1.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
2.
Norwegians
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Norwegians are a Germanic ethnic group native to Norway. They share a culture and speak the Norwegian language. Towards the end of the 3rd millennium BC, Proto-Indo-European speaking Battle-Axe peoples migrated to Norway bringing domesticated horses, agriculture, cattle, during the Viking age, Harald Fairhair unified the Norse petty kingdoms after being victorious at the Battle of Hafrsfjord in the 880s. Two centuries of Viking expansion tapered off following the decline of Norse paganism with the adoption of Christianity in the 11th century, during The Black Death, approximately 60% of the population died and in 1397 Norway entered a union with Denmark. In 1814, following Denmark-Norways defeat in the Napoleonic Wars, Norway entered a union with Sweden, rising nationalism throughout the 19th century led to a 1905 referendum granting Norway independence. Although Norway remained officially neutral in World War I, the country was allied with the Entente powers. In World War II Norway proclaimed its neutrality, but was occupied for five years by Nazi Germany. In 1949, neutrality was abandoned and Norway became a member of NATO, discovery of oil and gas in adjacent waters in the late 1960s boosted Norways economic fortunes but in referenda held in 1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the EU. Key domestic issues include integration of a fast growing immigrant population, maintaining the countrys generous social safety net with an aging population, as with many of the people from European countries, Norwegians are spread throughout the world. There are more than 100,000 Norwegian citizens living abroad permanently, mostly in the U. S, Norwegian Vikings travelled north and west and founded vibrant communities in the Faroe Islands, Shetland, Orkney, Iceland, Ireland, Scotland, and northern England. They conducted extensive raids in Ireland and founded the cities of Cork, Dublin, in 947, a new wave of Norwegian Vikings appeared in England when Erik Bloodaxe captured York. Apart from Britain and Ireland, Norwegian Vikings established settlements in largely uninhabited regions, the first known permanent Norwegian settler in Iceland was Ingólfur Arnarson. In the year 874 he settled in Reykjavík, after his expulsion from Iceland Erik the Red discovered Greenland, a name he chose in hope of attracting Icelandic settlers. Viking settlements were established in the fjords of the southern and western coast. Eriks relative Leif Eriksson later discovered North America, during the 17th and 18th centuries, many Norwegians emigrated to the Netherlands, particularly Amsterdam. The Netherlands was the second most popular destination for Norwegian emigrants after Denmark, loosely estimated, some 10% of the population may have emigrated, in a period when the entire Norwegian population consisted of some 800,000 people. The Norwegians left with the Dutch trade ships that when in Norway traded for timber, hides, herring, young women took employment as maids in Amsterdam. Young men took employment as sailors, large parts of the Dutch merchant fleet and navy came to consist of Norwegians and Danes
3.
Language family
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A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestral language or parental language, called the proto-language of that family. Linguists therefore describe the languages within a language family as being genetically related. Estimates of the number of living languages vary from 5,000 to 8,000, depending on the precision of ones definition of language, the 2013 edition of Ethnologue catalogs just over 7,000 living human languages. A living language is one that is used as the primary form of communication of a group of people. There are also dead and extinct languages, as well as some that are still insufficiently studied to be classified. Membership of languages in a family is established by comparative linguistics. Sister languages are said to have a genetic or genealogical relationship, speakers of a language family belong to a common speech community. The divergence of a proto-language into daughter languages typically occurs through geographical separation, individuals belonging to other speech communities may also adopt languages from a different language family through the language shift process. Genealogically related languages present shared retentions, that is, features of the proto-language that cannot be explained by chance or borrowing, for example, Germanic languages are Germanic in that they share vocabulary and grammatical features that are not believed to have been present in the Proto-Indo-European language. These features are believed to be innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic, language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, conventionally referred to as branches of the family because the history of a language family is often represented as a tree diagram. A family is a unit, all its members derive from a common ancestor. Some taxonomists restrict the term family to a level. Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into groups, a top-level family is often called a phylum or stock. The closer the branches are to other, the closer the languages will be related. For example, the Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Romance, there is a remarkably similar pattern shown by the linguistic tree and the genetic tree of human ancestry that was verified statistically. Languages interpreted in terms of the phylogenetic tree of human languages are transmitted to a great extent vertically as opposed to horizontally. A speech variety may also be considered either a language or a dialect depending on social or political considerations, thus, different sources give sometimes wildly different accounts of the number of languages within a family. Classifications of the Japonic family, for example, range from one language to nearly twenty, most of the worlds languages are known to be related to others
4.
Indo-European languages
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The Indo-European languages are a language family of several hundred related languages and dialects. There are about 445 living Indo-European languages, according to the estimate by Ethnologue, the most widely spoken Indo-European languages by native speakers are Spanish, English, Hindustani, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, and Punjabi, each with over 100 million speakers. Today, 46% of the population speaks an Indo-European language as a first language. The Indo-European family includes most of the languages of Europe, and parts of Western, Central. It was also predominant in ancient Anatolia, the ancient Tarim Basin and most of Central Asia until the medieval Turkic migrations, all Indo-European languages are descendants of a single prehistoric language, reconstructed as Proto-Indo-European, spoken sometime in the Neolithic era. Several disputed proposals link Indo-European to other language families. In the 16th century, European visitors to the Indian subcontinent began to notice similarities among Indo-Aryan, Iranian, in 1583, English Jesuit missionary Thomas Stephens in Goa wrote a letter to his brother in which he noted similarities between Indian languages and Greek and Latin. Another account to mention the ancient language Sanskrit came from Filippo Sassetti, a merchant born in Florence in 1540, writing in 1585, he noted some word similarities between Sanskrit and Italian. However, neither Stephens nor Sassettis observations led to further scholarly inquiry and he included in his hypothesis Dutch, Albanian, Greek, Latin, Persian, and German, later adding Slavic, Celtic, and Baltic languages. However, Van Boxhorns suggestions did not become known and did not stimulate further research. Ottoman Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi visited Vienna in 1665–1666 as part of a diplomatic mission, gaston Coeurdoux and others made observations of the same type. Coeurdoux made a comparison of Sanskrit, Latin and Greek conjugations in the late 1760s to suggest a relationship among them. Thomas Young first used the term Indo-European in 1813, deriving from the extremes of the language family. A synonym is Indo-Germanic, specifying the familys southeasternmost and northwesternmost branches, a number of other synonymous terms have also been used. Franz Bopps Comparative Grammar appeared between 1833 and 1852 and marks the beginning of Indo-European studies as an academic discipline, the classical phase of Indo-European comparative linguistics leads from this work to August Schleichers 1861 Compendium and up to Karl Brugmanns Grundriss, published in the 1880s. Brugmanns neogrammarian reevaluation of the field and Ferdinand de Saussures development of the theory may be considered the beginning of modern Indo-European studies. This led to the laryngeal theory, a major step forward in Indo-European linguistics. Isolated terms in Luwian/Hittite mentioned in Semitic Old Assyrian texts from the 20th and 19th centuries BC, Hittite texts from about 1650 BC, Armenian, writing known from the beginning of the 5th century AD
5.
Germanic languages
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It is the third most spoken Indo-European subdivision, behind Italic and Indo-Iranian, and ahead of Balto-Slavic languages. Limburgish varieties have roughly 1.3 million speakers along the Dutch–Belgian–German border, the main North Germanic languages are Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faroese, which have a combined total of about 20 million speakers. The East Germanic branch included Gothic, Burgundian, and Vandalic, the last to die off was Crimean Gothic, spoken in the late 18th century in some isolated areas of Crimea. The total number of Germanic languages throughout history is unknown, as some of them—especially East Germanic languages—disappeared during or after the Migration Period. Proto-Germanic, along all of its descendants, is characterized by a number of unique linguistic features. Early varieties of Germanic enter history with the Germanic tribes moving south from Scandinavia in the 2nd century BC, to settle in the area of todays northern Germany, furthermore, it is the de facto language of the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia. It is also a language in Nicaragua and Malaysia. German is a language of Austria, Belgium, Germany, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg and Switzerland and has regional status in Italy, Poland, Namibia. German also continues to be spoken as a minority language by immigrant communities in North America, South America, Central America, Mexico, a German dialect, Pennsylvania Dutch, is still present amongst Anabaptist populations in Pennsylvania in the United States. Dutch is a language of Aruba, Belgium, Curaçao. The Netherlands also colonised Indonesia, but Dutch was scrapped as a language after Indonesian independence. Dutch was until 1925 an official language in South Africa, but evolved in and was replaced by Afrikaans, Afrikaans is one of the 11 official languages in South Africa and is a lingua franca of Namibia. It is used in other Southern African nations as well, low German is a collection of sometimes very diverse dialects spoken in the northeast of the Netherlands and northern Germany. Scots is spoken in Lowland Scotland and parts of Ulster, frisian is spoken among half a million people who live on the southern fringes of the North Sea in the Netherlands, Germany, and Denmark. Luxembourgish is mainly spoken in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, though it extends into small parts of Belgium, France. Limburgish varieties are spoken in the Limburg and Rhineland regions, along the Dutch–Belgian–German border, Swedish is also one of the two official languages in Finland, along with Finnish, and the only official language in the Åland Islands. Danish is also spoken natively by the Danish minority in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein, Norwegian is the official language of Norway. Icelandic is the language of Iceland, and is spoken by a significant minority in the Faroe Islands
6.
