1.
Pierre Restany
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Pierre Restany, was an internationally known French art critic and cultural philosopher. Restany was born in Amélie-les-Bains-Palalda, Pyrénées-Orientales, and spent his childhood in Casablanca, on returning to France in 1949 he attended the Lycée Henri-IV before studying at universities in France, Italy and Ireland. From their first meeting in 1955, Restany maintained a strong tie with Yves Klein, in 1960 Pierre Restany created the idea and coined the term Nouveau Réalisme with Yves Klein during a group show in the Apollinaire gallery in Milan. It was an idea that united a group of French and Italian artists, Nouveau Realisme was the European answer to the American Neo-Dada of Fluxus and Pop Art. Restany defined this group of artists as sharing new perceptual approaches to reality, the first exhibition of the Nouveaux réalistes took place in November 1960 at the Paris Festival davant-garde. Their work was an attempt at reassessing the concept of art, from 1963 onwards, Restany edited the art and architectural magazine Domus and divided his time between Montparnasse, Paris and Milan, Italy. In the early 1970s he took interest in the work of the Sociological art collective, in 1982 he co-founded Domus Academy, the first postgraduate design school. From the early 1990s up to his death, Restany took a keen and growing interest in working in the areas of computer art, new media art, digital art. In 1992, he was director of the group show Art & Tabac, in Rome, Vienna, Pierre Restany died in Paris in 2003 and is buried in the Montparnasse Cemetery. Décollage Ultra-Lettrist César Mimmo Rotella Niki de Saint Phalle Christo Yves Klein Carlos Ginzburg Laurence Gartel Pierre Restany, manifeste des Nouveaux Réalistes, Editions Dilecta, Paris,2007. Voyages de Ginzburg, Editions Julien Blaine, Paris, France,1980, la vie este belle, n’est-ce-pas, cher Vostell. Wolf Vostell, Galerie Lavignes Bastille, Paris,1990
2.
Yves Klein
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Yves Klein was a French artist considered an important figure in post-war European art. He is the member of the French artistic movement of Nouveau réalisme founded in 1960 by art critic Pierre Restany. Klein was a pioneer in the development of art, and is seen as an inspiration to. Klein was born in Nice, in the Alpes-Maritimes department of France and his parents, Fred Klein and Marie Raymond, were both painters. From 1942 to 1946, Klein studied at the École Nationale de la Marine Marchande, at this time, he became friends with Arman and Claude Pascal and started to paint. During the years 1948 to 1952, he traveled to Italy, Great Britain, Spain, and Japan. In Japan, at the age of 25, he became a master at judo receiving the rank of yodan from the Kodokan and he also stayed in Japan in 1953. Klein later wrote a book on judo called Les Fondements du judo, in 1954, Klein settled permanently in Paris and began in earnest to establish himself in the art world. Parodying a traditional Catalogue raisonné, the featured a series of intense monochromes linked to various cities he had lived in during the previous years. Yves Peintures anticipated his first two shows of oil paintings, at the Club des Solitaires, Paris, October 1955 and Yves, Proposition monochromes at Gallery Colette Allendy, February 1956. From the reactions of the audience, realized that. viewers thought his various, uniformly colored canvases amounted to a new kind of bright, abstract interior decoration. Discovered with the help of Edouard Adam, a Parisian paint dealer, the optical effect retained the brilliance of the pigment which, Klein later deposited a Soleau envelope for this recipe to maintain the authenticity of the pure idea. This colour, reminiscent of the lapis lazuli used to paint the Madonnas robes in medieval paintings, was to become known as International Klein Blue, the paintings were attached to poles placed 20 cm away from the walls to increase their spatial ambiguities. The show was a critical and commercial success, traveling to Paris, Düsseldorf, the Parisian exhibition, at the Iris Clert Gallery in May 1957, became a seminal happening. To mark the opening,1001 blue balloons were released and blue postcards were sent out using IKB stamps that Klein had bribed the postal service to accept as legitimate, concurrently, an exhibition of tubs of blue pigment and fire paintings was held at Galerie Collette Allendy. Thanks to a publicity drive,3,000 people queued up. The art historian Olivier Berggruen situates Klein as one who strove for total liberation, Klein had studied judo in Japan between 1952 and 1954, and also displayed an interest in Zen Buddhism. Recently my work with color has led me, in spite of myself, to search little by little, with assistance, for the realization of matter
3.
Milan
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Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
4.
Arman
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Arman was a French-born American artist. Born Armand Fernandez in Nice, France, Arman was a painter who moved from using objects for the ink or paint traces they leave to using them as the painting itself and he is best known for his accumulations and destruction/recomposition of objects. Armans father, Antonio Fernandez, a dealer from Nice, was also an amateur artist, photographer. From his father, Arman learned oil painting and photography, after receiving his bachelors degree in philosophy and mathematics in 1946, Arman began studying at the École Nationale des Arts Décoratifs in Nice. He also started judo at a school in Nice where he met Yves Klein. The trio bonded closely on a subsequent hitch-hiking tour around Europe, completing his studies in 1949, Arman enrolled as a student at the École du Louvre in Paris, where he concentrated on the study of archaeology and oriental art. In 1951, he became a teacher at the Bushido Kai Judo Club in Madrid, during this time he also served in the French military, completing his tour of duty as a medical orderly during the Indo-China War. Early on, it was apparent that Armans concept of the accumulation of vast quantities of the objects was to remain a significant component of his art. Ironically, he had focused more attention on his abstract paintings. Only when he witnessed viewer reaction to his first accumulation in 1959 did he fully recognize the power of such art, in 1962, he began welding together accumulations of the same kinds of metal objects, such as axes. Inspired by an exhibition for the German Dadaist Kurt Schwitters in 1954, Arman began working on Cachets, at his third solo exhibition held in Pariss Galerie Iris Clert in 1958, Arman showed some of his first 2D accumulations he called cachets. These stamps on paper and fabric proved a success and provided an important change of course for the artists career. At the time, he was signing with his first name as an homage to Van Gogh, and, thus, in 1957, Arman chose to change his name from Armand to Arman. On January 31,1973, upon becoming a citizen of the United States, he took the American civil name, nevertheless, he continued to use Arman as his public persona. From 1959 to 1962, Arman developed his most recognizable style, accumulations were collections of common and identical objects which he arranged in polyester castings or within Plexiglas cases. His first welded accumulations were created in 1962, the Poubelles were collections of strewn refuse. In 1960, he filled the Galerie Iris Clert in Paris with garbage and these works began to garner the attention of the European art community. Joined later by Cesar, Mimmo Rotella, Niki de Saint Phalle, and Christo and they were reassessing the concept of art and the artist for a 20th-century consumer society by reasserting the humanistic ideals in the face of industrial expansion
5.
Daniel Spoerri
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Daniel Spoerri is a Swiss artist and writer born in Romania. Spoerri was born Daniel Isaac Feinstein, on 27 March 1930, in Galați, although his father, Isaac Feinstein, had converted to Christianity, after Romania entered the War on the side of Nazi Germany he was arrested and killed in 1941. His mother, born Lydia Spoerri, was Swiss and was able to emigrate with her family of 6 children to Switzerland in 1942. There, he was adopted by his maternal uncle Professor Theophil Spoerri and registered as Daniel Spoerri, in the 1950s he was active in dance, studying classical dance with Olga Preobrajenska and in 1954 becoming the lead dancer at the State Opera of Bern, Switzerland. He later staged several plays including Ionescos The Bald Soprano. In the late 1950s, Spoerri married Vera Mertz, one of the best known works produced by Editions MAT was Man Rays Indestructible Object. Spoerri is credited with coining the term multiples for such works, in 1960, Spoerri made his first snare-picture. Spoerri later explained snare-pictures as follows, objects found in chance positions, only the plane is changed, since the result is called a picture, what was horizontal becomes vertical. Example, remains of a meal are fixed to the table at which the meal was consumed and his first snare-picture, Kichkas Breakfast was created from his girlfriends leftover breakfast. The piece is now in the collection in the Museum of Modern Art in New York, one snare-picture, made in 1964, consists of the remains of a meal eaten by Marcel Duchamp. This work holds the auction record for Spoerri, selling for €136,312 in January 2008, distantly followed by another snare-picture from 1972. In connection with a show of his snare-pictures at the Galerie Lawrence in Paris in 1962. Spoerri was then living at the Hotel Carcassone in Paris, in room number 13 on the fifth floor, to the right of the entrance door was a table which his wife Vera had painted blue. Spoerri drew on a ‘map the overlapping outlines of all the 80 objects that were lying on the table on 17 October 1961 at exactly 3,47 p. m. Each object was assigned a number and Spoerri wrote a description of each object. The descriptions cross referenced other objects on the table which were related, the Topographie Anécdotée* du Hasard was printed as a small pamphlet of 53 pages plus a fold out map and index and was distributed as an advertisement for the exhibit. The Anecdoted Topography of Chance has been called a tour de force. In 1966, the Something Else Press in New York City published an English translation of the Topographie Anécdotée* du Hasard by Emmett Williams, roland Topor added sketches of each object and additional annotations were added at random by Williams and others and by Spoerri himself
6.
