls in the southern Pacific Ocean based upon observations made during a voyage aboard the HMS Beagle from 1831 to 1836. In time, subsidence carries the old volcano below the ocean surface, at this point, the island has become an atoll. Atolls are the product of the growth of marine organisms. Volcanic islands located beyond the water temperature requirements of hermatypic organisms become seamounts as they subside and are eroded away at the surface
4.
Kauai
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For the Childish Gambino EP see STN MTN / Kauai Kauaʻi or Kauai is geologically the oldest of the main Hawaiian Islands. With an area of 562.3 square miles, it is the fourth largest of these islands, known also as the Jurassic Isle, Kauaʻi lies 105 miles across the Kauaʻi Channel, northwest of Oʻahu. This island is the site of Waimea Canyon State Park, the United States Census Bureau defines Kauaʻi as census tracts 401 through 409 of Kauaʻi County, Hawaiʻi, which comprises all of the county except for the islands of Kaʻula, Lehua and Niʻihau. The 2010 United States Census population of the island was 67,091, the most populous town was Kapaʻa. Hawaiian narrative locates the origin in the legend of Hawaiʻiloa. The story relates how he named the island of Kauaʻi after a favorite son, another possible translation is food season. Kauaʻi was known for its dialect of the Hawaiian language. While the standard language today adopts the dialect of Hawaiʻi island, which has the sound, in effect, Kauaʻi dialect retained the old pan-Polynesian /t/, while standard Hawaiʻi dialect has changed it to the. Therefore, the name for Kauaʻi was said as Tauaʻi. Kauaʻis origins are volcanic, the island having been formed by the passage of the Pacific Plate over the Hawaii hotspot, at approximately six million years old, it is the oldest of the main islands. The highest peak on this island is Kawaikini at 5,243 feet. The second highest peak is Mount Waiʻaleʻale near the center of the island,5,148 feet above sea level, one of the wettest spots on earth, with an annual average rainfall of 1,170 centimetres, is located on the east side of Mount Waiʻaleʻale. The high annual rainfall has eroded deep valleys in the central mountains, at 3,000 feet deep, Waimea Canyon is often referred to as The Grand Canyon of the Pacific. Kokeo Point lies on the side of the island. The Na Pali Coast is a center for recreation in a setting, including kayaking past the beaches. The headland, Kuahonu Point, is on the south-east of the island, Kauaʻi’s climate is tropical, with generally humid and stable conditions year round, although weather phenomena and infrequent storms have caused instances of extreme weather. At the lower elevations the annual precipitation varies from an average of about 50 inches on the windward shore, average temperature in Lihue, the county seat, ranges from 78 °F in February to 85 °F in August and September. Kauaʻi’s mountainous regions offer cooler temperatures and provide a pleasant contrast to the coastal areas
5.
Niihau
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Niʻihau is the westernmost and seventh largest inhabited island in Hawaiʻi. It is 17.5 miles southwest of Kauaʻi across the Kaulakahi Channel and its area is 69.5 square miles. Several intermittent playa lakes provide wetland habitats for the Hawaiian coot, the black-winged stilt, the island is designated as critical habitat for Brighamia insignis, an endemic and endangered species of Hawaiian lobelioid. The United States Census Bureau defines Niʻihau and the island and State Seabird Sanctuary of Lehua as Census Tract 410 of Kauai County. Its 2000 census population was 160, Its 2010 census population was 170, elizabeth Sinclair purchased Niʻihau in 1864 for $10,000 from the Kingdom of Hawaii and private ownership passed on to her descendants, the Robinson family. During World War II, the island was the site of the Niʻihau Incident, A Japanese navy fighter pilot crashed on the island, the people of Niʻihau are known for their gemlike lei pūpū craftsmanship, and speak Hawaiian as a primary language. The island is generally off-limits to all but relatives of the owners, U. S. Navy personnel, government officials and invited guests. Beginning in 1987, a number of supervised activity tours. The island is managed by brothers Bruce Robinson and Keith Robinson. Niʻihau is located about 18 miles west of Kauaʻi, and the tiny, Niʻihaus dimensions are 6.2 miles by 18.6 miles. The maximum elevation is 1,280 feet, the island is about 4.9 million years old, making it geologically younger than the 5-million-year-old neighboring island of Kauaʻi to the northeast. Niʻihau consists of one extinct volcano that had a landslide to the east. The island is relatively arid because it lies in the shadow of Kauaʻi. Niʻihau therefore, depends for its rain on winter Kona storms, as such, the island is subject to long periods of drought. As an arid island, Niʻihau was barren of trees for centuries — Captain James Cook reported it treeless in 1778, island co-owner Keith Robinson, a noted conservationist, preserved and documented many of Niʻihaus natural plant resources. The island is designated as a habitat for the ʻōlulu. Aylmer robinsonii, a Pritchardia palm tree named for Keith Robinsons uncle Aylmer Robinson, is a species native to Niʻihau. Several bird species thrive on Niʻihau, intermittent playa lakes on the island provide wetland habitats for the ʻalae keʻokeʻo, the āeʻo, and the koloa maoli
6.
Honolulu County, Hawaii
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Honolulu County is a consolidated city–county located in the U. S. state of Hawaii. The consolidated city-county was established in the city adopted in 1907. As a municipal corporation and jurisdiction it manages aspects of government traditionally exercised by municipalities and counties in the rest of the United States. As of the 2010 census, the population was 953,207, because of Hawaiis municipal structure, the United States Census Bureau divides Honolulu County into several census-designated places for statistical purposes. The current mayor of Honolulu County is Kirk Caldwell, who reclaimed the job from the person who defeated him in a 2010 special election, Peter Carlisle, the county motto is Haʻaheo No ʻO Honolulu. Approximately 70% of the population lives in Honolulu County. Only Nevada has a percentage of its population living in its most populous county. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 2,128 square miles. However, the majority of area is the Pacific Ocean that surrounds the islands. For 2013, the county has an operating budget of US$2.16 billion. The government of Honolulu County is simplified and streamlined and coalesces at three major divisions of municipal power, the mayor of Honolulu is the principal executor of administrative authority. The mayor is elected on a basis to a four-year term. The Honolulu City Council is the legislative body. Its elected members are responsible for drafting and passing laws, as well as proposing budgets for various departments, unlike other cities in the United States, the council is absolutely independent of the mayor, who does not make any appearances during any of the council sessions. The nine council members represent one of nine districts, and are elected on a non-partisan basis to staggered four-year terms. The Prosecuting Attorney of Honolulu is independently elected of the two major divisions of municipal power, and is charged with prosecuting criminal offenses committed within the county. The office is not charged with providing legal counsel to the mayor or City Council, the prosecuting attorney is elected on a non-partisan basis to a four-year term. The Honolulu County is divided into 36 neighborhood boards, the office of neighborhood board member is an advisory position for public policy and civil investment
7.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
8.
Hawaii
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Hawaii is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States of America, having received statehood on August 21,1959. Hawaii is the only U. S. state located in Oceania and it is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U. S. state not located in the Americas, the state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast, Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Island of Hawaiʻi. The last is the largest island in the group, it is called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U. S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U. S. states. It is the state with an Asian plurality. The states coastline is about 750 miles long, the fourth longest in the U. S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida, the state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaiʻi is that was named for Hawaiʻiloa and he is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled. The Hawaiian language word Hawaiʻi is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, cognates of Hawaiʻi are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori, Rarotongan and Samoan. According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaiʻi or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the home, but in Hawaii. A somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as an official state language. The title of the constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii, diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length
9.
Midway Atoll
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Midway Atoll is a 2. 4-square-mile atoll in the North Pacific Ocean at 28°12′N 177°21′W. As its name suggests, Midway is roughly equidistant between North America and Asia, Midway Atoll is an unorganized, unincorporated territory of the United States. Midway continues to be the island in the Hawaiian archipelago that is not part of the state of Hawaii. Unlike the other Hawaiian islands, Midway observes Samoa Time, which is one hour behind the time in the state of Hawaii, for statistical purposes, Midway is grouped as one of the United States Minor Outlying Islands. The Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, encompassing 590,991.50 acres of land and water in the area, is administered by the United States Fish. The refuge and most of its area are part of the larger Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Until 1993, the atoll was the home of the Naval Air Facility Midway, the Battle of Midway, which was fought between June 4 and 6,1942, was one of the most important battles of the Pacific campaign of World War II. The United States Navy defeated a Japanese battle group marking a point in the war in the Pacific Theater. USAAF aircraft based at the original Henderson Field on Eastern Island joined the attack against the Japanese fleet, approximately 40 to 60 people live on the atoll, which includes staff of the US Fish and Wildlife Service and contract workers. At present, visitation to the atoll is only for business reasons as the tourism program has been suspended due to budget cutbacks. In 2012, the last year that the program was in operation,332 people made the trip to Midway. Tours focused on both the ecology of Midway as well as its military history. The economy is derived solely from governmental sources and tourist fees, nearly all supplies must be brought to the island by ship or plane, though a hydroponic greenhouse and garden supply some fresh fruits and vegetables. As its name suggests, Midway is roughly equidistant between North America and Asia, and lies almost halfway around the world longitudinally from Greenwich and it is near the northwestern end of the Hawaiian archipelago, about one-third of the way from Honolulu, Hawaii, to Tokyo, Japan. Midway Atoll is less than 140 nautical miles east of the International Date Line, about 2,800 nautical miles west of San Francisco, and 2,200 nautical miles east of Tokyo. Midway Atoll is part of a chain of islands, atolls. It consists of a barrier reef and several sand islets. The two significant pieces of land, Sand Island and Eastern Island, provide a habitat for millions of seabirds
10.
