1.
Hungarian language
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Hungarian is the official language of Hungary and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. Outside Hungary it is spoken by communities of Hungarian people in neighbouring countries. Like Finnish and Estonian, it belongs to the Uralic language family, its closest relatives being Mansi and it is one of several European languages not part of the Indo-European languages, and the most widely-spoken European language that does not belong to the Indo-European family. The Hungarian name for the language is magyar or magyar nyelv, the word Magyar is used as an English and Hungarian word to refer to Hungarian people as an ethnic group. Hungarian is a member of the Uralic language family, the name of Hungary could be a result of regular sound changes of Ungrian/Ugrian, and the fact that the Eastern Slavs referred to Hungarians as Ǫgry/Ǫgrove seemed to confirm that. Current literature favors the hypothesis that it comes from the name of the Turkic tribe Onogur, there are numerous regular sound correspondences between Hungarian and the other Ugric languages. For example, Hungarian /aː/ corresponds to Khanty /o/ in certain positions, for example, Hungarian ház house vs. Khanty xot house, and Hungarian száz hundred vs. Khanty sot hundred. The distance between the Ugric and Finnic languages is greater, but the correspondences are also regular, during the later half of the 19th century, a competing hypothesis proposed a Turkic affinity of Hungarian. Following an academic debate known as Az ugor-török háború, the Finno-Ugric hypothesis was concluded the sounder of the two, foremost based on work by the German linguist Josef Budenz. The traditional view argues that the Hungarian language separated from its Ugric relatives in the first half of the 1st millennium b. c. e. in western Siberia, east of the southern Urals. The Hungarians gradually changed their lifestyle from settled hunters to nomadic pastoralists, in Hungarian, Iranian loans date back to the time immediately following the breakup of Ugric and probably span well over a millennium. Among these include tehén ‘cow’, tíz ‘ten’, tej ‘milk’, increasing archaeological evidence from present-day southern Bashkortostan found in the previous decades confirms the existence of Hungarian settlements between the Volga River and Ural Mountains. The Onogurs later had a influence on the language, especially between the 5th-9th centuries. This layer of Turkic loans is large and varied, and includes words borrowed from Oghur Turkic, e. g. borjú ‘calf’, dél ‘noon, many words related to agriculture, to state administration or even to family relations have such backgrounds. Hungarian syntax and grammar were not influenced in a dramatic way during these 300 years. After the arrival of the Hungarians into the Carpathian Basin the language came into contact with different speech communities, Turkic loans from this period come mainly from the Pechenegs and Cumanians who settled in Hungary during the 12th-13th centuries, e. g. koboz ‘cobza’, komondor ‘mop dog’. Hungarian borrowed many words from especially the neighbouring Slavic languages, in exchange, these languages also borrowed words from Hungarian, e. g. Serbo-Croatian ašov from Hung ásó ‘spade’. Approximately 1. 6% of the Romanian lexicon is of Hungarian origin, on the basis of the growing genetic evidence, the accepted origin theory is contested by geneticists too
2.
Slovak language
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Slovak /ˈsloʊvæk, -vɑːk/ is an Indo-European language that belongs to the West Slavic languages. Slovak is the language of Slovakia where it is spoken by approximately 5.51 million people. Slovak uses the Latin script with modifications that include the four diacritics placed above certain letters The primary principle of Slovak spelling is the phonemic principle. The secondary principle is the principle, forms derived from the same stem are written in the same way even if they are pronounced differently. An example of principle is the assimilation rule. In addition, the rules are present, When a voiced consonant is at the end of a word before a pause. For example, pohyb is pronounced /poɦip/ and prípad is pronounced /priːpat/, the assimilation rule, Consonant clusters containing both voiced and voiceless elements are entirely voiced if the last consonant is a voiced one, or voiceless if the last consonant is voiceless. For example, otázka is pronounced /otaːska/ and vzchopiť sa is pronounced /fsxopitsːa/ and this rule applies also over the word boundary. For example, prísť domov /priːzɟ domou̯/ and viac jahôd /vi̯adz jaɦu̯ot/, the voiced counterpart of ch /x/ is /ɣ/, and the unvoiced counterpart of h /ɦ/ is /x/. Most foreign words receive Slovak spelling immediately or after some time, for example, weekend is spelled víkend, software – softvér, gay – gej, and quality is spelled kvalita. Personal and geographical names from languages using Latin alphabets keep their original spelling unless a fully Slovak form of the name exists. Slovak features some heterophonic homographs, the most common examples being krásne /ˈkraːsne/ versus krásne /ˈkraːsɲe/, Some examples include the following, Speváčka spieva. My speváčky spievame. and so forth, adjectives, pronouns and numerals agree in person, gender and case with the noun to which they refer. Botanic or zoological terms are exceptions as is the naming of Holy Spirit in a majority of churches, word order in Slovak is relatively free, since strong inflection enables the identification of grammatical roles regardless of word placement. This relatively free word order allows the use of word order to convey topic, Some examples are as follows, Ten veľký muž tam dnes otvára obchod. = That big man opens a store there today, – The word order does not emphasize any specific detail, just general information. Ten veľký muž dnes otvára obchod tam, = That big man is today opening a store there. – This word order emphasizes the place, dnes tam otvára obchod ten veľký muž
3.