Jean Tinguely
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Jean Tinguely was a Swiss painter and sculptor. He is best known for his sculptural machines or kinetic art, in the Dada tradition, Tinguelys art satirized the mindless overproduction of material goods in advanced industrial society. Born in Fribourg, Tinguely grew up in Basel, but moved to France in 1952 with his first wife, Swiss artist Eva Aeppli and he belonged to the Parisian avantgarde in the mid-twentieth century and was one of the artists who signed the New Realists manifesto in 1960. 2, detonated successfully in front of an audience gathered in the desert outside Las Vegas, Tinguely married fellow Swiss artist Eva Aeppli in 1951. In 1971, Tinguely married his wife, Niki de Saint Phalle with whom he collaborated on several artistic projects such as the Hon-en-Katedrall or The Cyclop. Jean Tinguely died in 1991 at the age of 66 years in the Bern Hospital after a heart illness, chaos I, sculpture in The Commons, Columbus, Indiana, USA Le Cyclop outside of Milly-la-Forêt. The Stravinsky Fountain near the Centre Pompidou, Paris, a collaboration with Niki de Saint Phalle, the exhibition consisted of a sculpture of a colorful pregnant woman lying on her back with her legs wide apart. The sculpture was 25–26 meters long, about 6 meters high and 11 meters wide and it was built of scaffolding and chicken wire covered with fabric and fiberglass, painted with brightly-coloured poster paint. Through a door-sized entry in the location of the womans vagina, inside was a screen showing Greta Garbo films, a goldfish pond and a soft drink vending machine. Johann Sebastian Bachs organ music played through speakers, the exhibition was created by Niki de Saint-Phalle, Tinguely and Per Olof Ultvedt. It had 80,000 visitors during the period from June 4 to September 9,1966. in ‘Meridians 2_ compmqenan ate a pie 2001 ‘Relief Meta-Mechanique Sonore I’ incl. New Realism Rube Goldberg—Conceptual pioneer of complex machinery Useless machine Arthur Ganson Museum Tinguely in Basel Chapter on Tinguely in Calvin Tomkins The Bride. K. G. Pontus Hultén, Jean Tinguely Méta, london, Thames & Hudson,1975 G. Bischofsberger, Catalogue raisonné,3 Vols. Margit Hahnloser-Ingold, Pandämonium – Jean Tinguely, Bern, Benteli,1988 Heidi E. Violand, Jean Tinguelys Kinetic Art or A Myth of the Machine Age. Diss, New York University,1990 Museum Jean Tinguely, Die Sammlung, Bern, Benteli,1996 Museum Jean Tinguely, Jean le Jeune. Tinguely-Museum in Basel Biography by the Tinguely Museum in Basel Art Cyclopaedia, Jean Tinguely http, //www. art-public. com/cyclop/cyclop_g
7.
Niki de Saint Phalle
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Niki de Saint Phalle was a French sculptor, painter, and filmmaker. She was one of the few women artists known for monumental sculpture. Niki de Saint Phalle was born on October 29,1930 in Neuilly-sur-Seine, Hauts-de-Seine and her father was Count André-Marie Fal de Saint Phalle, a French banker, and her mother was an American, named Jeanne Jacqueline Harper. She was the second of five children, and her double first cousin was French novelist Thérèse de Saint Phalle and her birth was one year after Black Tuesday, and the French economy was also suffering in the aftermath of the infamous stock market crash that initiated the Great Depression. Within months, her fathers company closed, and her parents moved with her oldest brother to New York City. Niki was left with her grandparents in Nièvre, around 1933, she rejoined her parents in New York, where her father worked as manager of the American branch of the Saint Phalle familys bank. Niki grew up in a strict Catholic environment, which she would later reject and her mother was temperamental and violent, beating the younger children, and forcing them to eat even if they were not hungry. Both Elizabeth and Richard de Saint Phalle, younger siblings, would commit suicide as adults. Decades later, Niki would reveal that she had suffered years of abuse from her father. Saint Phalle returned frequently to France to visit relatives and she studied at the Brearley School in New York City from 1942-1944, but was dismissed for painting red fig leaves on the schools classical statuary. Despite this, she would say it was there “ I became a feminist. They inculcated in us that women can and must accomplish great things. ”She was then enrolled in a convent school in Suffern, New York, and then Oldfields School in Glencoe, Maryland, where she graduated in 1947. During her late years, Saint Phalle became a fashion model, at the age of 18, she appeared on the cover of Life and. At the age of 18, Saint Phalle married writer Harry Mathews, although her parents accepted the union, her husbands family objected to her Catholic background, and cut them off financially. Mathews served briefly in the Navy, and then moved to Cambridge. Saint Phalle began to paint, but aimed to pursue a career in acting and their first child, Laura, was born in April 1951. The new parents were casual, even negligent, but their children would benefit from better financial circumstances after Mathews received an inheritance, Saint Phalle rejected the staid, conservative values of her family, which dictated domestic positions for wives and particular rules of conduct. Poet John Ashbery recalled that Saint Phalles artistic pursuits were rejected by members of Saint Phalle clan, reportedly takes a dim view of her artistic activities, Ashbery observed
8.
Christo and Jeanne-Claude
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Christo Vladimirov Javacheff and Jeanne-Claude were a married couple who created environmental works of art. Christo and Jeanne-Claude were born on the day, June 13,1935, Christo in Gabrovo, Bulgaria. They first met in Paris in October 1958 when Christo painted a portrait of Jeanne-Claudes mother and they then fell in love through creating art work together. Credit was given to Christo only, until 1994, when the works and large indoor installations were retroactively credited to Christo. They flew in separate planes, in case one crashed, the other could continue their work, Jeanne-Claude died, aged 74, on November 18,2009, from complications of a brain aneurysm. The purpose of their art, they contend, is simply to create works of art for joy and beauty, Art critic David Bourdon has described Christos wrappings as a revelation through concealment. To his critics Christo replies, I am an artist, and I have to have courage, do you know that I dont have any artworks that exist. They all go away when theyre finished, only the preparatory drawings, and collages are left, giving my works an almost legendary character. I think it takes much greater courage to create things to be gone than to things that will remain. Christo was born in Gabrovo, Bulgaria and his father, Vladimir Javacheff, was a businessman and ran a fabric factory, and his mother, Tsveta Dimitrova, was the secretary at the Academy of Fine Arts in Sofia. Professors from the Academy who visited his family observed Christos artistic talent while he was still of a young age. Christo quickly settled in Vienna and enrolled at the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts, after only one semester there, he traveled to Geneva and moved to Paris in 1958. His life in Paris was characterized by hardship and social isolation. He earned money by painting portraits, which he likened to prostitution, in 1973, after 17 stateless years, Christo became a United States citizen. Jeanne-Claude was born in Casablanca, Morocco, where her French military father was stationed and her mother, Précilda, was 17 when she married Jeanne-Claudes father, Major Léon Denat. Précilda and Léon Denat divorced shortly after Jeanne-Claude was born, Jeanne-Claude earned a baccalauréat in Latin and philosophy in 1952 from the University of Tunis. During World War II, Jeanne-Claude lived with her fathers family while her mother fought in the French Resistance, in 1946, Précilda married the influential General Jacques de Guillebon. The family lived in Berne from 1948 to 1951, then in Tunisia from 1952 to 1957 and she was described as extroverted and with natural organizational abilities
9.
Pop art
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Pop art is an art movement that emerged in the mid-1950s in Britain and the late 1950s in the United States. Pop art presented a challenge to traditions of art by including imagery from popular culture such as advertising. In pop art, material is sometimes removed from its known context, isolated. Pop art employs aspects of culture, such as advertising, comic books. One of its aims is to use images of popular culture in art, emphasizing the banal or kitschy elements of any culture and it is also associated with the artists use of mechanical means of reproduction or rendering techniques. Pop art is interpreted as a reaction to the then-dominant ideas of abstract expressionism. Due to its utilization of found objects and images, it is similar to Dada, Pop art and minimalism are considered to be art movements that precede postmodern art, or are some of the earliest examples of postmodern art themselves. Pop art often takes imagery that is currently in use in advertising, product labeling and logos figure prominently in the imagery chosen by pop artists, seen in the labels of Campbells Soup Cans, by Andy Warhol. Even the labeling on the outside of a box containing food items for retail has been used as subject matter in pop art. The origins of pop art in North America developed differently from Great Britain, in the United States, pop art was a response by artists, it marked a return to hard-edged composition and representational art. They used impersonal, mundane reality, irony, and parody to defuse the personal symbolism, in the U. S. some artwork by Larry Rivers, Alex Katz and Man Ray anticipated pop art. By contrast, the origins of pop art in post-War Britain, while employing irony, early pop art in Britain was a matter of ideas fueled by American popular culture when viewed from afar. Similarly, pop art was both an extension and a repudiation of Dadaism, among those artists in Europe seen as producing work leading up to pop art are, Pablo Picasso, Marcel Duchamp, and Kurt Schwitters. During the 1920s, American artists Gerald Murphy, Charles Demuth and Stuart Davis created paintings that contained pop culture imagery, the Independent Group, founded in London in 1952, is regarded as the precursor to the pop art movement. They were a gathering of young painters, sculptors, architects, writers and their group discussions centered on pop culture implications from elements such as mass advertising, movies, product design, comic strips, science fiction and technology. This material of found objects such as advertising, comic characters, magazine covers. One of the collages in that presentation was Paolozzis I was a Rich Mans Plaything, following Paolozzis seminal presentation in 1952, the IG focused primarily on the imagery of American popular culture, particularly mass advertising. Nevertheless, Alloway was one of the critics to defend the inclusion of the imagery of mass culture in the fine arts
10.