North Germanic languages
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The language group is sometimes referred to as the Nordic languages, a direct translation of the most common term used among Danish, Swedish and Norwegian scholars and laypeople. Approximately 20 million people in the Nordic countries have a Scandinavian language as their native language, languages belonging to the North Germanic language tree are spoken commonly on Greenland and, to a lesser extent, by immigrants in North America. Dialects with the assigned to the northern group formed from the Proto-Germanic language in the late Pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe. At last around the year 200 AD, speakers of the North Germanic branch became distinguishable from the other Germanic language speakers, the early development of this language branch is attested through runic inscriptions. The original vowel remained when nasalised *ōn and when before /z/, Proto-Germanic *geƀō ‘gift’ > Northwest Germanic *geƀu >, North Germanic *gjavu > with u-umlaut *gjǫvu > ON gjǫf, and West Germanic *gebu > OE giefu, cf. Goth giba. Proto-Germanic *tungōn ‘tongue’ > late Northwest Germanic *tungā > *tunga > ON tunga, OHG zunga, OE tunge, vs. Goth tuggō. *geƀōz ‘of a gift’ > late Northwest Germanic *geƀāz >, North Germanic *gjavaz > ON gjafar, the rhotacism of /z/ to /r/, with presumably a rhotic fricative of some kind as an earlier stage. This change probably affected West Germanic much earlier and then spread from there to North Germanic and this is confirmed by an intermediate stage ʀ, clearly attested in late runic East Norse at a time when West Germanic had long merged the sound with /r/. The development of the demonstrative pronoun ancestral to English this, Germanic *sa, sō, þat ‘this, that’ + proximal *si ‘here’, Runic Norse, nom. sg. þeim-si, etc. with declension of the 1st part, fixed form with declension on the 2nd part, ON sjá, þessi m. Some innovations are not found in West and East Germanic such as, Sharpening of geminate /jj/ and /ww/ according to Holtzmanns law Occurred also in East Germanic, Proto-Germanic *twajjôN > Old Norse tveggja, Gothic twaddjē, but > Old High German zweiio Word-final devoicing of stop consonants. Proto-Germanic *nahtuN > *nāttu > *nǭttu > Old Norse nótt /ɑi̯/ > /ɑː/ before /r/ Proto-Germanic *sairaz > *sāraz > *sārz > Old Norse sárr, with original /z/ Proto-Germanic *gaizaz > *geizz > Old Norse geirr. General loss of word-final /n/, following the loss of short vowels. Proto-Germanic *bindanaN > *bindan > Old Norse binda, but > Old English bindan and this also affected stressed syllables, Proto-Germanic *in > Old Norse í Vowel breaking of /e/ to /jɑ/ except after w, j or l. The diphthong /eu/ was also affected, shifting to /jɒu/ at an early stage and this diphthong is preserved in Old Gutnish and survives in modern Gutnish. In other Norse dialects, the /j/-onset and length remained, the word *ek, which could occur both stressed and unstressed, appears varyingly as ek and jak throughout Old Norse. Loss of initial /j/, and also of /w/ before a round vowel, Proto-Germanic *wulfaz > North Germanic ulfz > Old Norse ulfr The development of u-umlaut, which rounded stressed vowels when /u/ or /w/ followed in the next syllable. This followed vowel breaking, with ja /jɑ/ being u-umlauted to jǫ /jɒ/, Norwegian settlers brought Old West Norse to Iceland and the Faroe Islands around 800
7.
Norwegian language conflict
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The Norwegian language conflict is an ongoing controversy within Norwegian culture and politics related to the written versions of the Norwegian language. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Danish was the written language of Norway due to Danish rule. In the United Kingdoms of Denmark and Norway, the language was Danish. After the two separated in 1814, Dano-Norwegian remained the sole official language until 1885. In the early 1840s, the young linguist Ivar Aasen traveled rural areas collecting examples of the words and he assembled a Norwegian language based on dialects little affected by Danish and published his first grammar and dictionary of the Norwegian peoples language, in 1848 and 1850 respectively. Both he and other authors wrote texts in their own dialects from around this time, the Norwegian language is a North Germanic language. Dano-Norwegian evolved gradually to incorporate Norwegian forms, Parliament decided in 1885 that the two forms of written Norwegian were to be equally official. In the early 20th century, a more activist approach to written Norwegian was adopted in public policy, government attempts through several decades to bring the two language forms closer to each other with the goal of merging the two failed due to widespread resistance from both sides. The now-abandoned official policy to merge Bokmål and Nynorsk into one common language called Samnorsk through a series of reforms has created a spectrum of varieties of both Bokmål and Nynorsk. The unofficial form known as Riksmål is considered more conservative than Bokmål, similarly, the unofficial Høgnorsk is much closer to Ivar Aasens mid-1800s language than to todays Nynorsk. Norwegians are educated in both their own form and their secondary language form, with the primary focus being on their own language form. There is no officially sanctioned spoken standard of Norwegian, but according to some, Danish text I1877 forlod Brandes København og bosatte sig i Berlin. Det vigtigste af hans senere arbejder har været hans værk om William Shakespeare, Norwegian I1877 forlot Brandes København og bosatte seg i Berlin. Det viktigste av hans senere arbeider er hans verk om William Shakespeare, som ble oversatt til engelsk av William Archer, Norwegian I1877 forlét Brandes København og busette seg i Berlin. Då dei politiske synspunkta hans gjorde det utriveleg for han å opphalda seg i Preussen, der vart han møtt av ei heilt ny gruppe forfattarar og tenkjarar som var ivrige etter å ha han som leiar. Det viktigaste av dei seinare arbeida hans er verket om William Shakespeare, English translation In 1877 Brandes left Copenhagen and took up residence in Berlin. However, his views made Prussia an uncomfortable place in which to live. There he was met by a new group of writers and thinkers who were eager to accept him as their leader
8.
Old Norse
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Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during about the 9th to 13th centuries. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century, Old Norse was divided into three dialects, Old West Norse, Old East Norse and Old Gutnish. Old West and East Norse formed a continuum, with no clear geographical boundary between them. For example, Old East Norse traits were found in eastern Norway, although Old Norwegian is classified as Old West Norse, most speakers spoke Old East Norse in what is present day Denmark and Sweden. Old Gutnish, the more obscure dialectal branch, is included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations. It developed its own features and shared in changes to both other branches. The 12th century Icelandic Gray Goose Laws state that Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes spoke the same language, another term used, used especially commonly with reference to West Norse, was norrœnt mál. In some instances the term Old Norse refers specifically to Old West Norse, the Old East Norse dialect was spoken in Denmark, Sweden, settlements in Kievan Rus, eastern England, and Danish settlements in Normandy. The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken in Gotland and in settlements in the East. In the 11th century, Old Norse was the most widely spoken European language, in Kievan Rus, it survived the longest in Veliky Novgorod, probably lasting into the 13th century there. Norwegian is descended from Old West Norse, but over the centuries it has heavily influenced by East Norse. Old Norse also had an influence on English dialects and Lowland Scots and it also influenced the development of the Norman language, and through it and to a smaller extent, that of modern French. Various other languages, which are not closely related, have heavily influenced by Norse, particularly the Norman dialects, Scottish Gaelic. The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden are Ruotsi and Rootsi, of the modern languages, Icelandic is the closest to Old Norse. Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norse phonemic writing system, contemporary Icelandic-speakers can read Old Norse, which varies slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order. However, pronunciation, particularly of the phonemes, has changed at least as much as in the other North Germanic languages. Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish, Norwegian, although Swedish, Danish and the Norwegian languages have diverged the most, they still retain asymmetric mutual intelligibility. Speakers of modern Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can mostly understand each other without studying their neighboring languages, the languages are also sufficiently similar in writing that they can mostly be understood across borders
9.