United States Minor Outlying Islands
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Among them, Palmyra Atoll is the only incorporated territory. As of 2017, none of the islands have any permanent residents, the only human population consists of temporarily stationed scientific and military personnel. The 2000 census counted 315 people on Johnston Atoll and 94 people on Wake Island, there has been no modern indigenous population, except at the 1940 census. In 1936 a colonization program began to settle Americans on Baker, Howland, and Jarvis, the islands are grouped together as a statistical convenience. They are not administered collectively, nor do they share a cultural or political history beyond being uninhabited islands under the sovereignty of the United States. They are collectively represented by the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code UM, the individual islands have ISO 3166-2 numerical codes, see ISO 3166-2, UM. The Internet country code top-level domain. um has historically been assigned to the islands, however, ISO introduced the term United States Minor Outlying Islands in 1986. From 1974 until 1986, five of the islands were grouped under the term United States Miscellaneous Pacific Islands, the code of Midway Atoll was MI, the code of Johnston Atoll was JT, and the code of Wake Island was WK. The Pacific islands are surrounded by large Exclusive Economic Zones, see also Organized incorporated territories, Unincorporated territories and List of territorial disputes in North America. The following is a list of airports with ICAO codes, PJON, Johnston Atoll Airport, Johnston Atoll PMDY, Henderson Field, Sand Island. Kingman Reef and Navassa Island have offshore anchorage only. S, Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges CIA World Factbook, United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges
11.
United States Census Bureau
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The United States Census Bureau is a principal agency of the U. S. Federal Statistical System, responsible for producing data about the American people and economy. The Census Bureaus primary mission is conducting the U. S. Census every ten years, in addition to the decennial census, the Census Bureau continually conducts dozens of other censuses and surveys, including the American Community Survey, the U. S. Economic Census, and the Current Population Survey, furthermore, economic and foreign trade indicators released by the federal government typically contain data produced by the Census Bureau. The Bureaus various censuses and surveys help allocate over $400 billion in federal funds every year and help states, local communities, the Census Bureau is part of the U. S. Department of Commerce and its director is appointed by the President of the United States. The Census Bureau now conducts a population count every 10 years in years ending with a 0. Between censuses, the Census Bureau makes population estimates and projections, the Census Bureau is mandated with fulfilling these obligations, the collecting of statistics about the nation, its people, and economy. The Census Bureaus legal authority is codified in Title 13 of the United States Code, the Census Bureau also conducts surveys on behalf of various federal government and local government agencies on topics such as employment, crime, health, consumer expenditures, and housing. Within the bureau, these are known as surveys and are conducted perpetually between and during decennial population counts. The Census Bureau also conducts surveys of manufacturing, retail, service. Between 1790 and 1840, the census was taken by marshals of the judicial districts, the Census Act of 1840 established a central office which became known as the Census Office. Several acts followed that revised and authorized new censuses, typically at the 10-year intervals, in 1902, the temporary Census Office was moved under the Department of Interior, and in 1903 it was renamed the Census Bureau under the new Department of Commerce and Labor. The department was intended to consolidate overlapping statistical agencies, but Census Bureau officials were hindered by their role in the department. An act in 1920 changed the date and authorized manufacturing censuses every 2 years, in 1929, a bill was passed mandating the House of Representatives be reapportioned based on the results of the 1930 Census. In 1954, various acts were codified into Title 13 of the US Code, by law, the Census Bureau must count everyone and submit state population totals to the U. S. President by December 31 of any year ending in a zero. States within the Union receive the results in the spring of the following year, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau regions are widely used. for data collection, the Census Bureau definition is pervasive. Title 13 of the U. S. Code establishes penalties for the disclosure of this information, all Census employees must sign an affidavit of non-disclosure prior to employment. The Bureau cannot share responses, addresses or personal information with anyone including United States or foreign government, only after 72 years does the information collected become available to other agencies or the general public
12.
Nihoa
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Nihoa, also known as Bird Island or Moku Manu, is the tallest of ten islands and atolls in the uninhabited Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. The island is located at the end of the NWHI chain,296 km southeast of Necker Island. Nihoa is the closest NWHI in proximity to the eight main windward Hawaiian Islands at approximately 240 km northwest of the island of Kauaʻi, the island has two peaks,272 m Millers Peak in the west, and 259 m Tanager Peak in the east. Nihoas area is about 171 acres and is surrounded by a 142 and its jagged outline gives the island its name, Nihoa, which means tooth in the Hawaiian language. The island is home to 25 species of plants and several animals, endemic birds like the Nihoa finch and Nihoa millerbird, and endemic plants like the Nihoa fan palm, the Nihoa carnation, and Amaranthus brownii are found only on Nihoa. The plant communities and rocky outcrops provide nesting and perching areas for 18 species of seabirds, such as red-footed boobies and brown noddies, terns, shearwaters, and petrels. Prehistoric evidence indicates Native Hawaiians lived on or visited the island around AD1000, Captain James Colnett rediscovered the island in 1788, and Queen Kaʻahumanu visited it in 1822. It was made part of the Kingdom of Hawaii by King Kamehameha IV, in 1909, Nihoa became part of the Hawaiian Islands Reservation, a federal wildlife refuge established by U. S president Theodore Roosevelt. The Tanager Expedition surveyed the island in 1923, taking a comprehensive inventory of its many species. In 2006, it part of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Efforts are underway to ensure that endangered plant species are propagated beyond their limited range, Nihoa is part of the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain of volcanic islands, atolls, and seamounts starting from the island of Hawaiʻi in the southeast to the Aleutian Islands in the northwest. It is the youngest of ten islands in the uninhabited Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, having formed 7.2 million years ago, the oldest, Kure Atoll, formed 30 million years ago. Six valleys slant down from north to south, meeting at the side of the island, West Valley, West Palm Valley, Miller Valley, Middle Valley, East Palm Valley. Among features on Nihoa are Dogs Head Peak, named for its likeness, and Pinnacle Peak, the only flat area on the island is Albatross Plateau, just below Millers Peak. The Devils Slide is a narrow cleft descending 700 feet irrespective of the surrounding elevation, extending northward from Albatross Plateau, it ends at the vertical cliffs with a 190-foot drop straight down to the ocean below. In this chasm, rare ferns grow, along with endemic species. Nihoas inaccessibility and lack of guano deposits made the island unattractive to humans. The following year, the numbers decreased and the vegetation became lush again, the grasshoppers probably came to Nihoa by way of wind from Kauai
13.
Tropics
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The tropics are a region of the Earth surrounding the equator. The tropics are also referred to as the zone and the torrid zone. The tropics include all the areas on the Earth where the Sun is at a point directly overhead at least once during the solar year. The tropics are distinguished from the climatic and biomatic regions of Earth, which are the middle latitudes. Tropical is sometimes used in a sense for a tropical climate to mean warm to hot and moist year-round. Many tropical areas have a dry and wet season, the wet season, rainy season or green season, is the time of year, ranging from one or more months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region falls. Areas with wet seasons are disseminated across portions of the tropics and subtropics, under the Köppen climate classification, for tropical climates, a wet season month is defined as a month where average precipitation is 60 millimetres or more. Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is distributed through the year. When the wet season occurs during the season, or summer, precipitation falls mainly during the late afternoon. The wet season is a time when air quality improves, freshwater quality improves and vegetation grows significantly, floods cause rivers to overflow their banks, and some animals to retreat to higher ground. Soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases, the incidence of malaria increases in areas where the rainy season coincides with high temperatures. Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime, unfortunately, the previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. Regions within the tropics may well not have a tropical climate, there are alpine tundra and snow-capped peaks, including Mauna Kea, Mount Kilimanjaro, and the Andes as far south as the northernmost parts of Chile and Argentina. Under the Köppen climate classification, much of the area within the tropics is classed not as tropical but as dry including the Sahara Desert. Tropical plants and animals are those native to the tropics. Tropical ecosystems may consist of rainforests, dry forests, spiny forests, desert. There are often significant areas of biodiversity, and species present, particularly in rainforests. In biogeography, the tropics are divided into Paleotropics and Neotropics, together, they are sometimes referred to as the Pantropic
14.
Necker Island (Hawaii)
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Necker Island is a small island in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It is located at 23°34′35″N 164°42′0″W in the Pacific Ocean,155 miles northwest of Nihoa and 8 miles north of the Tropic of Cancer. It contains important prehistoric sites of the Hawaiian culture and is part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge within the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Monument. The United States Census Bureau reports its land area as 45.193 acres, the island is rocky with steep sides and has very little soil. Its highest elevation is 277 feet, the island is named after Jacques Necker, a finance minister of Louis XVI. Few signs of human habitation have been found. However, the island contains 33 stone shrines and stone artifacts much like those found in the main Hawaiian Islands, because of this, many anthropologists believe that the island was a ceremonial and religious site. According to the myths and legends of the people of Kauai, according to the legend, the Menehune settled on Necker after being chased off Kauai by the stronger Polynesians and subsequently built the various stone structures there. Visits to the island are said to have started a few hundred years after the main Hawaiian Islands were inhabited, french explorer Jean-François de La Pérouse was the first European to visit the island, in 1786. The island is named after Jacques Necker, the islands were formally annexed in 1894 by the Provisional Government of Hawaii. Because of the usage by Native Hawaiians as a ceremonial and religious site in Ancient Hawaii. List of volcanoes in the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain Evenhuis, Neal L. Eldredge, natural History of Nihoa and Necker Islands. Bishop Museum Bulletin in Cultural and Environmental Studies, No.1, the Columbia Gazetteer of North America. Archived from the original on 2002-03-29
15.