Fluxus
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Fluxus is an international and interdisciplinary group of artists, composers, designers and poets that took shape in the 1960s and 1970s. Dutch gallerist and art critic Harry Ruhé describes Fluxus as the most radical and experimental art movement of the sixties, Fluxus is known for experimental contributions to different artistic media and disciplines. Fluxus is also known for generating art forms that were new when Fluxus artists created them, Fluxus participants included artists, composers, designers, and architects, as well as economists, mathematicians, ballet dancers, chefs, and even a would-be theologian. Equally significant, they represented nations on three continents – Asia, Europe, and North America, many Fluxus artists share an anti-commercial and anti-art sensibility. Fluxus is sometimes described as intermedia, the process of creating was privileged over the finished product. Another influence was the readymades of Marcel Duchamp, a French artist who was active in Dada, George Maciunas, a co-founder of this fluid movement, coined the name Fluxus in 1961 to title a proposed magazine. The broad and varied nature of the involved in Fluxus involved a community of friends who worked together. They had different ideas about art and the role of art in society, the overlapping communities within Fluxus and the way that Fluxus developed in overlapping stages meant that participants had very different ideas about what Fluxus was. One Fluxus co-founder – George Maciunas – proposed a well known manifesto, but none of the artists agreed with it. Instead, a series of festivals in Wiesbaden, Copenhagen, Stockholm, Amsterdam, and New York, gave rise to a loose but robust community. In keeping with the reputation Fluxus earned as a forum of experimentation, Fluxus played an important role in the opening up of definitions of art. The origins of Fluxus lie in many of the concepts explored by composer John Cage in his music of the 1930s through the 1960s. After attending courses on Zen Buddhism taught by D. T, a major influence is found in the work of Marcel Duchamp. Also of importance was Dada Poets and Painters, edited by Robert Motherwell, the term anti-art, a precursor to Dada, was coined by Duchamp around 1913, when he created his first readymades from found objects. Indifferently chosen, readymades and altered readymades challenged the notion of art as an inherently optical experience, the most famous example is Duchamps infamous altered readymade Fountain, a work which he signed R. Mutt. While taking refuge from WWI in New York, in 1915 Duchamp formed a Dada group with Francis Picabia, Other key members included Arthur Craven, Florine Stettheimer, and the Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, credited by some with proposing the idea for Fountain to Duchamp. By 1916 these artists, especially Duchamp, Man Ray, and their artworks would inform Fluxus and conceptual art in general. A number of contemporary events are credited as either anticipating Fluxus
11.
Avant-garde
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The avant-garde are people or works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox, with respect to art, culture, and society. It may be characterized by nontraditional, aesthetic innovation and initial unacceptability, the avant-garde pushes the boundaries of what is accepted as the norm or the status quo, primarily in the cultural realm. The avant-garde is considered by some to be a hallmark of modernism, the avant-garde also promotes radical social reforms. Several writers have attempted, with limited success, to map the parameters of avant-garde activity, the Italian essayist Renato Poggioli provides one of the best-known analyses of vanguardism as a cultural phenomenon in his 1962 book Teoria dellarte davanguardia. Other authors have attempted both to clarify and to extend Poggiolis study, bürgers essay also greatly influenced the work of contemporary American art-historians such as the German Benjamin H. D. Buchloh. Buchloh, in the collection of essays Neo-avantgarde and Culture Industry critically argues for an approach to these positions. Subsequent criticism theorized the limitations of these approaches, noting their circumscribed areas of analysis, including Eurocentric, chauvinist, and genre-specific definitions. The concept of avant-garde refers primarily to artists, writers, composers and thinkers whose work is opposed to cultural values. For Greenberg, these forms were therefore kitsch, phony, faked or mechanical culture, for instance, during the 1930s the advertising industry was quick to take visual mannerisms from surrealism, but this does not mean that 1930s advertising photographs are truly surreal. In this way the autonomous artistic merit so dear to the vanguardist was abandoned and sales became the measure. It has become common to describe successful rock musicians and celebrated film-makers as avant-garde, nevertheless, an incisive critique of vanguardism as against the views of mainstream society was offered by the New York critic Harold Rosenberg in the late 1960s. Since then it has been flanked by what he called avant-garde ghosts to the one side, and this has seen culture become, in his words, a profession one of whose aspects is the pretense of overthrowing it. Avant-garde in music can refer to any form of working within traditional structures while seeking to breach boundaries in some manner. The term is used loosely to describe the work of any musicians who radically depart from tradition altogether, although most avant-garde composers have been men, this is not exclusively the case. Women avant-gardists include Pauline Oliveros, Diamanda Galás, Meredith Monk, there are movements in theatre history that are characterized by their contributions to the avant-garde traditions in both the United States and Europe. Among these are Fluxus, Happenings, and Neo-Dada, Avant-garde – Wikipedia book Barron, Stephanie, and Maurice Tuchman. The Avant-garde in Russia, 1910–1930, New Perspectives, Los Angeles County Museum of Art Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Los Angeles, CA, Los Angeles County Museum of Art ISBN 0-87587-095-3, Cambridge, MA, ISBN 0-671-20422-X Berg, Hubert van den, and Walter Fähnders
12.
Nice
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Nice is the fifth most populous city in France and the capital of the Alpes-Maritimes département. The urban area of Nice extends beyond the city limits. Nice is about 13 kilometres from the principality of Monaco, the city is nicknamed Nice la Belle, which means Nice the Beautiful, which is also the title of the unofficial anthem of Nice, written by Menica Rondelly in 1912. The area of todays Nice contains Terra Amata, a site which displays evidence of a very early use of fire. Around 350 BC, Greeks of Marseille founded a permanent settlement and called it Nikaia, after Nike, through the ages, the town has changed hands many times. Its strategic location and port significantly contributed to its maritime strength, for centuries it was a dominion of Savoy, and was then part of France between 1792 and 1815, when it was returned to Piedmont-Sardinia until its re-annexation by France in 1860. The citys main seaside promenade, the Promenade des Anglais owes its name to visitors to the resort, for decades now, the picturesque Nicean surroundings have attracted not only those in search of relaxation, but also those seeking inspiration. The clear air and soft light have particularly appealed to some of Western cultures most outstanding painters, such as Marc Chagall, Henri Matisse, Niki de Saint Phalle and Arman. Their work is commemorated in many of the museums, including Musée Marc Chagall, Musée Matisse. Nice has the second largest hotel capacity in the country and it is one of its most visited cities and it also has the third busiest airport in France, after the two main Parisian ones. It is the capital city of the County of Nice. Nice was probably founded around 350 BC by the Greeks of Massalia, the ruins of Cemenelum are in Cimiez, now a district of Nice. In the 7th century, Nice joined the Genoese League formed by the towns of Liguria. In 729 the city repulsed the Saracens, but in 859 and again in 880 the Saracens pillaged and burned it, during the Middle Ages, Nice participated in the wars and history of Italy. As an ally of Pisa it was the enemy of Genoa, during the 13th and 14th centuries the city fell more than once into the hands of the Counts of Provence, but it regained its independence even though related to Genoa. The medieval city walls surrounded the Old Town, the landward side was protected by the River Paillon, which was later covered over and is now the tram route towards the Acropolis. The east side of the town was protected by fortifications on Castle Hill, another river flowed into the port on the east side of Castle Hill. Engravings suggest that the area was also defended by walls
13.
French Riviera
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The Côte dAzur, often known in English as the French Riviera, is the Mediterranean coastline of the southeast corner of France, also including the sovereign state of Monaco. There is no boundary, but it is usually considered to extend from the Italian border in the east to Saint-Tropez, Hyères, Toulon. This coastline was one of the first modern resort areas and it began as a winter health resort for the British upper class at the end of the 18th century. In the summer, it played home to many members of the Rothschild family. After World War II, it became a popular tourist destination and convention site, many celebrities, such as Elton John and Brigitte Bardot, have homes in the region. Officially, the Côte dAzur is home to 163 nationalities with 83,962 foreign residents and its largest city is Nice, which has a population of 347,060. The city is the center of a communauté urbaine – Nice-Côte dAzur – bringing together 24 communes, Nice is home to Nice Côte dAzur Airport, Frances third-busiest airport, which is on an area of partially reclaimed coastal land at the western end of the Promenade des Anglais. A second airport at Mandelieu was once the commercial airport. The A8 autoroute runs through the region, as does the old main road known as the Route nationale 7. Trains serve the region and inland to Grasse, with the TGV Sud Est service reaching Nice-Ville station in five. The French Riviera has a population of more than two million. The region has 35,000 students, of whom 25 percent are working toward a doctorate, the French Riviera is a major yachting and cruising area with several marinas along its coast. As a tourist center, French Riviera benefits from 310 to 330 days of sunshine per year,115 kilometres of coastline, the name Côte dAzur was given to the coast by the writer Stéphen Liégeard in his book, La Côte d’azur, published in December 1887. Liégeard was born in Dijon, in the French department of Côte-dOr, the term French Riviera is typical of English use. It was built by analogy with the term Italian Riviera, which extends east of the French Riviera. As early as the 19th century, the British referred to the region as the Riviera or the French Riviera, usually referring to the part of the coast. Originally, riviera is an Italian noun which means coastline, in Occitan and French, the only usual names are Còsta dAzur in Occitan and Côte dAzur in French. A name like French Riviera is unusual and sounds odd, it could work as a word-to-word translation of the British point of view
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Dada