Nynorsk
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Nynorsk, literally New Norwegian or New Norse, is one of the two written standards of the Norwegian language, the other being Bokmål. From 1885, when the parliament declared them official and equal, until new voting in 1929, the official standard of Nynorsk has since been significantly altered. A minor purist fraction of the Nynorsk populace has stayed firm with the Aasen norm, in local communities, one-fourth of Norwegian municipalities have declared Nynorsk as their official language form, and these municipalities account for about 12% of the Norwegian populace. Of the remaining municipalities, half are neutral and half have adopted Bokmål as their official language form, four of Norways nineteen counties, Rogaland, Hordaland, Sogn og Fjordane and Møre og Romsdal, have Nynorsk as their official language form. These four together comprise the region of Western Norway, the word Nynorsk also has another meaning. Nynorsk was the written Norwegian in use until it died out in the early 1600s during the period of Danish rule, a major source of old written material is Diplomatarium Norvegicum in 22 printed volumes. Written Nynorsk is found in all the types of places. Bokmål has, however, a larger basis in the cities. Most Norwegians do not speak either Nynorsk or Bokmål as written, Nynorsk shares many of the problems that minority languages face. In Norway, each municipality and county can choose to one of the two languages as its official language, or it can remain language neutral. As of 2015, 26% of the 428 municipalities have declared Nynorsk as their language, while 36% have chosen Bokmål and another 36% are neutral. At least 128 of the municipalities are in areas where Bokmål is the prevailing form. As for counties, three have declared Nynorsk, Hordaland, Sogn og Fjordane and Møre og Romsdal, two have declared Bokmål, Østfold and Vestfold. The remaining fourteen are officially language neutral, there are few municipalities in language neutral counties that use nynorsk. The main language used in schools is decided by referendum within the local school district. The number of districts and pupils using primarily Nynorsk has decreased from its height in the 1940s. As of 2016,12. 2% of pupils in school are taught Nynorsk as their primary language. The prevailing regions for Nynorsk are the areas of the western counties of Rogaland, Hordaland, Sogn og Fjordane and Møre og Romsdal
10.
Writing system
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A writing system is any conventional method of visually representing verbal communication. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a form of information storage. The processes of encoding and decoding writing systems involve shared understanding between writers and readers of the meaning behind the sets of characters that make up a script, the general attributes of writing systems can be placed into broad categories such as alphabets, syllabaries, or logographies. Any particular system can have attributes of more than one category, in the alphabetic category, there is a standard set of letters of consonants and vowels that encode based on the general principle that the letters represent speech sounds. In a syllabary, each symbol correlates to a syllable or mora, in a logography, each character represents a word, morpheme, or other semantic units. Other categories include abjads, which differ from alphabets in that vowels are not indicated, alphabets typically use a set of 20-to-35 symbols to fully express a language, whereas syllabaries can have 80-to-100, and logographies can have several hundreds of symbols. Systems will also enable the stringing together of these groupings in order to enable a full expression of the language. The reading step can be accomplished purely in the mind as an internal process, writing systems were preceded by proto-writing, which used pictograms, ideograms and other mnemonic symbols. Proto-writing lacked the ability to capture and express a range of thoughts. Soon after, writing provided a form of long distance communication. With the advent of publishing, it provided the medium for a form of mass communication. Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that a system is always associated with at least one spoken language. In contrast, visual representations such as drawings, paintings, and non-verbal items on maps, such as contour lines, are not language-related. Some other symbols, such as numerals and the ampersand, are not directly linked to any specific language, every human community possesses language, which many regard as an innate and defining condition of humanity. However, the development of writing systems, and the process by which they have supplanted traditional oral systems of communication, have been sporadic, uneven, once established, writing systems generally change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. Thus they often preserve features and expressions which are no current in the spoken language. One of the benefits of writing systems is that they can preserve a permanent record of information expressed in a language. In the examination of individual scripts, the study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines, thus, the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field
11.
Latin script
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Latin script is used as the standard method of writing in most Western and Central European languages, as well as in many languages in other parts of the world. Latin script is the basis for the largest number of alphabets of any writing system and is the most widely adopted writing system in the world, Latin script is also the basis of the International Phonetic Alphabet. The 26 most widespread letters are the contained in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The script is either called Roman script or Latin script, in reference to its origin in ancient Rome, in the context of transliteration, the term romanization or romanisation is often found. Unicode uses the term Latin as does the International Organization for Standardization, the numeral system is called the Roman numeral system, and the collection of the elements, Roman numerals. The numbers 1,2,3. are Latin/Roman script numbers for the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, the Latin alphabet spread, along with Latin, from the Italian Peninsula to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The Latin script also came into use for writing the West Slavic languages and several South Slavic languages, the speakers of East Slavic languages generally adopted Cyrillic along with Orthodox Christianity. The Serbian language uses both scripts, with Cyrillic predominating in official communication and Latin elsewhere, as determined by the Law on Official Use of the Language and Alphabet. As late as 1500, the Latin script was limited primarily to the languages spoken in Western, Northern, the Orthodox Christian Slavs of Eastern and Southeastern Europe mostly used Cyrillic, and the Greek alphabet was in use by Greek-speakers around the eastern Mediterranean. The Arabic script was widespread within Islam, both among Arabs and non-Arab nations like the Iranians, Indonesians, Malays, and Turkic peoples, most of the rest of Asia used a variety of Brahmic alphabets or the Chinese script. It is used for many Austronesian languages, including the languages of the Philippines, Latin letters served as the basis for the forms of the Cherokee syllabary developed by Sequoyah, however, the sound values are completely different. In the late 19th century, the Romanians returned to the Latin alphabet, under French rule and Portuguese missionary influence, a Latin alphabet was devised for the Vietnamese language, which had previously used Chinese characters. In 1928, as part of Mustafa Kemal Atatürks reforms, the new Republic of Turkey adopted a Latin alphabet for the Turkish language, kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Iranian-speaking Tajikistan, and the breakaway region of Transnistria kept the Cyrillic alphabet, chiefly due to their close ties with Russia. In the 1930s and 1940s, the majority of Kurds replaced the Arabic script with two Latin alphabets, although the only official Kurdish government uses an Arabic alphabet for public documents, the Latin Kurdish alphabet remains widely used throughout the region by the majority of Kurdish-speakers. In 2015, the Kazakh government announced that the Latin alphabet would replace Cyrillic as the system for the Kazakh language by 2025. In the course of its use, the Latin alphabet was adapted for use in new languages, sometimes representing phonemes not found in languages that were written with the Roman characters. These new forms are given a place in the alphabet by defining an alphabetical order or collation sequence, a digraph is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the written letters in sequence. Examples are ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ng⟩, ⟨rh⟩, ⟨sh⟩ in English, a trigraph is made up of three letters, like the German ⟨sch⟩, the Breton ⟨c’h⟩ or the Milanese ⟨oeu⟩
12.
Norwegian orthography
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Norwegian orthography is the method of writing the Norwegian language, of which there are two written standards, Bokmål and Nynorsk. Both standards use a 29-letter variant of Latin alphabet, the Norwegian alphabet is based upon the Latin alphabet and is identical to the Danish alphabet. Since 1917 it has consisted of the following 29 letters, the letters c, q, w, x and z are not used in the spelling of indigenous Norwegian words. They are rarely used, loanwords routinely have their orthography adapted to the sound system. Norwegian also uses several letters with diacritic signs, é, è, ê, ó, ò, â, the diacritic signs are not compulsory, but can be added to clarify the meaning of words which otherwise would be identical. One example is ein gut versus éin gut, loanwords may be spelled with other diacritics, most notably ü, á, à and é, following the conventions of the original language. The Norwegian vowels æ, ø and å never take diacritics, the diacritic signs in use include the acute accent, grave accent and the circumflex. A common example of how the change the meaning of a word, is for, for fór fòr fôr The letter Å was introduced in Norwegian in 1917. The new letter came from the Swedish alphabet, where it has been in use since the 18th century. The former digraph Aa still occurs in personal names, geographical names tend to follow the current orthography, meaning that the letter å will be used. Family names may not follow modern orthography, and as such retain the digraph aa where å would be used today, Aa remains in use as a transliteration, if the letter is not available for technical reasons. Aa is treated like Å in alphabetical sorting, not like two adjacent letters A, meaning that while a is the first letter of the alphabet, aa is the last. This rule does not apply to non-Scandinavian names, so a modern atlas would list the German city of Aachen under A but list the Danish town of Aabenraa under Å. The difference between the Dano-Norwegian and the Swedish alphabet is that Swedish uses the variant Ä instead of Æ, also, the collating order for these three letters is different, Å, Ä, Ö
13.