French Frigate Shoals
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The French Frigate Shoals is the largest atoll in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Its name commemorates French explorer Jean-François de La Pérouse, who nearly lost two frigates when attempting to navigate the shoals and it consists of a 20-mile long crescent-shaped reef, twelve sandbars, and the 120-foot high La Perouse Pinnacle, the only remnant of its volcanic origins. The total land area of the islets is 61.508 acres, total coral reef area of the shoals is over 232,000 acres. Tern Island, with an area of 26.014 acres, has a landing strip and it is maintained as a field station in the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. The French Frigate Shoals are about 487 nautical miles northwest of Honolulu, the Hawaiian island chain lay outside the routes followed by early European explorers, and it was not until La Pérouses near-disastrous discovery that the shoals were known to the outside world. La Pérouse, aboard the frigate Boussole, was sailing westward from Monterey en route to Macau, during the night of 6 November 1786, sailors sighted breakers directly in their path, about a thousand feet ahead. Both the Boussole and her vessel, the frigate Astrolabe, were immediately brought about. At daybreak, the returned and mapped the southeastern half of the atoll. La Pérouse named the shoals Basse des Frégates Françaises, the Shoal of the French Frigates, during the late 19th century, American and European companies became interested in the possibility of mining guano in the Hawaiian Islands. The Republic did not formally claim possession of the shoals until 13 July 1895, French Frigate Shoals was included among the islands acquired by the United States on 7 July 1898, when Hawaii became a United States territory. In 1909 it was made a part of the Hawaiian Islands Bird Reservation, in the aftermath of that attack, US Pacific Fleet Commander Chester W. Nimitz ordered a permanent US Navy presence at the shoals.014 acres. The stations main function was as a landing site for planes flying between Hawaii and Midway Atoll. French Frigate Shoals Airport comprises what remains of the seawall, runway. A LORAN station was operated on East Island until 1952, in 1969 a tsunami devastated the islands. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service continues to maintain a permanent field station there, in 2000, the atoll became part of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve, which was incorporated into the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Monument in 2006. In 2009 the islands were evacuated during the approach of Hurricane Neki, La Perouse Pinnacle, a rock outcrop in the center of the atoll, is the oldest and most remote volcanic rock in the Hawaiian chain. La Perouse Pinnacle stands 120 feet tall and is surrounded by coral reefs. Because of its shape, the pinnacle is often mistaken for a ship from a distance
16.
Gardner Pinnacles
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The Gardner Pinnacles are two barren rock outcrops surrounded by a reef and located in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands at 24°59′56″N 167°59′58″W. It is 511 nautical miles northwest of Honolulu and 108 miles from French Frigate Shoals, the total area of the two small islets—remnants of an ancient volcano—is 5.939 acres. The highest peak is 170 feet, the surrounding reef has an area in excess of 600,000 acres. Gardner Pinnacles was first discovered on June 2,1820, by the American whaler Maro commanded by Captain Joseph Allen, numerous insects live on the island, and a researcher claims to have found two new species of spiders here. To this day the tip has not been replaced, and debris from the blast can be scattered throughout the island
17.
Maro Reef
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Maro Reef is a largely submerged coral atoll located in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It was discovered in 1820 by Captain Joseph Allen of the ship Maro, with a total area of 747 square miles, it is the largest coral reef in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It contains 37 species of stony coral, unlike most atolls, the coral extends out from the center like spokes on a wheel. Located about 850 miles northwest of Honolulu, Hawaii, Maro Reef contains about 1 acre of dry land which itself can be submerged depending on the tides. Some scientists believe that it may be on the verge of drowning because the reefs are detached and are vulnerable to strong storm waves, USNS Mission San Miguel ran aground on the reef, while running at full speed and in ballast, and sank on October 8,1957
18.
Laysan
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Laysan, located 808 nautical miles northwest of Honolulu at N25°4214 W171°4404, is one of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It comprises one land mass of 1,016 acres, about 1 by 1 1⁄2 miles in size. It is an atoll of sorts, although the land completely surrounds a central lake some 8 feet above sea level that has a salinity approximately three times greater than the ocean. Laysans Hawaiian name of Kauō means egg, referring to its shape, Laysan is the second largest single landmass in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, after Sand Island at Midway Atoll. Laysan was created by growth and geologic upshift. The fringing reefs surrounding the island cover about 735 acres, Lake Laysan, the 100 acres, brown, hypersaline lake in the islands interior, has varied in depth over the decades. In the 1860s, the lake was at most 30 feet deep, the best way to find fresh water on Laysan is to observe where the finches are drinking, the fresh water floats on the saltier water and accumulates around the shore. The tallest point on the island is at 50 feet above sea level, a U. S. Geological Survey study found that Laysan, Midway Atoll, and Pacific islands like them could become inundated and unfit to live on during this century. Native Hawaiians may have known about Kauō before Americans and Europeans sailed their ships into the region in the early 19th century, the first reported sightings of the island were by Massachusetts whalers in the 1820s. The Nantucket Enquirer reported a sighting in 1825, here we probably find the first reference to the name Laysan in print. A United States government survey of Pacific Ocean geography in 1828 included the earlier whalers reports, john Briggs of New Bedford, who may have come across the island as early as 1822. Various publications name Capt. Stanyukovich of the Russian ship Moller as the discoverer of Laysan, although he mapped the island in 1828 and attempted to name it for his ship, he clearly was there after the New Englanders, at least. John Paty of the Manuokawai annexed Laysan to the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. In 1859, Capt. Brooks of the ship Gambia traveled to the island, and in his ship log wrote that there was guano there, in 1890, the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi granted George D. Freeth and Charles N. Spencer permission to mine the guano on Laysan anyway, as long as they paid a royalty and this newfound attention to Laysan attracted scientists, and in the next decade, many of Laysans unique species were scientifically examined for the first time. The working conditions at the mines were grueling, but there seemed to be more guano than Capt. Brooks had thought. Around 100 short tons were extracted per day, in August 1900, the Japanese workers mutinied against the American management and refused to work, leading to violence because of the language barrier, there were two deaths and two injuries. Guano digging affected the ecosystem dramatically
19.
Lisianski Island
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Lisianski Island is one of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, with a land area of 384.425 acres and a maximum elevation of 40 feet above sea level. It is a low, flat sand and coral island about 905 nautical miles northwest of Honolulu, the island is surrounded by reefs and shoals, including the extensive Neva Shoals. Access to the island is limited by helicopter or by boat to a narrow sandy inlet on the side of the island. The island is made of limestone that caps the summit of an extinct shield volcano that was active about 20 million years ago. For this reason, the islands selected Hawaiian name, Papa‘āpoho, over three-quarters of the Bonin petrels that nest in Hawaii nest here. Recent discovery of subfossils on the island indicate that Laysan duck populations occurred on the island, the Island is named after Yuri Feodorovich Lisyansky, an officer in the Imperial Russian Navy. Lisianski reported the island to be of little interest, except insofar as its surrounding reefs, king Kamehameha IV claimed the island for the Hawaiian Kingdom on 10 May 1857. In 1890, the North Pacific Phosphate and Fertilizer Company acquired a lease on the island from the Kingdom of Hawaii. In 1909, Lisianski became part of the new Hawaiian Islands Bird Reservation established by U. S. President Theodore Roosevelt, prior to this, there had been concern about the poaching of birds on the island. Neva Shoals is a shallow reef covering 979 square kilometers, more than half the size of Oahu, directly southeast of the island. Neva Shoals was named by Lisiansky, after his ship, Neva, the shoal is shallow and makes access to the island difficult. The reef has been described by divers as a coral garden because of the great variety of coral. Twenty-four types of coral have been identified at the reefs surrounding Lisianski, reef fish are abundant, including predators. List of volcanoes in the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain Lisianski Island, Block 1014, Census Tract 114.98, Honolulu County, Hawaii, United States Census Bureau. M. Rauzon, Isles of Refuge, Wildlife and History of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu,2001
20.
Pearl and Hermes Atoll
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The Pearl and Hermes Atoll, is part of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It is named after two English whaleships, the Pearl and the Hermes, that there in 1822. In 1927, Captain William Greig Anderson was fishing for tuna and in the process and this opened up the first commercial activity within the atoll, but the pearl trade lasted for only a few years. The Hawaiian government later prohibited commercial activity and declared the area to be a bird sanctuary, in June 2006, George W. Bush declared the atoll and all other parts of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. As the 3rd northernmost atoll, behind Midway and Kure, approximately 2,090 km northwest of Honolulu and 140 km east-southeast of Midway Atoll. The Pearl and Hermes Atoll is a large, low atoll with several small islets devoid of life, apart for some species, forming about 80 acres of land. The fringing reef is roughly 69 km in circumference and open to the west, the Pearl and Hermes atoll features adheres to the timezone of UTC-10,00. Data chart below has been taken from Midway Atoll due to a lack of any weather stations present on Pearl, despite being located at 27°48N which is above the Tropic of Cancer, Pearl and Hermes Atoll features a tropical savanna climate with very pleasant year-round temperatures. Rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year, with two months being able to be classified as dry season months. Furthermore, the Pearl and Hermes support a population of endangered monk seals. Derelict fishing gear and other types of debris are, however, having a major impact on the reefs. Over the past three years, efforts have been undertaken to lessen the threat of this growing problem
21.