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Dada or Dadaism was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century, with early centers in Zürich, Switzerland at the Cabaret Voltaire, in New York, and after 1920, in Paris. The art of the movement spanned visual, literary, and sound media, including collage, sound poetry, cut-up writing, Dadaist artists expressed their discontent with violence, war, and nationalism, and maintained political affinities with the radical left. Others note that it suggests the first words of a child, evoking a childishness, still others speculate that the word might have been chosen to evoke a similar meaning in any language, reflecting the movements internationalism. The roots of Dada lay in pre-war avant-garde, the term anti-art, a precursor to Dada, was coined by Marcel Duchamp around 1913 to characterize works which challenge accepted definitions of art. Cubism and the development of collage and abstract art would inform the movements detachment from the constraints of reality, the work of French poets, Italian Futurists and the German Expressionists would influence Dadas rejection of the tight correlation between words and meaning. Works such as Ubu Roi by Alfred Jarry, and the ballet Parade by Erik Satie would also be characterized as proto-Dadaist works, the Dada movements principles were first collected in Hugo Balls Dada Manifesto in 1916. The movement influenced later styles like the avant-garde and downtown music movements, Dada was an informal international movement, with participants in Europe and North America. The beginnings of Dada correspond to the outbreak of World War I, avant-garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments. Futurism developed in response to the work of various artists, many Dadaists believed that the reason and logic of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war. They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos, for example, George Grosz later recalled that his Dadaist art was intended as a protest against this world of mutual destruction. According to Hans Richter Dada was not art, it was anti-art, Dada represented the opposite of everything which art stood for. Where art was concerned with aesthetics, Dada ignored aesthetics. If art was to appeal to sensibilities, Dada was intended to offend, as Hugo Ball expressed it, For us, art is not an end in itself. But it is an opportunity for the perception and criticism of the times we live in. A reviewer from the American Art News stated at the time that Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man. Art historians have described Dada as being, in large part, a systematic work of destruction and demoralization. In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege, to quote Dona Budds The Language of Art Knowledge, Dada was born out of negative reaction to the horrors of the First World War. This international movement was begun by a group of artists and poets associated with the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich, Dada rejected reason and logic, prizing nonsense, irrationality and intuition
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Niki de Saint-Phalle
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Niki de Saint Phalle was a French sculptor, painter, and filmmaker. She was one of the few women artists known for monumental sculpture. Niki de Saint Phalle was born on October 29,1930 in Neuilly-sur-Seine, Hauts-de-Seine and her father was Count André-Marie Fal de Saint Phalle, a French banker, and her mother was an American, named Jeanne Jacqueline Harper. She was the second of five children, and her double first cousin was French novelist Thérèse de Saint Phalle and her birth was one year after Black Tuesday, and the French economy was also suffering in the aftermath of the infamous stock market crash that initiated the Great Depression. Within months, her fathers company closed, and her parents moved with her oldest brother to New York City. Niki was left with her grandparents in Nièvre, around 1933, she rejoined her parents in New York, where her father worked as manager of the American branch of the Saint Phalle familys bank. Niki grew up in a strict Catholic environment, which she would later reject and her mother was temperamental and violent, beating the younger children, and forcing them to eat even if they were not hungry. Both Elizabeth and Richard de Saint Phalle, younger siblings, would commit suicide as adults. Decades later, Niki would reveal that she had suffered years of abuse from her father. Saint Phalle returned frequently to France to visit relatives and she studied at the Brearley School in New York City from 1942-1944, but was dismissed for painting red fig leaves on the schools classical statuary. Despite this, she would say it was there “ I became a feminist. They inculcated in us that women can and must accomplish great things. ”She was then enrolled in a convent school in Suffern, New York, and then Oldfields School in Glencoe, Maryland, where she graduated in 1947. During her late years, Saint Phalle became a fashion model, at the age of 18, she appeared on the cover of Life and. At the age of 18, Saint Phalle married writer Harry Mathews, although her parents accepted the union, her husbands family objected to her Catholic background, and cut them off financially. Mathews served briefly in the Navy, and then moved to Cambridge. Saint Phalle began to paint, but aimed to pursue a career in acting and their first child, Laura, was born in April 1951. The new parents were casual, even negligent, but their children would benefit from better financial circumstances after Mathews received an inheritance, Saint Phalle rejected the staid, conservative values of her family, which dictated domestic positions for wives and particular rules of conduct. Poet John Ashbery recalled that Saint Phalles artistic pursuits were rejected by members of Saint Phalle clan, reportedly takes a dim view of her artistic activities, Ashbery observed
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Appropriation (art)
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Appropriation in art is the use of pre-existing objects or images with little or no transformation applied to them. The use of appropriation has played a significant role in the history of the arts, in the visual arts, to appropriate means to properly adopt, borrow, recycle or sample aspects of human-made visual culture. Notable in this respect are the Readymades of Marcel Duchamp, inherent in our understanding of appropriation is the concept that the new work recontextualizes whatever it borrows to create the new work. In most cases the original thing remains accessible as the original, Appropriation has been defined as the taking over, into a work of art, of a real object or even an existing work of art. The Tate Gallery traces the practise back to Cubism and Dadaism and it returned to prominence in the 1980s with the Neo-Geo artists. In the early twentieth century Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque appropriated objects from a non-art context into their work, in 1912, Picasso pasted a piece of oil cloth onto the canvas. Subsequent compositions, such as Guitar, Newspaper, Glass and Bottle in which Picasso used newspaper clippings to create forms, the two artists incorporated aspects of the real world into their canvases, opening up discussion of signification and artistic representation. In 1917, Duchamp formally submitted a readymade into the Society of Independent Artists exhibition under the pseudonym, entitled Fountain, it consisted of a porcelain urinal that was propped atop a pedestal and signed R. Mutt 1917. The work posed a challenge to traditional perceptions of fine art, ownership, originality and plagiarism. Duchamp publicly defended Fountain, claiming whether Mr. Mutt with his own hands made the fountain or not has no importance. He took an ordinary article of life, placed it so that its useful significance disappeared under the new title, the Dada movement continued with the appropriation of everyday objects. Dada works featured deliberate irrationality and the rejection of the standards of art. Kurt Schwitters, who produced art at the time as the Dadaists. He constructed these from found objects, and they took the form of large constructions that later generations would call installations, the Surrealists, coming after the Dada movement, also incorporated the use of found objects such as Méret Oppenheims Object. These objects took on new meaning when combined with other unlikely, in 1938 Joseph Cornell produced what might be considered the first work of film appropriation in his randomly cut and reconstructed film Rose Hobart. In the 1950s Robert Rauschenberg used what he dubbed combines, literally combining readymade objects such as tires or beds, painting, silk-screens, collage, similarly, Jasper Johns, working at the same time as Rauschenberg, incorporated found objects into his work. The Fluxus art movement also utilised appropriation, its members blended different artistic disciplines including visual art, music, throughout the 1960s and 1970s they staged action events and produced sculptural works featuring unconventional materials. Along with artists such as Claes Oldenburg and Andy Warhol appropriated images from commercial art, often called pop artists, they saw mass popular culture as the main vernacular culture, shared by all irrespective of education
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Abstract art
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Abstract art uses a visual language of shape, form, color and line to create a composition which may exist with a degree of independence from visual references in the world. Western art had been, from the Renaissance up to the middle of the 19th century, underpinned by the logic of perspective, the arts of cultures other than the European had become accessible and showed alternative ways of describing visual experience to the artist. By the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to create a new kind of art which would encompass the fundamental changes taking place in technology, science and philosophy. The sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse, Abstract art, non-figurative art, non-objective art, and nonrepresentational art are loosely related terms. They are similar, but perhaps not of identical meaning, Abstraction indicates a departure from reality in depiction of imagery in art. This departure from accurate representation can be slight, partial, or complete, even art that aims for verisimilitude of the highest degree can be said to be abstract, at least theoretically, since perfect representation is likely to be exceedingly elusive. Artwork which takes liberties, altering for instance color and form in ways that are conspicuous, total abstraction bears no trace of any reference to anything recognizable. In geometric abstraction, for instance, one is unlikely to find references to naturalistic entities, Figurative art and total abstraction are almost mutually exclusive. But figurative and representational art often contains partial abstraction, both geometric abstraction and lyrical abstraction are often totally abstract. It is at level of visual meaning that abstract art communicates. One can enjoy the beauty of Chinese calligraphy or Islamic calligraphy without being able to read it, in Chinese painting, abstraction can be traced to the Tang dynasty painter Wang Mo, who is credited to have invented the splashed-ink painting style. While none of his paintings remain, this style is seen in some Song Dynasty Paintings. A late Song painter named Yu Jian, adept to Tiantai buddhism and his paintings show heavily misty mountains in which the shapes of the objects are barely visible and extremely simplified. This type of painting was continued by Sesshu Toyo in his later years, another instance of abstraction in Chinese painting is seen in Zhu Deruns Cosmic Circle. The painting is a reflection of the Daoist metaphysics in which chaos, in Tokugawa Japan some zen monk-painters created Enso, a circle who represents the absolute enlightenment. Usually made in one spontaneous brush stroke, it became the paradigm of the minimalist aesthetic that guided part of the zen painting, three art movements which contributed to the development of abstract art were Romanticism, Impressionism and Expressionism. Artistic independence for artists was advanced during the 19th century, patronage from the church diminished and private patronage from the public became more capable of providing a livelihood for artists. Expressionist painters explored the use of paint surface, drawing distortions and exaggerations
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Socialist realism