Nordic Council
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The Nordic Council is a geo-political inter-parliamentary forum for co-operation between the Nordic countries. It was formed after the Second World War in 1952 to promote co-operation between the five Nordic countries and its first concrete result was the introduction in 1952 of a common labour market and free movement across borders without passports for the countries citizens. The Council consists of 87 representatives from Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden as well as the areas of the Faroe Islands, Greenland. The representatives are members of parliament in their respective country/area and are elected by those parliaments, the Council holds ordinary sessions each year in October/November and usually one extra session per year with a specific theme. Since 1991 Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania participate with observer status, in 1971, the Nordic Council of Ministers, an intergovernmental forum, was established to complement the Council. During World War II, Denmark and Norway were occupied by Germany, Finland fought a war with the Soviet Union, while Sweden, though neutral. Following the war, the Nordic countries pursued the idea of a Scandinavian defence union to ensure their mutual defence, however, Finland, due to its Paasikivi-Kekkonen policy of neutrality and FCMA treaty with the USSR, could not participate. It was proposed that the Nordic countries would unify their foreign policy and defence, remain neutral in the event of a conflict and not ally with NATO, which some were planning at the time. As Denmark and Norway sought US aid for their post-war reconstruction, further Nordic co-operation, such as an economic customs union, also failed. This led Danish Prime Minister Hans Hedtoft to propose, in 1951 and this proposal was agreed by Denmark, Iceland, Norway and Sweden in 1952. The Councils first session was held in the Danish Parliament on 13 February 1953, when Finnish-Soviet relations thawed following the death of Joseph Stalin, Finland joined the council in 1955. On 2 July 1954, the Nordic labour market was created and in 1958, building upon a 1952 passport-free travel area and these two measures helped ensure Nordic citizens free movement around Scandinavia. A Nordic Convention on Social Security was implemented in 1955, there were also plans for a single market but they were abandoned in 1959 shortly before Denmark, Norway and Sweden joined the European Free Trade Area. Finland became a member of EFTA in 1961 and Denmark. This move towards the EEC led to desire for a formal Nordic treaty, further advancements on Nordic cooperation were made in the following years, a Nordic School of Public Health, a Nordic Cultural Fund and Nordic House in Reykjavík. Danish Prime Minister Hilmar Baunsgaard proposed full economic cooperation in 1968, nordek was agreed in 1970, but Finland then backtracked, stating that its ties with the Soviet Union meant it could not form close economic ties with potential members of the EEC. As a consequence, Denmark and Norway applied to join the EEC, in 1970 representatives of the Faroe Islands and Åland were allowed to take part in the Nordic Council as part of the Danish and Finnish delegations. Norway turned down EEC membership in 1972 while Denmark acted as a builder between the EEC and the Nordics
14.
North Dakota
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North Dakota is the 39th state of the United States, having been admitted to the union on November 2,1889. The state capital is Bismarck, and the largest city is Fargo, North Dakota is the 19th most extensive but the 4th least populous and the 4th least densely populated of the 50 United States. The development has driven strong job and population growth, and low unemployment, North Dakota is located in the U. S. region known as the Great Plains. The state shares the Red River of the North with Minnesota on the east, South Dakota is to the south, Montana is to the west, and the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba are to the north. North Dakota is situated near the middle of North America with a marker in Rugby. With an area of 70,762 square miles, North Dakota is the 19th largest state, the western half of the state consists of the hilly Great Plains as well as the northern part of the Badlands, which are to the west of the Missouri River. The states high point, White Butte at 3,506 feet, the region is abundant in fossil fuels including natural gas, crude oil and lignite coal. The Missouri River forms Lake Sakakawea, the third largest man-made lake in the United States, the central region of the state is divided into the Drift Prairie and the Missouri Plateau. The eastern part of the consists of the flat Red River Valley. Its fertile soil, drained by the meandering Red River flowing northward into Lake Winnipeg, Devils Lake, the largest natural lake in the state, is also found in the east. Eastern North Dakota is overall flat, however, there are significant hills, most of the state is covered in grassland, crops cover most of eastern North Dakota but become increasingly sparse in the center and farther west. This diverse terrain supports nearly 2,000 species of plants, the state of North Dakota is home to the geographical center of North America located near Rugby, North Dakota North Dakota has a continental climate with hot summers and cold winters. The temperature differences are rather extreme because of its far inland position and being in the center of the Northern Hemisphere, with equal distances to the North Pole. As such, summers are almost subtropical in nature, but winters are cold enough to plant hardiness is very low. Native American peoples lived in what is now North Dakota for thousands of years before the coming of Europeans and their tribes included the Mandan people, the Dakota people and the Yanktonai, the latter two from the Lakota peoples. The first European to reach the area was the French-Canadian trader Pierre Gaultier, sieur de La Vérendrye, in 1762 the region became part of Spanish Louisiana until 1802. Dakota Territory was settled sparsely by European Americans until the late 19th century, with the advantage of grants of land, they vigorously marketed their properties, extolling the region as ideal for agriculture. An omnibus bill for statehood for North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and his successor, Benjamin Harrison, signed the proclamations formally admitting North Dakota and South Dakota to the Union on November 2,1889
15.
Minnesota
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Minnesota is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States. Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd U. S. state on May 11,1858, the state has a large number of lakes, and is known by the slogan Land of 10,000 Lakes. Its official motto is LÉtoile du Nord, Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U. S. Minnesota is known for its progressive political orientation and its high rate of civic participation and voter turnout. Until European settlement, Minnesota was inhabited by the Dakota and Ojibwe/Anishinaabe, in recent decades, immigration from Asia, the Horn of Africa, and Latin America has broadened its historic demographic and cultural composition. Minnesotas standard of living index is among the highest in the United States, Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it mnisota. Many places in the state have similar names, such as Minnehaha Falls, Minneiska, Minneota, Minnetonka, Minnetrista, and Minneapolis, a combination of mni and polis, Minnesota is the second northernmost U. S. state. Its isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods county is the part of the 48 contiguous states lying north of the 49th parallel. The state is part of the U. S. region known as the Upper Midwest and it shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east. Iowa is to the south, North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west, with 86,943 square miles, or approximately 2.25 percent of the United States, Minnesota is the 12th-largest state. Minnesota has some of the Earths oldest rocks, gneisses that are about 3.6 billion years old. About 2.7 billion years ago, basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean, the roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota. Following a period of volcanism 1, in more recent times, massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the landscape of the state and sculpted its terrain. The Wisconsin glaciation left 12,000 years ago and these glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast, an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock. This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift, much of the remainder of the state outside the northeast has 50 feet or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated. Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13,000 years ago and its bed created the fertile Red River valley, and its outflow, glacial River Warren, carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling. Minnesota is geologically quiet today, it experiences earthquakes infrequently, the states high point is Eagle Mountain at 2,301 feet, which is only 13 miles away from the low of 601 feet at the shore of Lake Superior. Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation, much of the state is a rolling peneplain. Two major drainage divides meet in Minnesotas northeast in rural Hibbing, forming a triple watershed, precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico, the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean, or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean
16.
International Phonetic Alphabet
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The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of language, phones, phonemes, intonation. IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a letter, or with a letter plus diacritics. Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription, thus, /t/ is less specific than, occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters,52 diacritics and these are shown in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA. In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, for example, the sound was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the digraph ⟨ch⟩ in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, the idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the International Phonetic Association Kiel Convention in 1989, a minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives. The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap, apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces. Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology were created in 1990, the general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound, although this practice is not followed if the sound itself is complex. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as do hard, finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as selectiveness. These are organized into a chart, the chart displayed here is the chart as posted at the website of the IPA. The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet, for this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither, for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a question mark
17.