Kure Atoll
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Kure Atoll or Ocean Island is an atoll in the Pacific Ocean 48 nautical miles beyond Midway Atoll in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands at 28°25′N 178°20′W. The only land of significant size is called Green Island and is habitat for hundreds of thousands of seabirds, a short, unused and unmaintained runway and a portion of one building, both from a former United States Coast Guard LORAN station, are located on the island. Politically it is part of Hawaii, although separated from the rest of the state by Midway, the International Date Line lies approximately 100 miles to the west. Surprisingly, although located to the west of Midway Atoll, Kure Atoll has a timezone +1 hour ahead at UTC-10,00, Kure is the northern-most coral atoll in the world. It consists of a 6-mile wide nearly circular barrier reef surrounding a shallow lagoon, there is a total land area of 213.097 acres, with Green Island on the southeast side having 191.964 acres of this total. A growing number of Hawaiian monk seals haul out on its beaches, data chart below has been taken from Midway Atoll due to a lack of any weather stations present on Kure Atoll. Kure Atoll features a tropical climate with very pleasant year-round temperatures. Rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year, with two months being able to be classified as dry season months. Barring unforeseen evolution, it will begin to join the other volcanic and reef-topped remnants of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain to the northwest. In the Hawaiian language the term Mokupāpapa was used for any flat island with reefs, the northwestern islands are associated with Kāne Milohai in Hawaiian mythology. The brother of Pele was left to guard for travelers. Before the mid-19th century, Kure Atoll was visited by several ships, sometimes spelled Cure, its English name was for a Russian navigator who sighted the atoll. It was officially named Kure Island in 1924 and then Kure Atoll in 1987, many crews were stranded on Kure Atoll after being shipwrecked on the surrounding reefs and had to survive on the local seals, turtles, and birds. The shipwrecks remain on the reef today, including the USS Saginaw, because of these incidents, King Kalākaua sent Colonel J. H. Boyd to Kure as his Special Commissioner. On September 20,1886, he took possession of the island for the Hawaiian government, the King ordered that a crude house be built on the island, with tanks for holding water and provisions for any other unfortunates who might be cast away there. But the provisions were stolen within a year and the house fell into ruins. Once ashore, Lt. Kikuchi and the two members of his crew refused capture and were either killed or committed suicide when an American landing party tried to capture them. Kure is located within a current which washes up debris from the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, such as fishing nets and large numbers of cigarette lighters
22.
Hypersaline lake
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A hypersaline lake is a landlocked body of water that contains significant concentrations of sodium chloride or other salts, with saline levels surpassing that of ocean water. Specific microbial and crustacean species thrive in high salinity environments that are inhospitable to most lifeforms. Some of these species enter a dormant state when desiccated, the water of hypersaline lakes has great buoyancy due to a high salt content. The most saline water body in the world is the Don Juan Pond and its volume is some 3,000 cubic meters, but is constantly changing. The Don Juan Pond has a salinity level of over 44% and its high salinity prevents the Don Juan from freezing even when temperatures are below −50 °C. There are larger water bodies, lakes in the McMurdo Dry Valleys such as Lake Vanda with salinity of over 35%. They are covered with ice in the winter, the most saline lake outside of Antarctica is Lake Assal, in Djibouti, which has a salinity of 34. 8%. Probably the best-known hypersaline lakes are the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake, the Dead Sea, dividing Israel and the Palestinian West Bank from Jordan, is the worlds deepest hypersaline lake and the Araruama Lagoon is the worlds largest hypersaline lake. The Great Salt Lake, located in Utah, while having three times the surface area of the Dead Sea, is shallower and experiences much greater fluctuations in level than the Dead Sea. At its lowest recorded levels, it approaches 7.7 times the salinity of ocean water, hypersaline lakes are found on every continent, especially in arid or semi-arid regions. Brine pool Halocline Halophile List of bodies of water by salinity Salt lake
23.
Basalt
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Basalt is a common extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of basaltic lava exposed at or very near the surface of a planet or moon. Flood basalt describes the formation in a series of basalt flows. By definition, basalt is an igneous rock with generally 45-55% silica and less than 10% feldspathoid by volume. Basalt commonly features a very fine-grained or glassy matrix interspersed with visible mineral grains, the average density is 3.0 gm/cm3. Basalt is defined by its content and texture, and physical descriptions without mineralogical context may be unreliable in some circumstances. Basalt is usually grey to black in colour, but rapidly weathers to brown or rust-red due to oxidation of its mafic minerals into hematite, although usually characterized as dark, basaltic rocks exhibit a wide range of shading due to regional geochemical processes. Due to weathering or high concentrations of plagioclase, some basalts can be quite light-coloured and these phenocrysts usually are of olivine or a calcium-rich plagioclase, which have the highest melting temperatures of the typical minerals that can crystallize from the melt. Basalt with a texture is called vesicular basalt, when the bulk of the rock is mostly solid. Gabbro is often marketed commercially as black granite and these ultramafic volcanic rocks, with silica contents below 45% are usually classified as komatiites. Agricola applied basalt to the black rock of the Schloßberg at Stolpen. Tholeiitic basalt is relatively rich in silica and poor in sodium, included in this category are most basalts of the ocean floor, most large oceanic islands, and continental flood basalts such as the Columbia River Plateau. Basalt rocks are in some cases classified after their content in High-Ti and Low-Ti varieties. High-Ti and Low-Ti basalts have been distinguished in the Paraná and Etendeka traps and it has greater than 17% alumina and is intermediate in composition between tholeiite and alkali basalt, the relatively alumina-rich composition is based on rocks without phenocrysts of plagioclase. Alkali basalt is relatively poor in silica and rich in sodium and it is silica-undersaturated and may contain feldspathoids, alkali feldspar and phlogopite. Boninite is a form of basalt that is erupted generally in back-arc basins. Ocean island basalt Lunar basalt On Earth, most basalt magmas have formed by melting of the mantle. Basalt commonly erupts on Io, the third largest moon of Jupiter, and has formed on the Moon, Mars, Venus. The crustal portions of oceanic tectonic plates are composed predominantly of basalt, produced from upwelling mantle below, the mineralogy of basalt is characterized by a preponderance of calcic plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene
24.
Battle of Midway
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The Battle of Midway was a decisive naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II. Military historian John Keegan called it the most stunning and decisive blow in the history of naval warfare, the Japanese hoped another demoralizing defeat would force the U. S. to capitulate in the Pacific War and thus ensure Japanese dominance in the Pacific. Luring the American aircraft carriers into a trap and occupying Midway was part of an overall strategy to extend Japans defensive perimeter. This operation was also considered preparatory for further attacks against Fiji, Samoa, the plan was handicapped by faulty Japanese assumptions of the American reaction and poor initial dispositions. Most significantly, American cryptographers were able to determine the date and location of the planned attack, the Battle of Midway, along with the Guadalcanal Campaign, is widely considered a turning point in the Pacific War. Because of this, preliminary planning for a phase of operations commenced as early as January 1942. Admiral Yamamoto finally succeeded in winning the struggle with a thinly veiled threat to resign. Yamamotos primary strategic goal was the elimination of Americas carrier forces and this, and other successful hit-and-run raids by American carriers in the South Pacific, showed that they were still a threat, although seemingly reluctant to be drawn into an all-out battle. Yamamoto reasoned that another air attack on the main U. S. Naval base at Pearl Harbor would induce all of the American fleet to sail out to fight, including the carriers. Instead, Yamamoto selected Midway, a tiny atoll at the extreme northwest end of the Hawaiian Island chain and this meant that Midway was outside the effective range of almost all of the American aircraft stationed on the main Hawaiian islands. In addition to serving as a base, Midways airstrips also served as a forward staging point for bomber attacks on Wake Island. Typical of Japanese naval planning during World War II, Yamamotos battle plan for taking Midway was exceedingly complex and it required the careful and timely coordination of multiple battle groups over hundreds of miles of open sea. His design was predicated on optimistic intelligence suggesting that USS Enterprise and USS Hornet. During the Battle of the Coral Sea one month earlier, USS Lexington had been sunk, however, following hasty repairs at Pearl Harbor, Yorktown sortied and would go on to play a critical role in the discovery and eventual destruction of the Japanese fleet carriers at Midway. Yamamoto felt deception would be required to lure the U. S. fleet into a compromised situation. To this end, he dispersed his forces so that their full extent would be concealed from the Americans prior to battle, critically, Yamamotos supporting battleships and cruisers trailed Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumos carrier force by several hundred miles. What Yamamoto did not know was that the U. S. had broken the main Japanese naval code and his emphasis on dispersal also meant none of his formations were in a position to support each other. By contrast, Yamamoto and Kondo had between two light carriers, five battleships, four heavy cruisers, and two light cruisers, none of which would see action at Midway
25.
Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms
26.
LORAN
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LORAN, short for long range navigation, was a hyperbolic radio navigation system developed in the United States during World War II. It was similar to the UKs Gee system but operated at frequencies in order to provide improved range up to 1,500 miles with accuracy of tens of miles. It was first used for ship convoys crossing the Atlantic Ocean, and then by long-range patrol aircraft, LORAN, in its original form, was an expensive system to implement, requiring a cathode ray tube display. This limited use to the military and large commercial users, use was never widespread, and by the time new receivers were available in the 1950s, the same improved electronics led to new systems with higher accuracy. The US Navy began development of Loran-B, which offered accuracy on the order of a few tens of feet, the US Air Force had worked on a different concept, known as Cyclan, which the Navy took over as Loran-C. Loran-C offered longer range than LORAN and accuracy of hundreds of feet, the US Coast Guard took over operations of both systems in 1958. In spite of the improved performance of Loran-C, LORAN, now known as Loran-A. This was due largely to the numbers of surplus Loran-A units released from the Navy as ships. The widespread introduction of inexpensive microelectronics during the 1980s caused Loran-C receivers to drop in price dramatically, Loran-A was dismantled starting in the 1970s, it remained active in North America until 1980 and the rest of the world until 1985. A Japanese chain remained on the air until 9 May 1997, at a 1 October 1940 meeting of the US Army Signal Corps Technical Committee, Alfred Loomis, chair of the Microwave Committee, proposed building a hyperbolic navigation system. He predicted that such a system could provide an accuracy of at least 1,000 feet at a range of 200 miles, and this led to the Precision Navigational Equipment for Guiding Airplanes specification, which was sent back to the Microwave Committee and formed up as Project 3. Orders for initial systems were sent out at a meeting on 20 December 1940. Project 3 moved to the newly formed Radiation Laboratorys Navigation Group in 1941, early systems operated around 30 MHz, but it was later decided to try experiments with different equipment that could be tuned from 3 to 8 MHz. These lower frequency systems were found to be more stable electronically. After first considering setting up transmitters on mountain peaks, the team settled on two abandoned Coast Guard stations at Montauk Point, New York, and Fenwick Island, Delaware. On the receiving end, a wagon was fitted with a simple receiver and sent around the country looking for solid signals. For a production system, the team working with a system using a circular J-scope display for improved accuracy. A J-scope presents time differences not as a linear displacement across the tube, as in the more common A-scope, times differences could be represented with a longer length for a given display size, improving accuracy
27.