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Socialist realism is a style of realistic art that was developed in the Soviet Union and became a dominant style in that country as well as in other socialist countries. Socialist realism is characterized by the depiction of communist values, such as the emancipation of the proletariat. Although related, it should not be confused with social realism, Socialist realism was the predominant form of approved art in the Soviet Union from its development in the early 1920s to its eventual fall from popularity in the late 1960s. While other countries have employed a prescribed canon of art, socialist realism in Soviet Union persisted longer and was more restricted than elsewhere in Europe, Socialist realism was developed by many thousands of artists, across a diverse society, over several decades. Early examples of realism in Russian art include the work of the Peredvizhnikis, while these works do not have the same political connotation, they exhibit the techniques exercised by their successors. After the Bolsheviks took control of Russia on October 25,1917, there had been a short period of artistic exploration in the time between the fall of the Tsar and the rise of the Bolsheviks. In 1917, Russian artists began to return to traditional forms of art. Shortly after the Bolsheviks took control, Anatoly Lunacharsky was appointed as head of Narkompros and this put Lunacharsky in the position of deciding the direction of art in the newly created Soviet state. Lunacharsky created a system of aesthetics based on the body that would become the main component of socialist realism for decades to come. He believed that the sight of a body, intelligent face or friendly smile was essentially life-enhancing. He concluded that art had an effect on the human organism. By depicting the perfect person, Lunacharsky believed art could educate citizens on how to be the perfect Soviets, there were two main groups debating the fate of Soviet art, futurists and traditionalists. Russian Futurists, many of whom had been creating abstract or leftist art before the Bolsheviks, believed communism required a complete rupture from the past and, therefore, traditionalists believed in the importance of realistic representations of everyday life. By 1928, the Soviet government had enough strength and authority to end private enterprises, at this point, although the term socialist realism was not being used, its defining characteristics became the norm. The first time the term socialist realism was officially used was in 1932, the term was settled upon in meetings that included politicians of the highest level, including Stalin himself. Maxim Gorky, a proponent of literary socialist realism, published an article titled Socialist Realism in 1933. During the Congress of 1934 four guidelines were laid out for socialist realism, the work must be, Proletarian, art relevant to the workers and understandable to them. Typical, scenes of life of the people
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Collage
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Collage is a technique of an art production, primarily used in the visual arts, where the artwork is made from an assemblage of different forms, thus creating a new whole. The origins of collage can be traced back hundreds of years, the term collage was coined by both Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso in the beginning of the 20th century when collage became a distinctive part of modern art. Techniques of collage were first used at the time of the invention of paper in China, around 200 BC. The use of collage, however, wasnt used by many people until the 10th century in Japan, when began to apply glued paper, using texts on surfaces. The technique of collage appeared in medieval Europe during the 13th century, gold leaf panels started to be applied in Gothic cathedrals around the 15th and 16th centuries. Gemstones and other metals were applied to religious images, icons. An 18th-century example of art can be found in the work of Mary Delany. In the 19th century, collage methods also were used among hobbyists for memorabilia, the exhibition later traveled to The Metropolitan Museum of Art and The Art Gallery of Ontario. For example, the Tate Gallerys online art glossary states that collage was first used as a technique in the twentieth century. The glued-on patches which Braque and Picasso added to their canvases offered a new perspective on painting when the patches collided with the plane of the painting. Collage in the modernist sense began with Cubist painters Georges Braque, according to some sources, Picasso was the first to use the collage technique in oil paintings. According to the Guggenheim Museums online article about collage, Braque took up the concept of collage itself before Picasso, applying it to charcoal drawings. Picasso adopted collage immediately after, It was Braque who purchased a roll of simulated oak-grain wallpaper and began cutting out pieces of the paper, Picasso immediately began to make his own experiments in the new medium. In 1912 for his Still Life with Chair Caning, Picasso pasted a patch of oilcloth with a design onto the canvas of the piece. Surrealist artists have made use of collage. Cubomania is a made by cutting an image into squares which are then reassembled automatically or at random. Collages produced using a similar, or perhaps identical, method are called etrécissements by Marcel Mariën from a method first explored by Mariën, surrealist games such as parallel collage use collective techniques of collage making. Many of these artists used techniques in their work
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Assemblage (art)
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Assemblage is an artistic form or medium usually created on a defined substrate that consists of three-dimensional elements projecting out of or from the substrate. It is similar to collage, a two-dimensional medium and it is part of the visual arts, and it typically uses found objects, but is not limited to these materials. The origin of the art form dates to the cubist constructions of Pablo Picasso c, the origin of the word can be traced back to the early 1950s, when Jean Dubuffet created a series of collages of butterfly wings, which he titled assemblages dempreintes. However, both Marcel Duchamp, Pablo Picasso and others had been working with found objects for many years prior to Dubuffet, Russian artist Vladimir Tatlin created his counter-reliefs in the mid 1910s. Alongside Tatlin, the earliest woman artist to try her hand at assemblage was Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, in Paris in the 1920s Alexander Calder, Jose De Creeft, Picasso and others began making fully 3-dimensional works from metal scraps, found metal objects and wire. In the U. S. one of the earliest and most prolific assemblage artists was Louise Nevelson, in 1961, the exhibition The Art of Assemblage was featured at the New York Museum of Modern Art. William C Seitz, the curator of the exhibition, described assemblages as being made up of preformed natural or manufactured materials, objects, arman, French artist, sculptor and painter. Hans Bellmer, a German artist known for his life-sized female dolls, wallace Berman, an American artist known for his verifax collages. André Breton, a French artist, regarded as a founder of Surrealism. John Chamberlain, a Chicago artist known for his sculptures of welded pieces of wrecked automobiles, greg Colson, an American artist known for his wall sculptures of stick maps, constructed paintings, solar systems, directionals, and intersections. Many of his boxes, such as the famous Medici Slot Machine boxes, are interactive and are meant to be handled, rosalie Gascoigne, a New Zealand-born Australian sculptor. Raoul Hausmann, an Austrian artist and writer and a key figure in Berlin Dada, his most famous work is the assemblage Der Geist Unserer Zeit - Mechanischer Kopf, Robert H. Hudson, an American artist. Jasper Johns, an American Pop artist, painter, printmaker, jean-Jacques Lebel, in 1994 installed a large assemblage entitled Monument à Félix Guattari in the Forum of the Centre Pompidou. Janice Lowry, American artist known for art in the form of assemblage, artist books, and journals. Ondrej Mares, a Czech-Australian artist and sculptor best known for his Kachina figures - a series of works. Markus Meurer, a German artist, known for his sculptures from found objects Louise Nevelson and she used found objects or everyday discarded things in her “assemblages” or assemblies, one of which was three stories high. Meret Oppenheim, a German-born Swiss artist, identified with the Surrealist movement, wolfgang Paalen, an Austrian-German-Mexican surrealist artist and theorist, founder of the magazine DYN and known for several assembled objects, f. e. Nuage articulé Robert Rauschenberg, painter and collagist known for his mixed media works during six decades, fred H. Roster, an American sculptor
21.
Readymades of Marcel Duchamp
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The readymades of Marcel Duchamp are ordinary manufactured objects that the artist selected and modified, as an antidote to what he called retinal art. By simply choosing the object and repositioning or joining, titling and signing it, Duchamp was not interested in what he called retinal art — art that was only visual — and sought other methods of expression. As an antidote to retinal art he began creating readymades at a time when the term was used in the United States to describe manufactured items to distinguish them from handmade goods. While published under the name of Marcel Duchamp, André Gervais nevertheless asserts that Breton wrote this particular dictionary entry, Duchamp only made a total of 13 readymades over a period of time of 30 years. He felt that he could avoid the trap of his own taste by limiting output, though he was aware of the contradiction of avoiding taste. Taste, he felt, whether good or bad, was the enemy of art and his conception of the readymade changed and developed over time. My intention was to get away myself, he said. Call it a game between I and me. Duchamp was unable to define or explain his opinion of readymades, much later in life Duchamp said, Im not at all sure that the concept of the readymade isnt the most important single idea to come out of my work. Robert Fulford described Duchamps ready-mades as expressing an angry nihilism, by submitting some of them as art to art juries, the public, and his patrons, Duchamp challenged conventional notions of what is, and what is not, art. Some were rejected by art juries and others went unnoticed at art shows, most of his early readymades have been lost or discarded, but years later he commissioned reproductions of many of them. Readymades - un-altered objects Assisted readymades Rectified readymades Corrected readymades Reciprocal readymades Bottle Rack,1914, two years later, through correspondence from New York with his sister, Suzanne Duchamp, in France he intended to make it a readymade by asking her to paint on it Marcel Duchamp. However, Suzanne, who was looking after his Paris studio, had already disposed of it, prelude to a Broken Arm,1915. External link Snow shovel on which he painted its title. The first piece the artist called a readymade, New to America, Duchamp had never seen a snow shovel not manufactured in France. With fellow Frenchman Jean Crotti he purchased it from a stack of them, took it to their studio, painted the title and from Marcel Duchamp 1915 on it. Many years later, a replica of the piece is said to have mistaken for an ordinary snow shovel. External link An unpainted chimney ventilator that turns in the wind, the title is a literal translation of the French phrase, tiré à quatre épingles, roughly equivalent to the English phrase dressed to the nines
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Marcel Duchamp
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Duchamp has had an immense impact on twentieth-century and twenty first-century art. By World War I, he had rejected the work of many of his artists as retinal art. Instead, Duchamp wanted to use art to serve the mind, Marcel Duchamp was born at Blainville-Crevon in Normandy, France, and grew up in a family that enjoyed cultural activities. The art of painter and engraver Émile Frédéric Nicolle, his grandfather, filled the house, and the family liked to play chess, read books, paint. Of Eugene and Lucie Duchamps seven children, one died as an infant, Marcel Duchamp was the brother of, Jacques Villon, painter, printmaker Raymond Duchamp-Villon, sculptor Suzanne Duchamp-Crotti, painter. At 8 years old, Duchamp followed in his brothers footsteps when he left home and began schooling at the Lycée Pierre-Corneille, two other students in his class also became well-known artists and lasting friends, Robert Antoine Pinchon and Pierre Dumont. For the next 8 years, he was locked into a regime which focused on intellectual development. Though he was not a student, his best subject was mathematics. He also won a prize for drawing in 1903, and at his commencement in 1904 he won a coveted first prize and he learned academic drawing from a teacher who unsuccessfully attempted to protect his students from Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, and other avant-garde influences. However, Duchamps true artistic mentor at the time was his brother Jacques Villon, whose fluid, at 14, his first serious art attempts were drawings and watercolors depicting his sister Suzanne in various poses and activities. That summer he painted landscapes in an Impressionist style using oils. Duchamps early art works align with Post-Impressionist styles and he experimented with classical techniques and subjects. He studied art at the Académie Julian from 1904 to 1905, during this time Duchamp drew and sold cartoons which reflected his ribald humor. Many of the drawings use verbal puns, visual puns, or both, such play with words and symbols engaged his imagination for the rest of his life. In 1905, he began his military service with the 39th Infantry Regiment. There he learned typography and printing processes—skills he would use in his later work, due to his eldest brother Jacques membership in the prestigious Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture Duchamps work was exhibited in the 1908 Salon dAutomne. The following year his work was featured in the Salon des Indépendants, of Duchamps pieces in the show, critic Guillaume Apollinaire—who was to become a friend—criticized what he called Duchamps very ugly nudes. The group came to be known as the Puteaux Group, or the Section dOr, uninterested in the Cubists seriousness or in their focus on visual matters, Duchamp did not join in discussions of Cubist theory, and gained a reputation of being shy