Specials (Unicode block)
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Specials is a short Unicode block allocated at the very end of the Basic Multilingual Plane, at U+FFF0–FFFF. Of these 16 codepoints, five are assigned as of Unicode 9, U+FFFD � REPLACEMENT CHARACTER used to replace an unknown, unrecognized or unrepresentable character U+FFFE <noncharacter-FFFE> not a character. FFFE and FFFF are not unassigned in the sense. They can be used to guess a texts encoding scheme, since any text containing these is by not a correctly encoded Unicode text. The replacement character � is a found in the Unicode standard at codepoint U+FFFD in the Specials table. It is used to indicate problems when a system is unable to render a stream of data to a correct symbol and it is usually seen when the data is invalid and does not match any character, Consider a text file containing the German word für in the ISO-8859-1 encoding. This file is now opened with an editor that assumes the input is UTF-8. The first and last byte are valid UTF-8 encodings of ASCII, therefore, a text editor could replace this byte with the replacement character symbol to produce a valid string of Unicode code points. The whole string now displays like this, f�r, a poorly implemented text editor might save the replacement in UTF-8 form, the text file data will then look like this, 0x66 0xEF 0xBF 0xBD 0x72, which will be displayed in ISO-8859-1 as f�r. Since the replacement is the same for all errors this makes it impossible to recover the original character, a better design is to preserve the original bytes, including the error, and only convert to the replacement when displaying the text. This will allow the text editor to save the original byte sequence and it has become increasingly common for software to interpret invalid UTF-8 by guessing the bytes are in another byte-based encoding such as ISO-8859-1. This allows correct display of both valid and invalid UTF-8 pasted together, Unicode control characters UTF-8 Mojibake Unicodes Specials table Decodeunicodes entry for the replacement character
18.
Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
19.
Culture of Norway
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The culture of Norway is closely linked to the countrys history and geography. The unique Norwegian farm culture, sustained to this day, has resulted not only from scarce resources, in the 14th century, it brought about a strong romantic nationalistic movement, which is still visible in the Norwegian language and media. In the 19th century, Norwegian culture blossomed as efforts continued to achieve an independent identity in the areas of literature, art and this continues today in the performing arts and as a result of government support for exhibitions, cultural projects and artwork. Norways culinary traditions show the influence of long seafaring and farming traditions with salmon, herring, trout, cod, lefse is a common Norwegian wheat or potato flatbread, eaten around Christmas. For renowned Norwegian dishes, see Rakfisk, smalahove, pinnekjøtt, Krotekake, Kompe, several Norwegian authors have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, namely Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson in 1903, Knut Hamsun in 1920 and Sigrid Undset in 1928 for Kristin Lavransdatter. Ibsen wrote plays such as Peer Gyynt, A Dolls House, Hedda Gabler, Norwegian literature attained international acclaim in the 1990s with Jostein Gaarders novel Sophies World which was translated into 40 languages. Norway has always had a tradition of building in wood, indeed, many of todays most interesting new buildings are made of wood, reflecting the strong appeal that this material continues to hold for Norwegian designers and builders. In the early Middle Ages, stave churches were constructed throughout Norway, many of them remain to this day and represent Norway’s most important contribution to architectural history. A fine example is The Stave Church at Urnes which is now on UNESCO’s World Heritage List, another notable example of wooden architecture is the Bryggen in Bergen, consisting of a row of narrow wooden structures along the quayside. In the 17th century, under the Danish monarchy, cities such as Kongsberg with its Baroque church, after Norway’s union with Denmark was dissolved in 1814, Oslo became the capital. Architect Christian H. Grosch designed the oldest parts of the University of Oslo, the Oslo Stock Exchange, at the beginning of the 20th century, the city of Ålesund was rebuilt in the Art Nouveau style. The 1930s, when functionalism dominated, became a period for Norwegian architecture. One of the most striking buildings in Norway is the Sami Parliament in Kárášjohka designed by Stein Halvorson. Its debating chamber is an abstract version of a Lavvo. For an extended period, the Norwegian art scene was dominated by artwork from Germany and it was in the 19th century that a truly Norwegian era began, first with portraits, later with even more impressive landscapes. Johan Christian Dahl, originally from the Dresden school, eventually returned to paint the landscapes of west Norway, frits Thaulow, an impressionist, was influenced by the art scene in Paris as was Christian Krohg, a realist painter, famous for his paintings of prostitutes. Of particular note is Edvard Munch, a symbolist/expressionist painter who became famous for The Scream which is said to represent the anxiety of modern man. Other artists of note include Harald Sohlberg, a neo-romantic painter remembered for his paintings of Røros and Odd Nerdrum, the oldest Norwegian photograph is from Hans Thøger Winther dating back to 1840
20.
Architecture of Norway
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The architecture of Norway has evolved in response to changing economic conditions, technological advances, demographic fluctuations and cultural shifts. Norways architectural trends are seen to parallel political and societal changes in Norway over the centuries. Prior to the Viking Age, wooden structures developed into a sophisticated craft evident in the elegant, during the Middle Ages, the geography dictated a dispersed economy and population. As a result, the traditional Norwegian farm culture remained strong, in the 20th century, Norwegian architecture has been characterized by its connection with Norwegian social policy on the one hand, and innovation on the other. Norwegian architects have been recognized for their work, both within Norway—where architecture has been considered an expression of social policy—and outside Norway, in several innovative projects, until modern times, transportation infrastructure was also primitive, and builders largely had to rely on locally available materials. Traces of these can be found at the Vega archipelago, an area that is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the first permanent dwellings were probably built between 3000 and 2000 BC, with the introduction of agriculture to Norway. Available evidence indicates that wood was the most used building material for these structures, Iron Age dwellings typically combined shelter for animals and humans in long houses in order to preserve heat. Remains of structures from the Stone Age through the Bronze Age, most prehistoric long houses had pairs of roof-bearing posts dividing the interior into three naves, and walls of palisades, wattle and daub or turf. Similar buildings have been excavated all over Northwestern Europe, two distinctive timber building traditions found their confluence in Norwegian architecture. One was the practice of log building with horizontal logs notched at the corners, the other was the stave building tradition, possibly based on improvements on the prehistoric long houses that had roof-bearing posts dug into the ground. Although there is scant archaeological evidence of buildings from the earliest permanent structures. In the Lofoten archipelago in Northern Norway, a Viking chieftains holding has been reconstructed at the Lofotr Viking Museum, not counting the 28 remaining stave churches, at least 250 wooden houses predating the Black Death in 1350 are preserved more or less intact in Norway. Most of these are log houses, some with added stave-built galleries or porches, as the political power in Norway was consolidated and had to contend with external threats, larger structures were built in accordance with military technology at the time. Fortresses, bridges, and ultimately churches and manors were built with stone and these structures followed the European styles of their time. Possibly more than 1000 stave churches were built in Norway during the Middle Ages, until the beginning of the 19th century, as many as 150 stave churches still existed. The stave churches owe their longevity to architectural innovations that protected these large, complex wooden structures against water rot, precipitation, wind, most important was the introduction of massive sills underneath the staves to prevent them from rotting. Over the two centuries of stave church construction, this building type evolved to an art and science. After the Reformation, however, no new churches were built
21.
Norwegian art
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For much of its history Norwegian art is usually considered as part of the wider Nordic art of Scandinavia. It has, especially since about 1100, been influenced by wider trends in European art. After World War II, the influence of the United States strengthened substantially, due to generous art subsidies, contemporary Norwegian art has a high production per capita. Norwegian art came into its own in the 19th century, especially with the landscape painters. Until that time, the art scene in Norway had been dominated by imports from Germany and Holland, initially with landscape painting, later with Impressionism and Realism. Though for the rest of the world Edvard Munch is certainly Norways great artistic figure, there have many other significant figures. Johan Christian Dahl is often said to be the father of Norwegian landscape painting, after a period in Copenhagen, he joined the Dresden school to which he made an important contribution. He eventually returned to paint the landscapes of western Norway, defining Norwegian painting for the first time, another important early contributor was Johannes Flintoe, a Danish-Norwegian painter, known for his Norwegian landscapes and paintings of folk costumes. He taught at the School of Drawing in Christiania from 1819 to 1851 where his students included budding romanticists such as Hans Gude, adolph Tidemand studied in Copenhagen, in Italy and finally in Düsseldorf where he settled. He often returned to Norway where he painted the old Norwegian farm culture and his best known painting is The bridal procession in Hardanger and Haugianerne painted in 1852. Frits Thaulow, 1847–1906, an impressionist, was initially a student of Hans Gude and he was later influenced by the art scene in Paris where he developed impressionist talents. Returning to Norway in 1880, he one of the leading figures on the Norwegian art scene, together with Christian Krohg. Christian Krohg, 1852–1925, a realist painter, was influenced by the Paris scene. He is remembered for his paintings of prostitutes which caused something of a scandal, thorolf Holmboe studied under Hans Gude in Berlin between 1886 and 1887 and Fernand Cormon in Paris between 1889 and 1891. He was inspired by different styles at different points in his career. Nikolai Astrup grew up in Jølster in the west of Norway, after studying art in Oslo and spending some time in Paris and in Germany, he returned to Jølster where he specialised in painting neo-romantic landscapes with clear, strong colors. He is remembered as one of the greatest Norwegian artists from the early 20th century, lars Hertervig from Tysvær in south-western Norway painted semi-fantastical works inspired by the coastal landscape in Ryfylke. Hertervig completed a number of works on paper using aquarelles and often making the base himself from scrapes of discarded pieces of paper
22.