Shield volcano
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A shield volcano is a type of volcano usually built almost entirely of fluid lava flows. They are named for their low profile, resembling a warriors shield lying on the ground and this is caused by the highly fluid lava they erupt, which travels farther than lava erupted from stratovolcanoes. This results in the accumulation of broad sheets of lava. The shape of shield volcanoes is due to the low viscosity of their mafic lava, Shield volcanoes are built by effusive eruptions, which flow out in all directions to create a shield like that of a warrior. Shield volcano itself is taken from the German term Schildvulkan, examples of pyroclastic shields include Billy Mitchell volcano in Papua New Guinea and the Purico Complex in Chile, an example of a felsic shield is the Big Obsidian Flow in Oregon. Active shield volcanoes experience near-continuous eruptive activity over long periods of time. Mount Everest, by comparison, is 8,848 m in height, the research has not yet been confirmed. Shield volcanoes feature a slope that gradually steepens with elevation before eventually flattening near the summit. In height they are typically about one twentieth their width, although the general form of a typical shield volcano varies little worldwide regional differences exist in their size and morphological characteristics. 4° and an average volume of 1.7 km3. Rift zones are a prevalent feature on shield volcanoes that is rare on other volcanic types, the large, decentralized shape of Hawaiian volcanoes as compared to their smaller, symmetrical Icelandic cousins can be attributed to rift eruptions. Fissure venting is common in Hawaiʻi, most Hawaiian eruptions begin with a wall of fire along a major fissure line before centralizing to a small number of points. These eruptions, the calmest of volcanic events, are characterized by the emission of highly fluid basaltic lavas with low gaseous content. These lavas travel a far greater distance than those of other types before solidifying, forming extremely wide. Low volumes of such lavas layered over long periods of time are what slowly constructs the characteristically low, central-vent eruptions, meanwhile, often take the form of large lava fountains, which can reach heights of hundreds of meters or more. If eruptive rates are enough, they may even form splatter-fed lava flows. Hawaiian eruptions are often extremely long lived, Puʻu ʻŌʻō, a cone of Kilauea, has been erupting continuously since 1983. These lava flows can be anywhere between 2 and 20 m thick, pāhoehoe flows, in contrast, move in more conventional sheets, or by the advancement of lava toes in snaking lava columns. Increasing viscosity on the part of the lava or shear stress on the part of local topography can morph a pāhoehoe flow into an aa one, although most shield volcanoes are by volume almost entirely Hawaiian and basaltic in origin, they are rarely exclusively so
28.
Hotspot (geology)
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In geology, the places known as hotspots or hot spots are volcanic regions thought to be fed by underlying mantle that is anomalously hot compared with the surrounding mantle. They may be on, near to, or far from plate boundaries. Currently, there are two hypotheses that attempt to explain their origins, one suggests that hotspots are due to mantle plumes that rise as thermal diapirs from the core–mantle boundary. The other hypothesis is that lithospheric extension permits the passive rising of melt from shallow depths and this hypothesis considers the term hotspot to be a misnomer, asserting that the mantle source beneath them is, in fact, not anomalously hot at all. Well known examples include Hawaii, Iceland and Yellowstone and it was later postulated that hotspots are fed by narrow streams of hot mantle rising from the Earths core–mantle boundary in a structure called a mantle plume. Whether or not such mantle plumes exist is currently the subject of a controversy in Earth science. Estimates for the number of hotspots postulated to be fed by mantle plumes has ranged from about 20 to several thousands, over the years, Hawaii, Réunion, Yellowstone, Galápagos, and Iceland are some of the currently most active volcanic regions to which the hypothesis is applied. As a result, they are less explosive than subduction zone volcanoes, where hotspots occur in continental regions, basaltic magma rises through the continental crust, which melts to form rhyolites. These rhyolites can form violent eruptions, for example, the Yellowstone Caldera was formed by some of the most powerful volcanic explosions in geologic history. However, when the rhyolite is completely erupted, it may be followed by eruptions of basaltic magma rising through the same lithospheric fissures, the hotspot hypothesis is now closely linked to the mantle plume hypothesis. Hotspot volcanoes are considered to have a different origin from island arc volcanoes. The latter form over subduction zones, at converging plate boundaries, when one oceanic plate meets another, the denser plate is forced downward into a deep ocean trench. This plate, as it is subducted, releases water into the base of the plate. It is this that fuels a chain of volcanoes, such as the Aleutian Islands, the joint mantle plume/hotspot hypothesis envisages the feeder structures to be fixed relative to one another, with the continents and seafloor drifting overhead. The hypothesis thus predicts that time-progressive chains of volcanoes are developed on the surface, examples are Yellowstone, which lies at the end of a chain of extinct calderas, which become progressively older to the west. Another example is the Hawaiian archipelago, where islands become progressively older, boschi, L. Becker, T. W. Steinberger, B. Mantle plumes, Dynamic models and seismic images, break-up spots, Could the Pacific open as a consequence of plate kinematics. Towards A Better Understanding Of Hot Spot Volcanism, formation of Hotspots Raising Hot Spots Large Igneous Provinces Maria Antretter, PhD Thesis, Moving hotspots – Evidence from paleomagnetism and modeling Do Plumes Exist
29.
Pacific Plate
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The Pacific Plate is an oceanic tectonic plate that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At 103 million square kilometres, it is the largest tectonic plate, the Pacific Plate contains an interior hot spot forming the Hawaiian Islands. Hillis and Müller are reported to consider the Birds Head Plate to be moving in unison with the Pacific Plate, bird considers them to be unconnected. The north-eastern side is a divergent boundary with the Explorer Plate, the Juan de Fuca Plate and the Gorda Plate forming respectively the Explorer Ridge, the Juan de Fuca Ridge and the Gorda Ridge. In the middle of the side is a transform boundary with the North American Plate along the San Andreas Fault. The south-eastern side is a divergent boundary with the Nazca Plate forming the East Pacific Rise, the southern side is a divergent boundary with the Antarctic Plate forming the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge. The Alpine Fault marks a boundary between the two plates, and further south the Indo-Australian Plate subducts under the Pacific Plate forming the Puysegur Trench. The southern part of Zealandia, which is to the east of this boundary, is the plates largest block of continental crust, the northern side is a convergent boundary subducting under the North American Plate forming the Aleutian Trench and the corresponding Aleutian Islands. The Pacific Plate is almost entirely oceanic crust, but it contains some continental crust in New Zealand, Baja California, the Pacific Plate has the distinction of showing one of the largest areal sections of the oldest members of seabed geology being entrenched into eastern Asian oceanic trenches. The oldest member disappearing by way of the Plate Tectonics cycle is early-Cretaceous, all maps of the Earths ocean floor geology show ages younger than 145 million years, only about 1/30 of the Earths 4.55 billion year history
30.
Volcano
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A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. Earths volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of plate hypothesis volcanism, Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called hotspots, for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the boundary,3,000 km deep in the Earth. Volcanoes are usually not created where two plates slide past one another. Erupting volcanoes can pose hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption. Historically, so-called volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines, the word volcano is derived from the name of Vulcano, a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy whose name in turn comes from Vulcan, the god of fire in Roman mythology. The study of volcanoes is called volcanology, sometimes spelled vulcanology, at the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from one another as new oceanic crust is formed by the cooling and solidifying of hot molten rock. Most divergent plate boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans, therefore, most volcanic activity is submarine, black smokers are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea-level, volcanic islands are formed, for example, subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. In this case, the plate subducts, or submerges under the continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called flux melting, water released from the subducting plate lowers the temperature of the overlying mantle wedge. This magma tends to be very viscous due to its high content, so it often does not reach the surface. When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed, typical examples of this kind of volcano are Mount Etna and the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Because tectonic plates move across them, each volcano becomes dormant and is eventually re-formed as the plate advances over the postulated plume and this theory is currently under criticism, however. The most common perception of a volcano is of a mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit, however. The features of volcanoes are more complicated and their structure. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have features such as massive plateaus
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Seamount
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A seamount is a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the waters surface, and thus is not an island. Seamounts are typically formed from volcanoes that rise abruptly and are usually found rising from the seafloor to 1. They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1,000 m above the seafloor, the peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface, and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea. During their evolution over time, the largest seamounts may reach the sea surface where wave action erodes the summit to form a flat surface. Seamounts and guyots are most abundant in the North Pacific Ocean, in recent years, several active seamounts have been observed, for example Loihi in the Hawaiian Islands. Because of their abundance, seamounts are one of the most common marine ecosystems in the world, interactions between seamounts and underwater currents, as well as their elevated position in the water, attract plankton, corals, fish, and marine mammals alike. Their aggregational effect has been noted by the fishing industry. There are ongoing concerns on the impact of fishing on seamount ecosystems. 95% of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling, which scrapes whole ecosystems off seamounts, because of their large numbers, many seamounts remain to be properly studied, and even mapped. Bathymetry and satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap, there have been instances where naval vessels have collided with uncharted seamounts, for example, Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973. Seamounts can be found in every ocean basin in the world, a seamount is technically defined as an isolated rise in elevation of 1,000 m or more from the surrounding seafloor, and with a limited summit area, of conical form. If small knolls, ridges and hills less than 1,000 m in height are included there are over 100,000 seamounts in the world ocean. Most seamounts are volcanic in origin, and thus tend to be found on oceanic crust near mid-ocean ridges, mantle plumes, and island arcs. Overall, seamount and guyot coverage is greatest as a proportion of area in the North Pacific Ocean. The Arctic Ocean has only 16 seamounts and no guyots, the 9,951 seamounts mapped cover an area of 8,088,550 km2. The largest seamount has an area of 15,500 km2, guyots cover a total area of 707,600 km2 and have an average area of 2,500 km2, more than twice the average size of seamounts. Nearly 50% of guyot area and 42% of the number of guyots occur in the North Pacific Ocean, the largest three guyots are all in the North Pacific, the Kuko Guyot, Suiko Guyot and the Pallada Guyot. Seamount chain redirects here, for a broader coverage related to this topic, Seamounts are often found in groupings or submerged archipelagos, a classic example being the Emperor Seamounts, an extension of the Hawaiian Islands
32.