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Lothar Wolleh
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Lothar Wolleh was a well-known German photographer. Until the end of the sixties, Lothar Wolleh worked as a commercial photographer and he took portraits of international contemporary painters, sculptors and performance artists. Lothar Wolleh spent his youth in a Germany stamped by war, in the years from 1946 to 1948 he studied concrete painting in the elementary school class at the Hochschule für angewandte Kunst in Berlin-Weißensee. As a young man, he was arrested by the Russian occupying forces on suspicion of spying, after serving 6 years at the Russian punishment camp Vorkuta, he was able to return to Berlin due to successful negotiations concerning German prisoners of war. After his return from prison, from 1956 to 1957 Wolleh obtained an education in the Lette-Verein and he took part in a regular monthly recovery program of the World Council of Churches for war-disabled youth. This program made it possible for him to visit the Swedish island of Gotland in 1958, from 1959 to 1961, Wolleh studied at the Folkwangschule für Gestaltung in Essen. One of his teachers was the German photographer Otto Steinert, in his first years as a freelance photographer, he was most successful in advertising, recruiting customers such as Deutsche Bundesbahn or Volkswagen. In 1965, he photographed the Second Vatican Council in Rome, after that, he collaborated with Emil Schmitz to make the documentary Das Konzil, II Vatikanisches Konzil. In 1975 he photographed the Jubilee celebration, and published the photographic folios Das Konzil, among those photographed were Gerhard Richter, Niki de Saint Phalle and Jean Tinguely. He used a square format for his images, with mostly symmetrical compositions. Throughout his career, Wolleh made portrait photos of at least 109 artists, wollehs photograph of René Magritte and his wife is said to have inspired Paul Simon to compose the ballad Rene And Georgette Magritte With Their Dog After The War. Fotografische Ausstellung, Gruppenausstellung in der Göppinger Galerie, Frankfurt/Main 1964, bilder aus dem Vatikan, Einzelausstellung, Schatzkammer des Essener Münsters. V. Im Detmolder Schloß1995, Lothar Wolleh 1930-1979, Künstlerbildnisse - Kunstobjekte, Photographien“ Kunstmuseum Ahlen 2005–2007, Eine Wiederentdeckung, Fotografien 1959 bis 1979, Einzelausstellung, Kunsthalle Bremen, Ludwig Museum Koblenz, Kunst-Museum Ahlen, Stadtmuseum Hofheim am Taunus 2006, Joseph Beuys in Aktion. Belser Verlag 1971, Günther Uecker / Lothar Wolleh, Nagelbuch, Verlag Galerie Der Spiegel, Köln 1972, Lothar Wolleh, Art Scene Düsseldorf 1, Chr. Belser Verlag 1973, Das Unterwasserbuch 1975, Lothar Wolleh, Apostolorum Limina, Arcade Verlag, Arcade Verlag 1978, Günther Uecker, Germany, Kunstverein für die Rheinlande und Westfalen Düsseldorf. Hamburg, in, Art - Das Kunstmagazin, no.8 Gruner & Jahr. pp. 38–45, Lothar Wolleh – Eine Wiederentdeckung, Fotografien 1959 bis 1979. Media related to Lothar Wolleh at Wikimedia Commons Website of Lothar Wolleh Lothar Wolleh - Galerie f 5,6
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Centre Georges Pompidou
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It was designed in the style of high-tech architecture by the architectural team of Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano, along with Gianfranco Franchini. Because of its location, the Centre is known locally as Beaubourg and it is named after Georges Pompidou, the President of France from 1969 to 1974 who commissioned the building, and was officially opened on 31 January 1977 by President Valéry Giscard dEstaing. As of 2006, the Centre Pompidou has had over 180 million visitors since 1977 and more than 5,209,678 visitors in 2013, including 3,746,899 for the museum. The sculpture Horizontal by Alexander Calder, a mobile that is 7.6 m tall, was placed in front of the Centre Pompidou in 2012. Hoping to renew the idea of Paris as a city of culture and art. Paris also needed a large, free library, as one did not exist at this time. At first the debate concerned Les Halles, but as the settled, in 1968. A year later in 1969, the new president adopted the Beaubourg project, in the process of developing the project, the IRCAM was also housed in the complex. By the mid-1980s, the Centre Pompidou was becoming the victim of its huge and unexpected popularity, its activities. By 1992, the Centre de Création Industrielle was incorporated into the Centre Pompidou, since re-opening in 2000 after a three-year renovation, the Centre Pompidou has improved accessibility for visitors. Now they can access the escalators if they pay to enter the museum. The Centre was designed by Italian architect Renzo Piano, British architect Richard Rogers, the project was awarded to this team in an architectural design competition, the results of which were announced in 1971. It was the first time in France that international architects were allowed to participate, world-renowned architects Oscar Niemeyer, Jean Prouvé and Philip Johnson made up the jury which would select one design out of the 681 entries. National Geographic described the reaction to the design as love at second sight, an article in Le Figaro declared Paris has its own monster, just like the one in Loch Ness. The Pritzker jury said the Pompidou revolutionised museums, transforming what had once been elite monuments into popular places of social and cultural exchange, the Centre was built by GTM and completed in 1977. The building cost 993 million 1972 French francs, renovation work conducted from October 1996 to January 2000 was completed on a budget of 576 million 1999 francs. The black-painted mechanical sculptures are by Tinguely, the works by de Saint-Phalle. Video footage of the fountain appeared frequently throughout the French language telecourse, the Place Georges Pompidou in front of the museum is noted for the presence of street performers, such as mimes and jugglers
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Art movement
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Art movements were especially important in modern art, when each consecutive movement was considered as a new avant-garde. According to theories associated with modernism and the concept of postmodernism, the period of time called modern art is posited to have changed approximately halfway through the 20th century and art made afterward is generally called contemporary art. Postmodernism in visual art begins and functions as a parallel to late modernism, the postmodern period began during late modernism, and according to some theorists postmodernism ended in the 21st century. During the period of time corresponding to modern art each movement was often considered a new avant-garde. Also during the period of time referred to as modern art movement was seen corresponding to a somewhat grandiose rethinking of all that came before it. Generally there was a commonality of visual style linking the works, postmodernist theorists posit that the idea of art movements are no longer as applicable, or no longer as discernible, as the notion of art movements had been before the postmodern era. There are many theorists however who doubt as to whether or not such an era was actually a fact, the term refers to tendencies in visual art, novel ideas and architecture, and sometimes literature. In music it is common to speak about genres and styles instead. See also cultural movement, a term with a broader connotation, as the names of many art movements use the -ism suffix, they are sometimes referred to as isms. 20th-century Western painting Art periods List of art movements Post-expressionism Western art history the-artists. org Art movements since 1900, 20th-Century Art Compiled by Dr. Witcombe, Sweet Briar College, Virginia. WebMuseum, Paris Themes index and detailed glossary of art periods
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Medieval art
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The medieval art of the Western world covers a vast scope of time and place, over 1000 years of art in Europe, and at times the Middle East and North Africa. It includes major art movements and periods, national and regional art, genres, revivals, the crafts. Art historians attempt to classify medieval art into major periods and styles, in addition each region, mostly during the period in the process of becoming nations or cultures, had its own distinct artistic style, such as Anglo-Saxon art or Norse art. Medieval art in Europe grew out of the heritage of the Roman Empire. These sources were mixed with the vigorous barbarian artistic culture of Northern Europe to produce an artistic legacy. Indeed, the history of art can be seen as the history of the interplay between the elements of classical, early Christian and barbarian art. The period ended with the self-perceived Renaissance recovery of the skills and values of art. Since a revival of interest and understanding in the 19th century it has seen as a period of enormous achievement that underlies the development of later Western art. Many regions did not regain their population levels until the 17th century. The population of Europe is estimated to have reached a low point of about 18 million in 650, doubling by 1000, in 1450 it was still only 50 million. To these figures, Northern Europe, especially Britain, contributed a lower proportion than today, and Southern Europe, including France, the increase in prosperity, for those who survived, was much less affected by the Black Death. Until about the 11th century most of Europe was short of labour, with large amounts of unused land. The medieval period saw the falling away of the invasions and incursions from outside the area that characterized the first millennium. The impression may be left by the works that almost all medieval art was religious. Most churches have been rebuilt, often times, but medieval palaces and large houses have been lost at a far greater rate. The situation is similar in most of Europe, though the 14th century Palais des Papes in Avignon survives largely intact. Paper became available in the last centuries of the period, but was extremely expensive by todays standards. Art in the Middle Ages is a subject and art historians traditionally divide it in several large-scale phases, styles or periods
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Early Christian art and architecture