Cinema of Norway
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Norway has had a notable cinema industry for some time. The first film produced domestically in Norway was a short about fishermen, Fiskerlivets farer, the first feature was released in 1911, produced by Halfman Nobel Roede. In 1931 Tancred Ibsen, grandson of the playwright, presented Norways first feature-length sound film, through the 1930s Ibsen dominated the nations film industry, with Leif Sinding in second place. Ibsen produced conventional melodramas more or less on the model of Hollywood films, in the early 21st century a few Norwegian film directors have had the opportunity to go to Hollywood to direct various independent films. As of 2011, nearly 900 films had been produced in Norway, jacobsen Philip Øgaard Svein Krøvel The Norwegian equivalent of the Academy Awards is the Amanda award, which is presented during the annual Norwegian Film Festival in Haugesund. The prize was created in 1985, the documentary Kon-Tiki by Thor Heyerdahl received the Academy Award for Documentary Feature at the 24th Academy Awards in 1951. It is the feature film in Norwegian history to win an Academy Award. As of 2013, five films from Norway have been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, Nine Lives, The Pathfinder, The Other Side of Sunday, Elling and Kon-Tiki. Other alternatives for more higher education in film include, Bachelor degree in Film-. Bachelor degree in Film Science at Norwegian University of Science and Technology
23.
Norwegian cuisine
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Norwegian cuisine in its traditional form is based largely on the raw materials readily available in Norway and its mountains, wilderness and coast. It differs in many respects from its counterparts with a stronger focus on game. Many of the dishes are results of using conserved materials. Most Norwegians eat three or four regular meals a day, usually consisting of a cold breakfast with coffee, a lunch at work. Depending on the timing of family dinner, some may add a cold meal in the late evening, the basic Norwegian breakfast consists of milk or fruit juice, coffee, and open sandwiches with meat cuts, spreads, cheese or jam. Cereals such as flakes, muesli and oatmeal are also popular, particularly with children. Norwegians usually eat dinner around 4-5 PM and this is the most important meal of the day and typically includes carbohydrate-rich foods such as potatoes and protein-rich foods such as meat or fish. Norwegians usually eat supper around 7-8 PM and this may be some open bread sandwich. Particularly sought after include the fenalår, a slow-cured lambs leg. Due to a survival of an early medieval taboo against touching dead horses, eating horse meat was nearly unheard of until recent decades. Lambs meat and mutton is very popular in autumn, mainly used in fårikål, pinnekjøtt, cured and sometimes smoked mutton ribs that are steamed for several hours, is traditionally served as Christmas dinner in the western parts of Norway. Another Western specialty is smalahove, a salted, or salted and smoked, other meat dishes include, Kjøttkaker - meatcakes, rough and large cakes of ground beef, onion and salt and pepper. Roughly the size of a childs fist, potatoes, stewed peas or cabbage and carrots are served on the side. Many like to use a jam of lingonberries as a relish, the pork version is called medisterkake. Kjøttboller - meatballs, A rougher version of the Swedish meatballs, served with mashed potatoes and cream-sauce or sauce espagnole depending on the locality. Svinekoteletter - pork chops, simply braised and served with potatoes, svinestek - roast pork, a typical Sunday dinner, served with pickled cabbage, gravy, vegetables and potatoes. All good cuts of meat are roasted, as in any cuisine, side dishes vary with season and what goes with the meat. Roast leg of lamb is an Easter classic, roast beef is not very common, lapskaus - stew, resembles Irish stew, but mincemeat, sausages or indeed any meat except fresh pork may go into the dish
24.
Media of Norway
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Media of Norway outlines the current state of the press, television, radio, film and cinema, and social media in Norway. Reporters Without Borders ranks Norway 2nd in its Worldwide Press Freedom Index, Freedom of the press in Norway dates back to the constitution of 1814. Most of the Norwegian press is owned and self-regulated, however. The two companies dominating the Norwegian terrestrial broadcast television are the governmental owned NRK and TV2, other, long-running channels are TVNorge and TV3. National radio is dominated by the public-service company NRK, which is funded from the licence fee payable by the owners of television sets. NRK provides programming on three radio channels – NRK P1, NRK P2, and NRK P3 – broadcast on FM, a number of further specialist channels are broadcast exclusively on DAB, DVB-T, and the internet including Radio Norway Direct Norways new English language Radio Station. Additionally, there are a number of radio stations as well as local radio stations run by various non-profit organizations. As of August 2009, it was estimated that 1,156,000 Norwegians use Facebook, for comparison, the total number of inhabitants is about 4,830,000. The Press Association is responsible for Pressens Faglige Utvalg, which oversees the Ethical Code of Practice for the Norwegian Press, the Broadcasting Council oversees the state-owned Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation. The Norwegian Media Authority contributes to the enforcement government regulations, as with other related countries, the Norwegian media is often criticized of being biased towards the political left. Political scientist Frank Aarebrot claims to present evidence of this in terms of both Norwegian journalists and editors and he also expressed concern that journalists who sympathise with the Progress Party may have a lesser chance to get hired than journalists with political sympathies close to editors. For instance, in the actual 2009 election, the Progress Party received 41 mandates, the Christian Democratic Party and Center Party would also have been left without representation, while the revolutionary socialist party Red would enter parliament with 9 mandates. The Socialist Left and Liberal Party would also receive significant gains, the notion of political bias based on the sum of individuals party selection has been criticized. Among others, conservative historian and politician Francis Sejersted holds that the media is neither left-slanted nor right-slanted. This means that media across the spectrum have a tendency to choose the same angle on a case, focusing on personification. Når kildene byr opp til dans, søkelys på Stortingets presselosje og politikkens medierammer. Om markedsorientering og journalistikk i ti norske aviser, ottosen, Rune, Røssland, Lars Arve, Østbye, Helge. Pressedekningen av den ikke-vestlige verden 1902-2002
25.
Music of Norway
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Norway is a rather sparsely populated country in Europe, but even so its music and its musical life are as complex as those of most other countries. Much has been learned about music in Norway from physical artifacts found during archaeological digs. These include instruments such as the lur, viking and medieval sagas also describe musical activity, as do the accounts of priests and pilgrims from all over Europe coming to visit St Olafs grave in Trondheim. In the later part of the 19th century, Norway experienced economic growth leading to greater industrialization and urbanization, more music was established in the cities, and opera performances and symphony concerts were considered to be of high standards. In this era both prominent composers and performers combined the European traditions with Norwegian tones, the import of music and musicians for dance and entertainment increased, and this continued in the 20th century, even more so when gramophone records and radio became common. In the last half of the 20th century, Norway, like other countries in the world. Before 1840, there were limited sources of folk music in Norway. Originally these historical attainments were believed to have a distinct Christian influence, as research continued, there was also mythical and fairy tale connections to the folk music. Overall the purpose of music was for entertainment and dancing. Norwegian folk music may be divided into two categories, instrumental and vocal, as a rule instrumental folk music is dance music. Norwegian folk dances are dances and usually performed by couples, although there are a number of solo dances as well. Norway has very little of the ceremonial dance characteristic of other cultures, dance melodies may be broken down into two types, two-beat and three-beat dances. The former are called halling, gangar or rull, whereas the latter are springar or springleik, Traditional dances are normally referred to as bygdedans. These dances, sometimes called courting dances were often connected to the important events of life, weddings, funerals. Folk music in Norway falls in another 2 main categories based in the populations from which they spring, North Germanic. Traditional Sami music is centered around a vocal style called joik. Originally, joik referred to one of several Sami singing styles. Its sound is comparable to the chanting of some American Aboriginal cultures
26.