Nihoa finch
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The Nihoa finch is one of the two endemic bird species of the tiny Hawaiian island Nihoa, the other being the Nihoa millerbird. When it was classified in 1917, scientists thought that it would be the last endemic species named, the islands population is 1000–3000 birds. The Nihoa finch was added to the Endangered Species List by the U. S. Fish, an attempt to protect the species against extinction was made by starting a colony on French Frigate Shoals, another leeward island. This would ensure its existence in the event that the Nihoa population was wiped out. Nihoa is part of a group of islands that make up the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge which provides protected land for the Nihoa finch to roam on, the Nihoa finch looks much like the Laysan finch but is smaller, and less dark. The birds have a throat and the front is streaked with brown. It measures about 6 inches in length, the diet of this bird includes items like sea birds eggs, small arthropods, and the seeds and flowers of some of the native flora. Nihoa finches build their nests in small spaces in rocky cliffs about 100 to 800 feet above the sea level, the breeding season begins in February and might go on till early July, ending with a clutch of usually three eggs. The Nihoa finch will get its adult plumage in about a single year
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Endemism
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The extreme opposite of endemism is cosmopolitan distribution. An alternative term for a species that is endemic is precinctive, the word endemic is from New Latin endēmicus, from Greek ενδήμος, endēmos, native. Endēmos is formed of en meaning in, and dēmos meaning the people, the term, precinctive, has been suggested by some scientists, and was first used in botany by MacCaughey in 1917. It is the equivalent of endemism, precinction was perhaps first used by Frank and McCoy. That definition excludes artificial confinement of examples by humans in far-off botanical gardens or zoological parks, physical, climatic, and biological factors can contribute to endemism. The orange-breasted sunbird is found in the fynbos vegetation zone of southwestern South Africa. The glacier bear is found only in limited places in Southeast Alaska, political factors can play a part if a species is protected, or actively hunted, in one jurisdiction but not another. There are two subcategories of endemism, paleoendemism and neoendemism, paleoendemism refers to species that were formerly widespread but are now restricted to a smaller area. Neoendemism refers to species that have arisen, such as through divergence and reproductive isolation or through hybridization. Endemics can easily become endangered or extinct if their restricted habitat changes, particularly—but not only—due to human actions, there were millions of both Bermuda petrels and Bermuda cedars in Bermuda when it was settled at the start of the seventeenth century. By the end of the century, the petrels were thought extinct, cedars, already ravaged by centuries of shipbuilding, were driven nearly to extinction in the twentieth century by the introduction of a parasite. Bermuda petrels and cedars are now rare, as are species endemic to Bermuda
34.
Extinction
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In biology and ecology, extinction is the end of an organism or of a group of organisms, normally a species. The moment of extinction is considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed. Because a species range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult. This difficulty leads to such as Lazarus taxa, where a species presumed extinct abruptly reappears after a period of apparent absence. More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to five billion species. Estimates on the number of Earths current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described, the relationship between animals and their ecological niches has been firmly established. Mass extinctions are relatively rare events, however, isolated extinctions are quite common, only recently have extinctions been recorded and scientists have become alarmed at the current high rate of extinctions. Most species that become extinct are never scientifically documented, some scientists estimate that up to half of presently existing plant and animal species may become extinct by 2100. A dagger symbol next to a name is often used to indicate its extinction. A species is extinct when the last existing member dies, Extinction therefore becomes a certainty when there are no surviving individuals that can reproduce and create a new generation. Pinpointing the extinction of a species requires a definition of that species. If it is to be declared extinct, the species in question must be distinguishable from any ancestor or daughter species. Extinction of a plays a key role in the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis of Stephen Jay Gould. In ecology, extinction is often used informally to refer to local extinction, in which a species ceases to exist in the area of study. This phenomenon is known as extirpation. Local extinctions may be followed by a replacement of the species taken from other locations, species which are not extinct are termed extant. Those that are extant but threatened by extinction are referred to as threatened or endangered species, currently an important aspect of extinction is human attempts to preserve critically endangered species
35.
Guano
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Guano is the accumulated excrement of seabirds, seals, or cave-dwelling bats. As a manure, guano is an effective fertilizer due to its exceptionally high content of nitrogen, phosphate and potassium. During the twentieth century, guano-producing birds became an important target of conservation programs, today, guano is increasingly sought after by organic farmers. Seabird guano consists of nitrogen-rich ammonium oxalate and urate, phosphates, as well as some earth salts, the word guano originates from the Andean indigenous language Quechua, which refers to any form of dung used as an agricultural fertilizer. Archaeological evidence suggests that Andean people have collected guano from small islands, spanish colonial documents suggest that the rulers of the Inca Empire assigned great value to guano, restricted access to it, and punished any disturbance of the birds with death. The Guanay cormorant has historically been the most abundant and important producer of guano, other important guano producing species off the coast of Peru are the Peruvian pelican and the Peruvian booby. At that time, massive deposits of guano existed on some islands, in this context the United States passed the Guano Islands Act in 1856, which gave U. S. citizens discovering a source of guano on an unclaimed island exclusive rights to the deposits. Nine of these islands are still officially U. S. territories, control over guano played a central role in the Chincha Islands War between Spain and a Peruvian-Chilean alliance. Indentured workers from China played an important role in guano harvest, the first group of 79 Chinese workers arrived in Peru in 1849, by the time that trade ended a quarter of a century later, over 100,000 of their fellow countrymen had been imported. There is no evidence that enslaved Pacific Islanders participated in guano mining. Between 1847 and 1873, there was a significant increase in Peruvian guano exports, after 1870, the use of Peruvian guano as a fertilizer was eclipsed by saltpeter in the form of caliche extraction from the interior of the Atacama Desert, not far from the guano areas. Since 1909, when the Peruvian government took over guano extraction for use by Peru farmers, South Africa independently developed its own guano industry based on sustained-yield production from marine birds during this period, as well. Both industries eventually collapsed due to pressure from overfishing, DNA testing has suggested that new potato varieties imported alongside Peruvian seabird guano in 1842 brought a virulent strain of potato blight that began the Irish Potato Famine. The ideal type of guano is found in dry climates. Post-depositional decomposition and ammonia volatilization of penguin guano also plays an important role in the evolution of ornithogenic sediments in the cold, Bat guano is usually mined in caves and this mining is associated with a corresponding loss of troglobytic biota and diminishing of biodiversity. Guano deposits support a variety of cave-adapted invertebrates that rely on bat feces as their sole source of nutrition. The greatest damage caused by mining to caves with extant guano deposits is to the bat colonies themselves, bats are highly vulnerable to regular disturbance to their roosts. Some species, such as Phyllonycteris aphylla, have low fat reserves, many species will drop pups when in panic, with subsequent death, leading to a steady reduction in population
36.
Laysan finch
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The Laysan finch is a species of Hawaiian honeycreeper, that is endemic to the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It is one of four remaining finch-billed Hawaiian honeycreepers, and is related to the smaller Nihoa finch. The Laysan finch is named for Laysan, the island to which it was endemic on its discovery and it was subsequently introduced to a few other atolls, and its historical range included some of the main islands. The Laysan finch is a large honeycreeper with a heavy bill, overall the male has yellow plumage with a whitish belly and a grey neck. The female is duller than the male, with brown streaking and it is almost impossible to confuse the Laysan finch with any other bird in the field as it is the only passerine species found on the few islands it lives on. On its discovery the Laysan finch was a resident of the small island of Laysan, along with the Laysan rail, the Laysan honeycreeper, the Laysan duck. Populations were introduced to islands, including Pearl and Hermes Atoll, where the species persists, and Midway Atoll. The fossil record shows that the finch once had a range in Hawaiʻi, reaching as far as Oʻahu. The Laysan finch nests in vegetation, laying three eggs in a cup-shaped nest and these are incubated for 16 days by the female, the male in turn feeding the female. The chicks fledge after three weeks, and are cared for by the parents for three weeks. The Laysan finch is a generalist, feeding on seeds, small insects, fruit, carrion, while unable to break into the eggs of the larger seabirds they will scavenge from them. They actively take the eggs of seabirds such as those of white tern. It survived the effects of the introduction of domestic rabbits by taking carrion. Laysan is now part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, the population is considered stable with the biggest threat being uncontrollable climate change. Morin, M. P. and S. Conant, in The Birds of North America, No.639. The Birds of North America, Inc
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Laysan duck
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The Laysan duck, also known as the Laysan teal, is a dabbling duck endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Fossil evidence reveals that Laysan ducks once lived across the entire archipelago, by 1860, the ducks had disappeared from everywhere except Laysan Island. The introduction of rabbits brought the bird to the brink of extinction in 1912 with twelve surviving individuals, rabbits were eradicated from the island in 1923 and numbers of Laysan ducks began to rise, reaching 500 by the 1950s. In an effort to ensure the future of this duck,42 birds were translocated to Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge in 2002. These thrived in their new surroundings, and another group were later relocated to Kure Atoll, named by Lionel Walter Rothschild in 1892, the Laysan duck is named after Laysan island, one of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It is a member of the clade of dabbling ducks. Recent evidence suggests they originated from an east Asian, southern hemisphere ancestor of mallards, the Laysan duck is teal-sized and dark brown, with a prominent white eye-ring. The bill is short and spatulate, dark green with black blotching in males. The Laysan duck usually has a ring of fat around its neck, some males show faint iridescence on the head or neck and have slightly upturned central tail feathers. The wing has an iridescent purplish-green patch in both sexes, leucistism, or extensive white feathering, is common on the head and neck of older birds. The legs and feet are orange, usually brighter in the male, the annual pre-basic molt is complete, and the ducks lose all their flight feathers and become incapable of flight until new feathers grow in. Wild ducks have been known to live to the age of twelve years, the Laysan duck walks and runs well, with a pelvic girdle adapted to terrestrial foraging. Energetic foraging behavior includes a fly-snapping sprint through Neoscatella sexnotata brine fly swarms, with necks outstretched, and bills close to the ground, the ducks run along a mudflat and as clouds of flies rise up in front, snap them up by rapidly opening and closing their bills. The ducks also will dabble and filter feed along lake shallows, shore, and in vegetation for macroinvertebrates, algae, leaves. During the day, and especially in the season, they prefer to hide among the grass and shrub vegetation. They prefer to venture out in the open and feed on the lake from dusk til dawn, pair formation begins in fall, and nest building begins in spring. The female builds a well-concealed nest on the ground below dense vegetation, the nest is a shallow bowl lined with dead grass and down feathers. Egg-laying typically occurs from April to August, average clutch size on Laysan Island is approximately four eggs
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Pritchardia remota
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Pritchardia remota, the Nihoa pritchardia, Nihoa fan palm, or Loulu, is a species of palm endemic on the island of Nihoa, Hawaiʻi, and later transplanted to the island of Laysan. It is a tree than most other species of Pritchardia, typically reaching only 4–5 metres tall. It is the type of tree on the island and used to be abundant. In 1885 a wildfire ravaged the island, destroying most of the palms, only about 700 of these trees remain, making the species endangered but numbers are slowly increasing. The palm is being cultivated in botanical gardens, a similar undescribed species existed on Laysan, but was made extinct after Laysan was mined for guano. A1996 survey found a total of four plant populations of 680 palms on the island, up to 50% of the pollen found in soil cores taken from lowland sites in the Main Islands comes from Pritchardia palms similar to this species. This is because these palms were once abundant there until around the year 1000, the trees were cleared for agriculture and used for timber and firewood. Ancient Nihoans probably used the trees expansively as well, and this could have caused their water supply to be contaminated with guano. The species longevity is also threatened by floods which have been noted to occur in the lower part of Nihoas East Palm Valley. P. remota provides a place for red-footed boobies and a perching spot for brown noddies. United States Fish and Wildlife Service, final Recovery Plan for Three Plant Species on Nihoa Island. United States Fish and Wildlife Service, 10547–10550, evenhuis, Neal L. Eldredge, Lucius G. eds. Natural History of Nihoa and Necker Islands, bishop Museum Bulletin in Cultural and Environmental Studies, No.1. 2011 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Palm and Cycad Society of Australia. Isles of Refuge, Wildlife and History of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
39.
Laysan albatross
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The Laysan albatross is a large seabird that ranges across the North Pacific. The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are home to 99. 7% of the population and this small gull-like albatross is the second most common seabird in the Hawaiian Islands, with an estimated population of 2.5 million birds, and is currently expanding its range to new islands. The Laysan albatross was first described as Diomedea immutabilis by Lionel Walter Rothschild, in 1893 and it is named for Laysan, one of its breeding colonies in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. The Laysan albatross averages 81 cm in length and has a wingspan of 195 to 203 cm, males, which weigh 2.4 to 4.1 kg, are larger than females, which weigh 1.9 to 3.6 kg. This albatross has blackish-gray upperwing, mantle, back, upper rump, and tail, and its head, lower rump, and underparts are white. It has a black smudge around the eye, and its underwing pattern varies between individuals, with some having narrower black margins and variable amounts of black in the underwing coverts, finally, the bill is pink with a dark tip. Juveniles have a bill and a dark upper rump. This species does not have a breeding plumage, the Laysan albatross is usually easy to identify. In the North Pacific, it is simple to separate from the relatively common albatross. It can be distinguished from the very rare short-tailed albatross by its all-dark back, the Laysan albatrosss plumage has been compared to that of a gull, two-toned with a dark gray mantle and wings and a white underside and head. The Laysan albatross has a range across the North Pacific. All but 0. 3% of the population is found among the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, particularly the islands of Midway. When away from the areas, they range widely from Japan to the Bering Sea. The Laysan albatross is normally a silent bird, but on occasion they may be observed emitting long moo-ing sounds, descending whinnies, female Laysan albatrosses may bond for life and cooperatively raise their young. A female Laysan albatross named Wisdom is the oldest known wild bird in the United States or the Northern Hemisphere, Wisdom was banded by a U. S. Geological Survey researcher in 1956, and in December 2016 she was seen rearing a new chick on Midway Atoll. Because Laysan albatrosses cant breed until they are five years old, Laysan albatrosses have a protracted breeding cycle. They breed annually, although some birds skip years, juvenile birds return to the colony three years after fledging, but do not mate for the first time until seven or eight years old. During these four or five years they form pair bonds with a mate that they keep for life
40.
Hawaiian monk seal
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The Hawaiian monk seal, Neomonachus schauinslandi, is an endangered species of earless seal in the family Phocidae that is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. The Hawaiian monk seal is one of two remaining monk seal species, the other is the Mediterranean monk seal, a third species, the Caribbean monk seal, is extinct. The Hawaiian monk seal is the only native to Hawaii. These monk seals are a conservation reliant endangered species, known to native Hawaiians as ʻIlio-holo-i-ka-uaua, or dog that runs in rough water, its scientific name is from Hugo Schauinsland, a German scientist who discovered a skull on Laysan Island in 1899. Its common name comes from short hairs on its head, said to resemble a monk, the Hawaiian monk seals are adopted to be Hawaiis state mammal. Its grey coat, white belly, and slender physique distinguish them from their cousin, the monk seal’s physique is ideal for hunting its prey, fish, lobster, octopus and squid in deep water coral beds. When it is not hunting and eating, it generally basks on the sandy beaches, the Hawaiian monk seal is part of the family Phocidae, being named so for its characteristic lack of external ears and inability to rotate its hind flippers under the body. The Hawaiian monk seal has a small, flat head with large black eyes, eight pairs of teeth. The nostrils are vertical slits which close when the seal dives underwater. Additionally, their slender, torpedo-shaped body and hind flippers allow them to be very agile swimmers. Adult males are 300 to 400 pounds in weight and 7 feet in length while females tend to be, on average, slightly larger. When monk seal pups are born, they average 30 to 40 pounds and 40 inches in length. As they nurse for six weeks, the grow considerably, eventually weighing between 150 to 200 pounds by the time they are weaned, while the mother loses up to 300 pounds. Monk seals, like elephant seals, shed their hair and the layer of their skin in an annual catastrophic molt. During the most active period of the molt, about 10 days for the Hawaiian monk seal, the hair, generally dark gray on the dorsal side and lighter silver ventrally, gradually changes color through the year with exposure to atmospheric conditions. The juvenile coat of the seal, manifest in a molt by the time a pup is weaned is silver-gray. Many Hawaiian monk seals sport scars from attacks or entanglements with fishing gear. Maximum life expectancy is 25 to 30 years, the monk seals are members of the Phocidae
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Green sea turtle
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The green sea turtle, also known as the green turtle, black turtle, or Pacific green turtle, is a large sea turtle of the family Cheloniidae. It is the species in the genus Chelonia. Its range extends throughout tropical and subtropical seas around the world, the common name comes from the usually green fat found beneath its carapace, these turtles shells are olive to black. This sea turtles dorsoventrally flattened body is covered by a large, teardrop-shaped carapace, it has a pair of large and it is usually lightly colored, although in the eastern Pacific populations parts of the carapace can be almost black. Unlike other members of its family, such as the sea turtle. The adults usually inhabit shallow lagoons, feeding mostly on various species of seagrasses, the turtles bite off the tips of the blades of seagrass, which keeps the grass healthy. Like other sea turtles, green sea turtles migrate long distances between feeding grounds and hatching beaches, many islands worldwide are known as Turtle Island due to green sea turtles nesting on their beaches. Females crawl out on beaches, dig nests and lay eggs during the night, later, hatchlings emerge and scramble into the water. Those that reach maturity may live to 80 years in the wild, C. mydas is listed as endangered by the IUCN and CITES and is protected from exploitation in most countries. It is illegal to collect, harm, or kill them, in addition, many countries have laws and ordinances to protect nesting areas. However, turtles are still in danger due to human activity, in some countries, turtles and their eggs are hunted for food. Pollution indirectly harms turtles at both population and individual scales, many turtles die after being caught in fishing nets. Also, real estate development often causes habitat loss by eliminating nesting beaches, the green sea turtle is a member of the tribe Chelonini. A1993 study clarified the status of genus Chelonia with respect to the marine turtles. The carnivorous Eretmochelys, Caretta and Lepidochelys were assigned to the tribe Carettini, herbivorous Chelonia warranted their status as a genus, while Natator was further removed from the other genera than previously believed. The species was described by Linnaeus in 1758 as Testudo mydas. In 1868, Marie Firmin Bocourt named a species of sea turtle Chelonia agassizii. This species was referred to as the sea turtle
42.