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In practice identifiably Christian art only survives from the 2nd century onwards. After 550 at the latest, Christian art is classified as Byzantine and it is hard to know when distinctly Christian art began. Prior to 100, Christians may have been constrained by their position as a group from producing durable works of art. Since Christianity was largely a religion of the classes in this period, the lack of surviving art may reflect a lack of funds for patronage. The Old Testament restrictions against the production of images may also have constrained Christians from producing art. Christians may have made or purchased art with pagan iconography, but given it Christian meanings, if this happened, Christian art would not be immediately recognizable as such. Early Christianity used the artistic media as the surrounding pagan culture. These media included fresco, mosaics, sculpture, and manuscript illumination, Early Christian art not only used Roman forms, it also used Roman styles. Late classical style included a portrayal of the human body. Late classical style is seen in early Christian frescos, such as those in the Catacombs of Rome, Early Christians adapted Roman motifs and gave new meanings to what had been pagan symbols. Among the motifs adopted were the peacock, grapevines, and the Good Shepherd, Early Christians also developed their own iconography, for example, such symbols as the fish, were not borrowed from pagan iconography. The earlier period being called the Pre-Constantinian or Ante-Nicene Period and after being the period of the First seven Ecumenical Councils, the earliest surviving Christian art comes from the late 2nd to early 4th centuries on the walls of Christian tombs in the catacombs of Rome. From literary evidence, there may well have been panel icons which, initially Jesus was represented indirectly by pictogram symbols such as the Ichthys, peacock, Lamb of God, or an anchor. The image of The Good Shepherd, a youth in pastoral scenes collecting sheep, was the most common of these images. These images bear some resemblance to depictions of figures in Greco-Roman art. The almost total absence from Christian monuments of the period of persecutions of the plain, the dove is a symbol of peace and purity. It can be found with a halo or celestial light, in one of the earliest known Trinitarian images, the Throne of God as a Trinitarian image, the dove represents the Spirit. It is flying above an empty throne representing God, in the throne are a chlamys, the Chi-Rho monogram, XP, apparently first used by Constantine I, consists of the first two characters of the name Christos in Greek
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Migration Period art
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Migration Period art denotes the artwork of the Germanic peoples during the Migration period. It includes the Migration art of the Germanic tribes on the continent, as well the start of the Insular art or Hiberno-Saxon art of the Anglo-Saxon and Celtic fusion in Britain and it covers many different styles of art including the polychrome style and the animal style. By the close of the 6th century the Western Roman Empire was almost completely replaced with smaller less politically organized, although these kingdoms were never homogeneous, they shared certain common cultural features. They settled in their new lands and become farmers and fishermen, the surviving art of the Germanic peoples is almost entirely personal adornment, portable, and before conversion to Christianity was buried with its owner. Much art in materials has no doubt not survived. The polychrome style originated with the Goths who had settled in the Black Sea area, the animal style was found in Scandinavia, north Germany and England. During the 2nd century the Goths of southern Russia discovered a taste for gold figurines. This style was borrowed from Scythians and the Sarmatians, had some Greco-Roman influences, perhaps the most famous examples are found in the fourth-century Pietroasele treasure, which includes a great gold eagle brooch. The Goths carried this style to Italy, southern France and Spain, one well known example is the Ostrogothic eagle Fibula_ from Cesena, Italy, now at the museum in Nuremberg. Another is the Visigothic polychrome votive crown of Recceswinth, King of Toledo, the popularity of the style can be attested to by the discovery of a polychrome sword in the tomb of Frankish king Childeric I, well north of the Alps. The study of Northern European, or Germanic, zoomorphic decoration was pioneered by Bernhard Salin in a work published in 1904 and he classified animal art of the period roughly from 400 to 900 into three phases, Styles I, II and III. The first two styles are very widely across Europe in the art of the barbarian peoples of the Migration Period. First appears in northwest Europe, it became a new style with the introduction of the chip carving technique applied to bronze. It is characterized by animals whose bodies are divided into sections, after about 560-570 Style I was in decline and Salins Style II began to replace it. The animal becomes subsumed into ornamental patterns, typically using interlace, thus two bears are facing each other in perfect symmetry, forming the shape of a heart. Examples of Style II can be found on the gold purse lid, after about 700 localised styles develop, and it is no longer very useful to talk of a general Germanic style. Salin Style III is found mainly in Scandinavia, and may also be called Viking art, Byzantine enameling highly influenced Migration period metalwork. The Church in the early Migration period emerged as the only force in Europe after the collapse of the Roman Empire
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Anglo-Saxon art
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By the time of the Conquest the move to the Romanesque style is nearly complete. Anglo-Saxon art survives mostly in illuminated manuscripts, Anglo-Saxon architecture, a number of very fine ivory carvings, Anglo-Saxon taste favoured brightness and colour, and an effort of the imagination is often needed to see the excavated and worn remains that survive as they once were. Perhaps the best known piece of Anglo-Saxon art is the Bayeux Tapestry which was commissioned by a Norman patron from English artists working in the traditional Anglo-Saxon style and these two styles mixed and developed together and by the following century the resulting Anglo-Saxon style had reached maturity. The final phase of Anglo-Saxon art is known as the Winchester School or style, though it was produced in many centres in the south of England, elements of this begin to be seen from around 900, but the first major manuscripts only appear around the 930s. The following lines revert to a style more typical of Frankish manuscripts of the period. It is, in the chronology, the last English manuscript in which developed trumpet spiral patterns are found. The Anglo-Saxon metalwork produced in the Salzburg area of modern Austria has a counterpart in the Cutbercht Gospels in Vienna. By the 10th century Insular elements were relegated to decorative embellishments in England, the first plant ornament, with leaves and grapes, was already seen in an initial in the Leningrad Bede, which can probably be dated to 746. The other large initial in the manuscript is the first historiated initial in the whole of Europe, for some long time scrolls, especially in metal, bone or ivory, are prone to have an animal head at one end and a plant element at the other. Several ambitious projects of illumination are unfinished, such as the Old English Hexateuch, the illustrations give Old Testament scenes an entirely contemporary setting and are valuable images of Anglo-Saxon life. Æthelstan promoted Dunstan, an illuminator, eventually to Archbishop of Canterbury, and also Æthelwold. Illumination in a new style appears in a manuscript of the biographies by Bede of St Cuthbert given by Æthelstan to the monastery in Chester-le-Street about 937. There is a portrait of the king presenting his book to the saint. This is the first real portrait of an English king, and heavily influenced by Carolingian style, however the initials in the text combine Carolingian elements with animal forms in inventive fashion. Anglo-Saxon culture was coming into increasing contact with, and exchanging influences with, decoration included cloisonné, in gold and garnet for high-status pieces. It was probably his work which brought into contact with the royal family. Even the imprecise details given, mostly by Goscelin, are valuable evidence of what Anglo-Saxon metalwork was like. One 11th century lay goldsmith was even a thegn, like Spearhafoc, Mannigs biography, with some precise details, is given in the chronicle maintained by his abbey
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Visigothic art and architecture
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The Visigoths entered Hispania in 415, and they rose to be the dominant people there until the Moorish invasion of 711 brought their kingdom to an end. This period in Iberian art is dominated by their style, Visigothic art is generally considered in the English-speaking world to be a strain of Migration art, while the Portuguese and Spanish-speaking worlds generally classify it as Pre-Romanesque. Branches of Visigothic art include their architecture, their crafts, however, their style developed over the next centuries, though the prime remaining examples of it are mostly rural and often run-down. Some of the characteristics of their architecture are, Generally basilican in layout, sometimes a Greek cross plan or, more rarely, use of columns and pillars with Corinthian capitals of unique design. Barrel vaults with cupolas at the crosses, walls of ashlar blocks, occasionally alternating with Roman brickwork. Decoration commonly of animal or plant motifs, age of spirituality, late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century from The Metropolitan Museum of Art El portal del Arte Románico, Visigothic, Mozarabic and Romanesque art in Spain
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Pre-Romanesque art and architecture
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The term is generally used in English only for architecture and monumental sculpture, but here all the arts of the period are briefly described. In most of western Europe the Roman architecture tradition survived the collapse of the empire, the Merovingians continued to build large stone buildings like monastery churches and palaces. The building plans often continued the Roman basilica tradition, many Merovingian plans have been reconstructed from archaeology. These successive Frankish dynasties were large contributors to Romanesque architecture, an original westwork survives today at the Abbey of Corvey, built in 885. After a rather chaotic interval following the Carolingian period, the new Ottonian dynasty revived Imperial art from about 950, building on and further developing Carolingian style in Ottonian art. German pre-Romanesque art during the 120-year period from 936 to 1056 is commonly called Ottonian art after the three Saxon emperors named Otto who ruled the Holy Roman Empire from 936 to 1001. After the decline of the Carolingian Empire, the Holy Roman Empire was re-established under the Saxon dynasty, from this emerged a renewed faith in the idea of Empire and a reformed Church, creating a period of heightened cultural and artistic fervour. It was in this atmosphere that masterpieces were created fused the traditions from which Ottonian artists derived their inspiration, models of Late Antique, Carolingian. Ottonian monasteries produced some of the most magnificent medieval illuminated manuscripts and they were a major art form of the time, and monasteries received direct sponsorship from emperors and bishops, having the best in equipment and talent available. In the 7th century the Croats, with other Slavs and Avars, the first Croatian churches were built as royal sanctuaries, and the influence of Roman art was strongest in Dalmatia where urbanization was thickest. Gradually that influence was neglected and certain simplifications and alterations of inherited forms, all of them were built with roughly cut stone bounded with a thick layer of malter on the outside. Large churches are longitudinal with one or three naves like Church of Holy Salvation at the spring of the river Cetina, built in the 9th century, the largest and most complicated central based church from the 9th century is dedicated to Saint Donatus in Zadar. Altar rails and windows of churches were highly decorated with transparent shallow string-like ornament that is called pleter because the strings were threaded and rethreaded through itself. This also happened to engravings in early Croatian script – Glagolitic, soon, the Glagolitic writings were replaced with Latin on altar rails and architraves of old-Croatian churches. From the Crown Church of King Zvonimir comes the altar board with figure of Croatian King on the throne with Carolingian crown, servant by his side, Anglo-Saxon art is mainly known today through illuminated manuscripts and metalwork. Multiple regional styles developed based on the availability of Carolingian manuscripts. The monastery of Saint Bertin became an important centre under its abbot Odbert who created a new style based on Anglo-Saxon, the nearby abbey of Saint Vaast created a number of works. In southwestern France at the monastery of Saint Martial in Limoges a number of manuscripts were produced around year 1000, as were produced in Albi, Figeac, in Paris there developed a style at the abbey of Saint Germain-des-Prés