Religion in Norway
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Religion in Norway is mostly Evangelical Lutheran Christianity, with 72. 9% of the population officially belonging to the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Norway in 2015. The Catholic Church is the next largest Christian church at 2. 4%, the officially unaffiliated make up 13. 0% of the population. Islam is followed by 2. 4% of the population, the Evangelical Lutheran Church has a privileged place in society, though less so since a constitutional change in 2012. Early Norwegians, like all of the people of Scandinavia, were adherents of Norse paganism, Norway was gradually Christianized by Christian missionaries between 1000 and 1150. Before the Protestant Reformation in 1536, Norwegians were part of the Catholic Church, Norway has seen a great decline in religiosity and most Norwegians are irreligious. According to the Eurobarometer Poll of 2010, 22% of Norwegian citizens responded that they there is a God. 44% answered that they there is some sort of spirit or life force. 29% answered that they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, 5% answered that they do not know. Norse religion developed from the mythology of the Germanic people. Scandinavian mythology and the importance of gods and heroes developed slowly. Thus, the cult of Odin in Norway probably spread from Western Germany not long before they were written down, gods shown as minor gods such as Ullr, the fertility god Njord and Heimdall are likely to be older gods in Norway who lost popularity. Other gods worth mentioning are the thunder-god Thor and the love-goddess Freya, Most information about Scandinavian mythology is contained in the old Norse literature including Norwegian literature, the Eddas and later sagas. Other information comes from the Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus with fragments of legends preserved in old inscriptions, unfortunately, we know relatively little about old religious practices in Norway or elsewhere as most of the knowledge was lost in the gradual Christianisation. But Christianity was too deeply rooted in the society to accept such Paganism, nowadays, a revival of the Old Norse religion, called Åsatru seeks to reconstruct the pre-Christian faith practiced in the Viking Age. The Sámi followed a religion based on nature worship. The Sámi pantheon consisted of four gods the Mother, the Father, the Son. There was also a god of fertility, fire and thunder Horagalles, the sun goddess Beive, like many pagan religions, the Sámi saw life as a circular process of life, death and rebirth. The shaman was called a Noaidi and the traditions were passed on between families with an ageing Noaidi training a relative to take his or her place after he or she dies
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Tourism in Norway
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The main tourist attractions of Norway are the bird-indented coastlines and its mountain, the unspoiled nature of the outer parts of the continent, and the countries and smaller cities. The main attractions of Norway are the landscapes that extend across the Arctic Circle. It is famous for its coastline and its mountains, ski resorts, lakes. The main tourism cities in Norway are Oslo, Bergen, Stavanger, Trondheim, much of the nature of Norway remains unspoiled, and thus attracts numerous hikers and skiers. The fjords, mountains and waterfalls in Western and Northern Norway attract several hundred thousand foreign tourists each year, the culture of Norway evolved as a result of its sparse population, harsh climate, and relative isolation from the rest of Europe. It is therefore distinct from other countries in Europe in that it has fewer opulent palaces and castles, smaller agricultural areas, regionally distinct architecture, crafts, and art are presented in the various folk museums, typically based on an ethnological perspective. Norsk Folkemuseum at Bygdøy in Oslo is the largest of these, Norway is a very popular attraction for winter sports. Some of the most popular skiing resorts are, Trysil Hemsedal Hafjell Beitostølen etc, the Norwegian highway system covers more than 90,000 kilometres, of which about 67,000 are paved. The highway system includes ferry transit across waterways, numerous bridges and tunnels, some of these mountain passes are closed during the winter months, and some may close during winter storms. With the opening of the Oresund Bridge and the Great Belt Fixed Link, Norway is connected to the European continent by a highway connection through Sweden. The 4,058 kilometres long rail network connects most of the cities south of Bodø. The Norwegian rail network is connected to the Swedish network. Oslo Airport, Gardermoen is the most important airport in Norway, most cities and towns have nearby airports, and some of the largest also have international flights. The cruise ferry Hurtigruten connects the cities on the coast between Bergen and Kirkenes, in the summer, the coastal cities are visited by numerous foreign cruise ships, Bergen being the main cruise port. As of 2008, Norway ranks 17th in the World Economic Forums Travel, innovation Norway, a state-owned promotion company which is also in charge of tourism affairs, makes annual reports on the countrys most visited tourist attractions, both cultural and natural. The 2007 report lists 50 cultural and 20 natural attractions, in January 2009, the National Building Museum presented the exhibition Detour, Architecture and Design along 18 National Tourist Routes in Norway. The exhibition, which was created in collaboration with the Norwegian Embassy, was available for view until May 2009, World Heritage Sites in Norway Norwegian Mountain Touring Association List of museums in Norway Scandinavian Mountains Airport VisitNorway. com
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Norwegian diaspora
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The Norwegian diaspora consists of Norwegian emigrants and their descendants, especially those that became Norwegian Americans. Emigrants also became Norwegian Canadians, Norwegian Australians, Norwegian New Zealanders, Norwegian Brazilians, Kola Norwegians, norsemen left the area that is now the modern state of Norway during the Viking Era expansion, with results including the settlement of Iceland and the conquest of Normandy. In the 1500s and 1600s there was a small scattering out of Norwegian people, the 19th century wave of Norwegian emigration began in 1825. The Midwestern United States, especially the states of Wisconsin and Minnesota, was the destination of most people who left Norway, the first modern Norwegian-American settlement in Minnesota was at Norwegian Ridge, in what is now Spring Grove, Minnesota. Early emigrant communities in the United States were a market for books written in Norwegian principally from the 1890s to 1930s. Torbjørg Lie, a writer for the Decorah-Posten, imagined her readers not so much adopting a new country as living in a diaspora. Meanwhile, newspapers in Norway were also eager to publish letters that recent emigrants had written home, according to scholar Daniel Judah Elazar, It was the Norwegian diaspora in the United States which initiated the separation of Norway from Sweden, which led to Norwegian independence in 1905. The Norwegian-American community overwhelmingly favored independence of Norway from Sweden, one petition from Chicagos Norwegian-American community bore 20,000 signatures. President Theodore Roosevelt did not change his stance, however, as of 2006 there are over 5,000,000 Norwegian Americans. In Canada in a 2006 survey,432,515 people reported Norwegian ancestry,55,475 Americans spoke Norwegian at home as of 2000, and the American Community Survey in 2005 showed that 39,524 people use the language at home. The Sons of Norway, originally a small fraternal benefit organization, now has more than 60,000 members in America and it is dedicated to promoting Norwegian culture and traditions. The Vesterheim Norwegian-American Museum in Decorah, Iowa, is the oldest and most comprehensive museum in the United States devoted to a single immigrant ethnic group. It was founded in 1877 in association with nearby Luther College, King Harald V of Norway was present in October 2012 for the celebration of Luther Colleges sequicentennial. Self-identified Norwegians, whether in Norway or elsewhere, celebrate Syttende Mai on May 17 as Norwegian Constitution Day and they may hold a childrens parade, wear traditional clothing, or display ribbons of red, white, and blue. Norwegians in Sweden maintain their own Norwegian band Det Norske Korps for these celebrations, members of the Norwegian emigrant community in the United States took a special pride in Norway hosting the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer. Sons of Norway List of US Communities where Norwegian is spoken Norse colonization of the Americas Scandinavian migration to the United Kingdom Scandinavian diaspora
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Norwegian Australian
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Norwegian Australians are Australian citizens of Norwegian ancestry. The majority of people were part of the Norwegian diaspora. An organised European immigration to Australia was initiated in 1788, most of the early emigrants were deported from Britain to the Penal Colony. The most famous was probably Knud Geelmuyden Bull, from Bergen, organised emigration began with a single person in 1867, two the next year and 15 emigrants in 1869. There was a strong growth, with 50 in 1870,221 in 1871,784 in 1872,354 in 1873,36 in 1874,76 in 1875 and 42 in 1876. In 1880, a further 595 Norwegians emigrated to Australia, in 2008,800 people celebrated the Norwegian Constitution Day in Brisbane. The 17 May celebrations in Brisbane have in recent years been considered to be the largest celebration of the Norwegian national day in the southern hemisphere, Australia is one of the most popular countries for Norwegian students. Half of the Norwegian students in Australia and New Zealand are members of ANSA — the Association of Norwegian Students Abroad, the Norwegian Embassy in Canberra cooperates closely with ANSA Australia, and has for instance its own column in ANSA Australias magazine ANZA. The Archer brothers Eidsvold, Queensland, after Eidsvoll, Norway
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Scandinavian Brazilian