Ancient Hawaii
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Ancient Hawaiʻi is the period of Hawaiian human history preceding the unification in 1810 of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi by Kamehameha the Great. Researchers had based their estimates of first settlement by Polynesian long-distance navigators sometime between 300 and 800, in 2010, a study was published based on radiocarbon dating of more reliable samples and it suggests that the islands were settled much later, within a short timeframe, in c. The islands in Eastern Polynesia have been characterized by the continuities among their cultures, diversified agroforestry and aquaculture provided sustenance for Native Hawaiian cuisine. Tropical materials were adopted for housing, elaborate temples were constructed from the lava rocks available. The rich natural resources supported a dense population, organized by a ruling class. Captain James Cook made the first known European contact with ancient Hawaiians in 1778 and he was followed by many other Europeans and Americans. There have been changing views about initial Polynesian discovery and settlement of Hawaii, radiocarbon Dating in Hawaii initially indicated a possible settlement as early as 124. Patrick Vinton Kirchs books on Hawaiian archeology, standard textbooks, date the first Polynesian settlements to about 300 with more recent suggestions by Kirch as late as 600, Other theories suggest dating as late as 700 to 800. In 2010 researchers announced new findings using revised, high-precision radiocarbon dating based on more reliable samples than were used in many dating studies. According to this research, settlement of the Hawaiian Islands took place ∼1219–1266CE and this rapid colonization is believed to account for the remarkable uniformity of East Polynesia culture, biology and language. Some writers believe that there were settlers in Hawaiʻi, peoples who were forced back into remote valleys by newer arrivals. They claim that stories about menehune, little people who built heiau and fishponds, the colonists brought along with them clothing, plants and livestock and established settlements along the coasts and larger valleys. Upon their arrival, the settlers grew kalo, maiʻa, niu, ulu, and raised puaʻa, moa, and ʻīlio, although these meats were eaten less often than fruits, vegetables, and seafood. Popular condiments included paakai, ground nut, limu. In addition to the foods they brought, the settlers also acquired ʻuala, a few researchers have argued that the presence of the sweet potato in the ancient Hawaiian diet is evidence of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact with the Americas. The Pacific rat accompanied humans on their journey to Hawaiʻi, estuaries and streams were adapted into fishponds by early Polynesian settlers. Packed earth and cut stone were used to create habitat, making Hawaiians some of the earliest, if not the first, over the course of the last millennium, Hawaiians undertook large-scale canal-fed pond field irrigation projects for kalo cultivation. As soon as arrived, the new settlers built hale
43.
Jacques Necker
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Jacques Necker was a Swiss banker who became a French statesman and finance minister for Louis XVI. He was recalled to service just before the Revolution actually did start. His elder brother was the mathematician Louis Necker, Necker was born in Geneva, at that time an independent republic. His father, Karl Friedrich Necker, was a native of Küstrin in Neumark, after the publication of some works on international law, he was elected a professor of public law at Geneva, of which he became a citizen. Jacques Necker was sent to Paris in 1747 to become a clerk in the bank of Isaac Vernet, in 1762, he became a partner and by 1765, he had become very wealthy through successful financial speculations. Soon, he co-founded the bank of Thellusson, Necker et Compagnie with another Genevese, Thellusson superintended the bank in London, while Necker was managing partner in Paris. Both partners became very rich by means of loans to the French treasury, in 1763, Necker fell in love with Madame de Verménou, the widow of a French officer. But while on a visit to Geneva, Madame de Verménou met Suzanne Curchod, in 1764, Madame de Verménou brought Suzanne to Paris as her companion. There Necker, transferring his love from the widow to the poor Swiss girl. On 22 April 1766, they had a daughter, Anne Louise Germaine Necker, Madame Necker encouraged her husband to try to find himself a public position. After showing his ability in its management, Necker defended the companys autonomy in an able memoir against the attacks of Morellet in 1769. Meanwhile, he loans to the French government and was appointed resident at Paris by the republic of Geneva. In 1773, Necker won the prize of the Académie Française for a defense of state corporatism framed as a eulogy in honor of Louis XIVs minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert. In 1775, he published his Essai sur la législation et le commerce des grains and his wife now believed he could get into office as a great financier and made him give up his share in the bank, which he transferred to his brother Louis. In June 1777, Necker was made Director-General of Finance – he could not be named controller because of his Protestant faith and his greatest financial measures were his use of loans to help fund the French debt and his use of high interest rates rather than raising taxes. He also advocated loans to finance French involvement in the American Revolution, in 1781, France was suffering financially, and because Necker was Director-General, he was blamed for the rather high debt accrued from the American Revolution. While at court, Necker had made enemies because of his reforming policies. From 1777 to 1781, Necker was essentially in control of all of Frances wealth, near the end of this period, Necker published his most influential work, the Compte rendu au roi
44.
Tanager Expedition
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Four expeditions occurred from April to August 1923, and a fifth in July 1924. Noted members of the team include archaeologist Kenneth Emory and herpetologist Chapman Grant, the expedition began with the goal of exterminating domestic rabbits that had been introduced to Laysan island by the guano industry in 1902. Since that time, the rabbits had devoured Laysans vegetation and led to the extinction of endemic species. The rabbits were eventually eliminated on Laysan, and the crew witnessed the extinction of the Laysan honeycreeper, throughout the expedition, new species were discovered and named, and unique specimens were captured and returned to laboratories for further study. Over 100 archaeological sites were found, including ancient religious sites and prehistoric settlements on Nihoa, the first expedition departed Honolulu on April 4,1923 and returned on May 4. The team visited the island of Laysan, Pearl and Hermes Atoll, Midway Atoll, when they spent a month on Laysan studying the endemic Laysan honeycreeper, a violent and sudden storm ravaged the island. After the storm, the crew concluded that the last three specimens of the honeycreeper had been killed, the team visited the island of Laysan, the French Frigate Shoals and the Pearl and Hermes Atoll. Dranga Austin Jones The third expedition departed Honolulu on June 9, the team visited the islands of Necker, Nihoa, and the French Frigate Shoals. An attempt was made to visit Kaula. Tanager arrived at Nihoa on June 10 and dropped off scientists for a ten-day visit, both teams used radio to keep in constant communication between the two islands. Evidence of an ancient settlement on Nihoa was discovered, along with platforms, terraces, on June 22, the Tanager arrived in the French Frigate Shoals and remained for six days, completing the first comprehensive survey of the atoll. The expedition returned to Honolulu on July 1, destinations included Johnston Atoll and Wake Island. The first team left on the Whippoorwill, which made the first survey of Johnston Island in the 20th century, aerial survey and mapping flights over Johnston were conducted with a Douglas DT-2 floatplane carried on her fantail, which was hoisted into the water for take off. Two destroyer convoys accompanied the expedition from Honolulu, the Tanager left Honolulu on July 16 and joined up with the Whippoorwill to complete the survey. The northwest islet was named after Titian Peale, the chief naturalist for the 1841 expedition, Whippoorwill Alexander Wetmore Charles Howard Edmonson Jas. B. Pollock E. H. Bryan, Jr. W. G. Anderson Max Schlemmer, Jr. Tanager H. S. Palmer David Thaanum G. R. Mann Orme Cheatham The fifth expedition visited Nihoa and Necker Island in 1924. Emory of the Bishop Museum cleared out 60 sites on Nihoa, the expedition visited Necker from July 14–17. Although the bones were owned by the USFWS, the Bishop Museum acted as custodian, the bones were finally released to the group, and in November,1997, Hui Mālama chartered a yacht and travelled to Nihoa and Necker to rebury the remains
45.
George W. Bush
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George Walker Bush is an American politician who served as the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009. He was also the 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000 and he is the eldest son of Barbara and George H. W. Bush. After graduating from Yale University in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975, Bush married Laura Welch in 1977 and ran unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives shortly thereafter. He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before defeating Ann Richards in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election and he is the second president to assume the nations highest office after his father, following the lead of John Quincy Adams. He is also a brother of Jeb Bush, a former Governor of Florida who was a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 presidential election, the September 11 terrorist attacks occurred eight months into Bushs first term as president. Bush responded with what became known as the Bush Doctrine, launching a War on Terror, a military campaign that included the war in Afghanistan in 2001. He also promoted policies on the economy, health care, education, Social Security reform and his tenure included national debates on immigration, Social Security, electronic surveillance, and torture. In the 2004 Presidential race, Bush defeated Democratic Senator John Kerry in another close election. After his re-election, Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the spectrum for his handling of the Iraq War, Hurricane Katrina. Amid this criticism, the Democratic Party regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections, Bush left office in 2009, returning to Texas where he purchased a home in Crawford. He wrote a memoir, Decision Points and his presidential library was opened in 2013. His presidency has been ranked among the worst in historians polls published in the late 2000s and 2010s. George Walker Bush was born on July 6,1946, at Grace-New Haven Hospital in New Haven, Connecticut, as the first child of George Herbert Walker Bush and his wife, the former Barbara Pierce. He was raised in Midland and Houston, Texas, with four siblings, Jeb, Neil, Marvin, another younger sister, Robin, died from leukemia at the age of three in 1953. His grandfather, Prescott Bush, was a U. S and his father, George H. W. Bush, was Ronald Reagans Vice President from 1981 to 1989 and the 41st U. S. President from 1989 to 1993. Bush has English and some German ancestry, along with more distant Dutch, Welsh, Irish, French, Bush attended public schools in Midland, Texas, until the family moved to Houston after he had completed seventh grade. He then spent two years at The Kinkaid School, a school in Houston. Bush attended high school at Phillips Academy, a school in Andover, Massachusetts
State of Hawaii