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Insular art
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Insular art, also known as Hiberno-Saxon art, is the style of art produced in the post-Roman history of Ireland and Britain. The term derives from insula, the Latin term for island, in this period Britain, most Insular art originates from the Irish monastic movement or metalwork for the secular elite, and the period begins around 600 with the combining Celtic and Anglo-Saxon styles. One major distinctive feature is interlace decoration, applied to decorating new types of objects mostly copied from the Mediterranean world, above all the codex or book. The finest period of the style was brought to an end by the disruption to monastic centres and these are presumed to have interrupted work on the Book of Kells, and no later Gospel books are as heavily or finely illuminated as the masterpieces of the 8th century. In England the style merged into Anglo-Saxon art around 900, whilst in Ireland the style continued until the 12th century, the influence of insular art affected all subsequent European medieval art, especially in the decorative elements of Romanesque and Gothic manuscripts. Surviving examples of Insular art are mainly illuminated manuscripts, metalwork and carvings in stone, surfaces are highly decorated with intricate patterning, with no attempt to give an impression of depth, volume or recession. The best examples include the Book of Kells, Lindisfarne Gospels, Book of Durrow, brooches such as the Tara Brooch, carpet pages are a characteristic feature of Insular manuscripts, although historiated initials, canon tables and figurative miniatures, especially Evangelist portraits, are also common. The term was derived from its use for Insular script, first cited by the OED in 1908, the Insular style is most famous for its highly dense, intricate and imaginative decoration, which takes elements from several earlier styles. From the Iron Age came the style called late Celtic art or Ultimate La Tène, there is no attempt to represent depth in manuscript painting, with all the emphasis on a brilliantly patterned surface. The origins of the format of the carpet page have often been related to Roman floor mosaics, Coptic carpets and manuscript paintings. Across all the society was effectively entirely rural, buildings were rudimentary. Especially in Ireland, clerical and secular elites were very closely linked. Ireland was divided into numerous, generally small kingdoms, while in Britain there was a number of generally larger kingdoms. The elites of all the peoples had long traditions of metalwork of the finest quality. The Insular style arises from the meeting of their two styles, Celtic and Anglo-Saxon animal style, in a Christian context, and with awareness of Late Antique style. This was especially so in their application to the book, which was a new type of object for both traditions, as well as to metalwork, the role of the Kingdom of Northumbria in the formation of the new style appears to have been pivotal. The Irish monastery at Iona was established by Saint Columba in 563, christianity discouraged the burial of grave goods so that, at least from the Anglo-Saxons, we have a larger number of pre-Christian survivals than those from later periods. The majority of examples survive from the Christian period have been found in archaeological contexts that suggest they were rapidly hidden
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Viking art
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Viking art has many design elements in common with Celtic, Germanic, the later Romanesque and Eastern European art, sharing many influences with each of these traditions. The alternative name for the Viking people, Norse or Norsemen, Viking raiders attacked wealthy targets on the north-western coasts of Europe from the late 8th until the mid-11th century CE. Pre-Christian traders and sea raiders, the Vikings first enter recorded history with their attack on the Christian monastic community on Lindisfarne Island in 793, the Vikings initially employed their longships to invade and attack European coasts, harbours and river settlements on a seasonal basis. Evidence exists for Vikings reaching Newfoundland well before the voyages of Christopher Columbus discovered the New World. Trading and merchant activities were accompanied by settlement and colonisation in many of these territories, importantly, it was the English archaeologist David M. Together these scholars have combined authority with accessibility to promote the understanding of Viking art as a cultural expression. The artistic record therefore, as it has survived to the present day, ongoing archaeological excavation and opportunistic finds, of course, may improve this situation in the future, as indeed they have in the recent past. Wood was undoubtedly the primary material of choice for Viking artists, being easy to carve, inexpensive. The same is true of the textile arts, although weaving. Subsequently, and likely influenced by the spread of Christianity, the use of carved stone for permanent memorials became more prevalent, jewellery was worn by both men and women, though of different types. Married women fastened their overdresses near the shoulder with matching pairs of large brooches, modern scholars often call them tortoise brooches because of their domed shape. The shapes and styles of womens paired brooches varied regionally, women often strung metal chains or strings of beads between the brooches, or suspended ornaments from the bottom of the brooches. Men wore rings on their fingers, arms and necks, and held their cloaks closed with penannular brooches and their weapons were often richly decorated on areas such as sword hilts. Decorated metalwork of a nature is frequently recovered from Viking period graves. The deceased was dressed in their best clothing and jewellery, and was interred with weapons, tools, a non-visual source of information for Viking art lies in skaldic verse, the complex form of oral poetry composed during the Viking Age and passed on until written down centuries later. Several verses speak of painted forms of decoration that have but rarely survived on wood, the 9th century skald poet Bragi Boddason, for example, cites four apparently unrelated scenes painted on a shield. One of these depicted the god Thors fishing expedition, which motif is also referenced in a 10th-century poem by Úlfr Uggason describing the paintings in a newly constructed hall in Iceland. The art historian Bernhard Salin was the first to systematise Germanic animal ornament, the latter two were subsequently subdivided by Arwidsson into three further styles, Style C, flourishing during the 7th century and into the 8th century, before being largely replaced by Style D
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Byzantine art
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Byzantine art is the name for the artistic products of the Eastern Roman Empire, as well as the nations and states that inherited culturally from the empire. A number of states contemporary with the Byzantine Empire were culturally influenced by it, after the fall of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in 1453, art produced by Eastern Orthodox Christians living in the Ottoman Empire was often called post-Byzantine. Byzantine art never lost sight of this classical heritage, the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, was adorned with a large number of classical sculptures, although they eventually became an object of some puzzlement for its inhabitants. And indeed, the art produced during the Byzantine Empire, although marked by periodic revivals of an aesthetic, was above all marked by the development of a new aesthetic. The most salient feature of new aesthetic was its abstract. The nature and causes of this transformation, which took place during late antiquity, have been a subject of scholarly debate for centuries. Giorgio Vasari attributed it to a decline in skills and standards. Although this point of view has been revived, most notably by Bernard Berenson. Alois Riegl and Josef Strzygowski, writing in the early 20th century, were all responsible for the revaluation of late antique art. Riegl saw it as a development of pre-existing tendencies in Roman art. In any case, the debate is purely modern, it is clear that most Byzantine viewers did not consider their art to be abstract or unnaturalistic, religious art was not, however, limited to the monumental decoration of church interiors. One of the most important genres of Byzantine art was the icon, an image of Christ, the illumination of manuscripts was another major genre of Byzantine art. The most commonly illustrated texts were religious, both scripture itself and devotional or theological texts, secular texts were also illuminated, important examples include the Alexander Romance and the history of John Skylitzes. Small ivories were also mostly in relief, Byzantine ceramics were relatively crude, as pottery was never used at the tables of the rich, who ate off silver. Two events were of importance to the development of a unique. First, the Edict of Milan, issued by the emperors Constantine I and Licinius in 313, allowed for public Christian worship, second, the dedication of Constantinople in 330 created a great new artistic centre for the eastern half of the Empire, and a specifically Christian one. Major Constantinopolitan churches built under Constantine and his son, Constantius II, included the foundations of Hagia Sophia. The next major building campaign in Constantinople was sponsored by Theodosius I, the most important surviving monument of this period is the obelisk and base erected by Theodosius in the Hippodrome
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Merovingian art
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Merovingian art is the art of the Merovingian dynasty of the Franks, which lasted from the 5th century to the 8th century in present-day France, Benelux and a part of Germany. The advent of the Merovingian dynasty in Gaul in the 5th century led to important changes in the field of arts, sculpture regressed to be little more than a simple technique for the ornamentation of sarcophagi, altars and ecclesiastical furniture. Plans often continued the Roman basilica tradition, but also influences from as far away as Syria and Armenia. In the East, most structures were in timber, but stone was more common for significant buildings in the West, most major churches have been rebuilt, usually more than once, but many Merovingian plans have been reconstructed from archaeology. There are no Roman precedents for this Frankish innovation, the Saint Peters church in Vienne is the only surviving one. A number of buildings, now lost, including the Merovingian foundations of Saint-Denis, St. Gereon in Cologne. Some small buildings remain, especially baptistries, which out of fashion and were spared rebuilding. In Aix-en-Provence, Riez and Fréjus, three octagonal baptistries, each covered with a cupola on pillars, are testimony to the influence of oriental architecture. Very different from these Provençal baptistries, except for the one of Venasque. The original building has undergone a number of alterations but preserves in its decoration a Merovingian character. Among the very many crypts, numerous due to the importance of the cult of saints at the time, only those of St. Seurin, Bordeaux, St. Laurent, Grenoble, and the abbey of Jouarre survive. Merovingian masons also employed the opus gallicum extensively and are responsible for bringing it to England and bequeathing it to the Normans, the principal centres were the Abbey of Luxeuil, an Irish foundation, and later its daughter house at Corbie Abbey. A large Merovingian art collection in Berlin was taken by Soviet Occupiers to Russia, migration Period art Merovingian script Merovingian dynasty European Commission, Raphaël Programme. The Normans, a European people, The Norman heritage, 10th – 12th century, architectural Heritage, Italy — the Molise §8 Fortifications and castles, Fortifications — The opus gallicum in the fortifications. The Art Bulletin, Vol.47, No.1, lives of the Holy Abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow