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Scandinavian Brazilians refers to Brazilians of full or partial Scandinavian ancestry, or Scandinavian-born people residing in Brazil. The Scandinavian settlement in Brazil began in the mid to late 19th century and was predominant then, many Scandinavians came to Brazil for economic reasons and to start a new life. In recent years, many Norwegians and Swedes have migrated to the zone of the State of Rio Grande do Norte and Ceará, attracted by the beaches. In 1768, the scientist Daniel Solander, disciple of Carl von Linné, was the first known Swede to arrive in Brazil. The relations between Brazil and Sweden were rooted in the ties between the Brazilian and Swedish royal families, and in the Swedish emigration to Brazil at the end of the 19th century. The wife of King Oscar I of Sweden and Norway, Queen Josephine, was a sister to Empress Amelia, diplomatic relations between Brazil and Sweden were established in 1826. In the Riddarholmen Church in Stockholm, where many Swedish royals are buried, there are commemorative plaques of Emperors Pedro I, diplomatic relations between Brazil and Sweden were established in 1826. The first Swedish emigrants arrived in Brazil in 1890, and in 1909 the first sea line between the two countries was initiated, mass emigration from Norway started circa 1865–1866, after the civil war was over. Several ship-owners saw the opportunity to earn money by transporting migrants to the New World. United States, Canada and Brazil received many Norwegians, in Curitiba, one of the first Scandinavian of note to arrive was Alfredo Andersen, an artist who arrived towards the end of the 19th century and painted well into the 1930s. The Museu Alfredo Andersen contains much of his work, located in Paraná, in addition, Icelandic immigrants settled there in 1863 and again in 1873. Examples of this immigration is the Karlson House in Guarani das Missões, the Svenska Kulturhuset in the district of Linha Jansen, Swedish cultural groups include the Ovenska Danser ballet of Ijuí, RS and the Ballet Patrícia Johnson of Bento Gonçalves, RS. In April 2010, the City of Nova Roma, RS celebrated the 120th anniversary of the Swedish immigration to the city. Earlier, in 1991, the city of Ijui, RS celebrated the immigration of the Scandinavians to their city with the opening of a Swedish Cultural Center in the city. There was also significant immigration of Swedish and Danish citizens to São João da Boa Vista, in the 1920s, Danish immigrants in rural parts of Aiuruoca laid the foundation for the modern Brazilian cheese production. The Scandinavian Church in Brazil is a part of The Swedish Church Abroad - which belongs to The Swedish Church and they offer services for Scandinavians or persons with Scandinavian related interests. They have churches in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, the Norwegian Church Abroad or The Norwegian Seamen’s Church is located in Rio de Janeiro. The Norwegian Church Abroad or The Norwegian Seamens Church is an organisation serving Norwegians
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Norwegian Canadians
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Norwegian Canadians refer to Canadian citizens who identify themselves as being of full or partial Norwegian ancestry, or people who emigrated from Norway and reside in Canada. Norwegians are one of the largest European ethnic groups in the country and have contributed greatly to its culture, there are approximately 1.2 million Canadians of Scandinavian descent living in Canada, representing around 3. 9% of Canada’s population. According to the Canada 2011 Census there were 452,705 Canadians who claimed Norwegian ancestry, significant Norwegian immigration took place from the mid-1880s to 1930. Norwegians have played important roles in the history of Canada, Snorri Thorfinnsson aka Snorri Guðriðsson, the son of Thorfinn Karlsefni and his wife Guđriđ, is thought to be the first white baby born in Canada and North America. Although this proved conclusively the Vikings pre-Columbian discovery of North America, there is a consensus among scholars that the Vikings did reach North America, approximately five centuries prior to the voyages of Christopher Columbus. The main sources of information about the Norse voyages to Vinland are two Icelandic sagas, The Saga of Eric the Red and the Saga of the Greenlanders and these stories were preserved by oral tradition until they were written down some 250 years after the events they describe. The existence of two versions of the shows some of the challenges of using traditional sources for history, because they share a large number of story elements. A brief summary of the plots of the two sagas shows many more examples, the major reason for Norwegian migration appears to be one of economics. Farms in Norway were often small and unable to support a family, added to that was the lack of other employment to augment the family income. Between 1850 and 1910 approximately 681,011 Norwegians made their way to North America, very few originally stayed in Canada but some, after a stay in the American Midwest, made their way across the border and settled in the present provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. One of the earliest Norwegian parties to America in the nineteenth century sailed from Stavanger on July 4,1825 and this party was led by Kleng Pedersen. The ship, Restauration, of 45 tons, master being Helland, was a sloop carrying 52 passengers. To that number was added baby Larson, who was born on the voyage, many of this party were Quakers, leaving Norway for religious reasons. The voyage took 97 days and they arrived in New York on October 9,1825, in 1836 the Norden and Den Norske Klippe sailed to America with 167 passengers. Another two vessels sailed the following year, the British Government repealed the navigation laws in 1849 and from 1850 on, Canada became the port of choice as Norwegian ships carried passengers to Canada and took lumber back to Britain. The Canadian route offered many advantages to the emigrant and they moved on from Quebec by rail and by steamer for another thousand or more miles for a steerage fare of slightly less than $9.00. In 1855 there were eight vessels reported from Norway to Canada in the immigration report, the following year,14 vessels made the voyage averaging 54 days, and carrying 2,821 passengers. One of these vessels, the Orion from Stavanger, was said to carry 50 paupers all heading for the American West but, the passengers of the Gifion, all proceeded to Wisconsin
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Icelandic Commonwealth
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With the probable exception of Papar, Iceland was an uninhabited island until around 870. The medieval Icelandic state had a unique judicial structure, the first settlers of Iceland were greatly influenced by their Norwegian roots when creating their own form of government. The most powerful and elite leaders in Iceland were the chieftains, the office of the goði was called the goðorð. The goðorð was not delimited by strict geographical boundaries, thus, a free man could choose to support any of the goðar of his district. The supporters of the goðar were called Þingmenn, in exchange for the goði protecting his interests, the Þingmaðr would provide armed support to his goði during feuds or conflicts. The Þingmenn were also required to attend regional and national assemblies, on a regional level, the goðar of the thirteen district assemblies convened meetings every spring to settle local disputes. The goðar also served as the leaders of the Alþingi, the assembly of Iceland. Today, the Alþingi is the oldest parliamentary institution in existence and it began with the regional assembly at Kjalarness established by Þorsteinn Ingólfsson, son of the first settler. The leaders of the Kjalarnessþing appointed a man named Úlfljótr to study the laws in Norway and he spent three years in Norway and returned with the foundation of Úlfljótr’s Law, which would form the basis for Icelands national assembly. Sections of his law code are preserved in the Landnámabók, the first Alþingi assembly convened around the year 930 at Þingvellir. The Alþingi served as a gathering at which people from all over the country met for two weeks every June. The Alþingi revolved around the Lögrétta, the council of the assembly. The Lögrétta comprised the 39 goðar and their advisors and they also appointed a Lawspeaker once every three years. The Lawspeaker recited and clarified laws at Lögberg, located at the center of Þingvellir, the descendants of Ingólfr Arnarson, the first settler of Iceland, held the ceremonial position of allsherjargoði and had the role of sanctifying the Alþingi each year. Iceland was divided into four administrative regions called fjörðungar, each of these was ruled by nine goðar. The Alþingi was made up of the four Quarter Courts and this judicial body of Iceland consisted of 36 judges, each appointed by one of the goðar. These courts tried individual cases and served as a judicial authority to the regional courts. The rulings of the judges had to be virtually unanimous
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Norwegian New Zealander
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Norwegian New Zealanders are New Zealanders of Norwegian ancestry, the majority of whom are part of the Norwegian diaspora. Two Norwegian settlements were established in New Zealand, one in Norsewood, the emigrants arrived there from 1868. In 1878 the number of Norwegian-born was said to be 1,213, Norsewood in New Zealands Seventy Mile Bush started as a Norwegian settlement in 1872. In 1881 New Zealand had 1,271 Norway-born residents, in 1901 there were 1,279, New Zealand and Australia are two of the most popular countries for Norwegian students. There are currently about 200 Norwegians studying in New Zealand, there are also some 2,500 Norwegian students in Australia. Half of the Norwegian students in New Zealand and Australia are members of ANSA - the Association of Norwegian Students Abroad, russell Crowe Teremoana Tapi Taio New Zealand–Norway relations
Norway
Nordic Council
Norwegian Phrasebook travel guide from Wikivoyage
Fiske, Willard (1879). "Norway, Language and Literature of". The American Cyclopædia.
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