List of cities in Serbia
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Also villages with the municipal rights have been added to the list. Cities Cities in administrative sense are defined by the Law on Territorial Organization, the territory with the city status usually has more than 100,000 inhabitants, but is otherwise very similar to municipality. Also, the presidents of the municipalities are referred to as mayors in everyday usage. There are 27 cities, each having an assembly and budget of its own, as with a municipality, the territory of a city is composed of a city proper and surrounding villages. The capital Belgrade is the city on the level of a district. All other cities are on the municipality level and are part of a district, City municipalities The city may or may not be divided into city municipalities. Six cities, Belgrade, Novi Sad, Niš, Požarevac, Vranje, competences of cities and city municipalities are divided. The city municipalities of these six cities also have their assemblies, the two largest city municipalities by number of residents are the city municipality of Novi Sad and New Belgrade. The city of Kragujevac had its own city municipalities from 2002 until 2008, in 2013, the city municipality of Sevojno within the city of Užice was established. It does not include municipalities in Kosovo created by UNMIK after 1999, the census was not conducted in Kosovo, which is under administration of UNMIK, so the population numbers are not given for the municipalities in Kosovo. According to the criteria, the settlements in the table are classified as urban. These criteria are not limited to the settlement size, but also include the percentage of residents engaged in agriculture, thus, not all towns in statistical sense are greater than villages, and they are not always municipality centers. Note that the population of the city municipalities of some cities were not presented as unique, ^ The city of Novi Sad is consisted of two city municipalities, City municipality of Novi Sad and Petrovaradin. ^ The city of Niž is consisted of five city municipalities, Medijana, Palilula, Pantelej, Crveni Krst, ^ The city of Vranje is consisted of two city municipalities, City municipality of Vranje and Vranjska Banja. ^ The city of Požarevac is consisted of two city municipalities, City municipality of Požarevac and Kostolac, ^ Priština is an administrative city according to the Law, but Serbia does not exercise its laws on Kosovo. ^ The seat of the municipality is Dragaš
4.
Petrovaradin Fortress
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Petrovaradin Fortress is a fortress in the town of Petrovaradin, itself part of the City of Novi Sad, Serbia. It is located on the bank of the Danube river. The cornerstone of the southern part of the fortress was laid on 18 October 1692 by Charles Eugène de Croÿ. Petrovaradin Fortress has many underground tunnels as well as 16 km of uncollapsed underground countermine system, in 1991 Petrovaradin Fortress was added to Spatial Cultural-Historical Units of Great Importance list, and it is protected by the Republic of Serbia. Recent archeological discoveries have offered a new perspective not only on the history of Petrovaradin, at the Upper Fortress, the remains of an earlier Paleolithic settlement dating from 19,000 to 15,000 BC has been discovered. With this new development it has established that there has been a continuous settlement at this site from the Paleolithic age to the present. During the excavations carried out in 2005, archeologists also discovered another significant find, examining remains from the early Bronze age, ramparts were discovered which testify that already at that time a fortified settlement existed at the Petrovaradin site. The first larger fortifications were created with the arrival of the Romans who built the fortress which was a part of the borders along the Danube. The turning point in the history of the came in 1235 AD when King Bela IV of Hungary brought a group of the Order of Cistercians from France. This order of monks built the monastery Belakut upon the remains of the Roman fortress of Cusum, the walls of this monastery were built between 1247 and 1252 and represent the fortifications at this site during the Middle Ages. The fortress was strengthened due to the threat of Turkish invasion, however the fortress fell after a two-week siege in 1526. The Austrian Army captured Petrovaradin after 150 years of Turkish control during the Great Turkish War in 1687, the Austrians began to tear down the old fortress and build new fortifications according to contemporary standards. In 1692, the Hofkriegsrath ordered engineers to Petrovaradin to investigate the area in order to build a new fortress, Count Keysersfeld received both financial and personnel support. The first plans for the fortress were designed by the engineer Colonel Count Mathias Keyserfeld, on September 9,1694, the Grand Vizier Sürmeli Ali Paşa arrived at Petrovaradin Fortress from Belgrade. A siege of 23 days was laid on, however weather conditions in October forced the Turkish forces to retreat towards Belgrade with their task left unfinished. The victory of the Austrians under the command of Prince Eugene of Savoy at Senta on September 11,1697 resulted in creating the conditions for the conclusion of the peace at Karlowitz in 1699, a new war with the Turks was imminent. In order to prepare for the battle, Prince Savoy ordered the concentration of Austrian troops around Futog under the temporary command of Count Johann Pálffy. Prince Eugene arrived personally on July 9, the entire Austrian army numbered 76,000 troops
5.
The Name of Mary Church
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The Name of Mary Church is a Roman Catholic parish church in Novi Sad, Serbia, dedicated to the feast of the Holy Name of Mary. It is the largest church in Novi Sad, and is located in the city center on the Trg Slobode, locals refer to it as the cathedral, even though Novi Sad belongs to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Subotica, whose cathedral is located in Subotica. After the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz, Novi Sad became part of the Habsburg Monarchy, the local Catholic parish was organized in 1702, and the original church was built in 1719 on the same location as todays church. It was dedicated to Mary Help of Christians in the memory of the Holy League success in the Battle of Vienna, later, it was renamed the Name of Mary Church. This original church was destroyed in 1742, a new, second church was built on the same location. Catholic Archbishop of Kalocsa Patacsich Gábor dedicated this new church in 1742 and this, second church, was heavily damaged in the bombing during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 and its bell-tower was destroyed. In 1891, the city made a decision to demolish the old church. Hungarian architect György Molnár designed the church in 1892 for free, the old church was demolished the same year, and the new one started. The main construction was finished in November 1893, the 72-meters high bell-tower with the golden cross was finished in October 1894. The church is a building, with neo-gothic arches. There are twenty stained glasses depicting saints and church fathers, the church has mechanical pipe organ with 24 registers. The main one in the apse is made of the wood from Tyrol, the windows with stained glass from Budapest. The church has four confessionals and a marble baptistry and it is the tallest church in Bačka region and dominates the city center of Novi Sad
6.
Government of Vojvodina
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The Provincial Government of Vojvodina is the executive organ of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, within the Republic of Serbia. For its actions it is accountable to the Assembly of Vojvodina, the rights and duties of the government are laid down by the Constitution of Serbia and by the Statute of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina as its supreme legal act. The aim has also been to develop sociological, cultural and other characteristics of the province, the building, known as Banovina Palace, is the seat of the Government of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. The building is located in Novi Sad, the seat of Vojvodina. Before World War II, it was the centre of the Danube Banovina of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and residence of the Ban of Danube. Politics of Vojvodina Politics of Serbia Government of Serbia Official website
7.
Coat of arms of Novi Sad
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Novi Sad is the second largest city of Serbia, the capital of the autonomous province of Vojvodina and the administrative center of the South Bačka District. According to the 2011 census, the city has a population of 250,439, the population of the administrative area of the city stands at 341,625 people. Novi Sad was founded in 1694, when Serb merchants formed a colony across the Danube from the Petrovaradin fortress, a Habsburg strategic military post. In the 18th and 19th centuries, it became an important trading and manufacturing centre, as well as a centre of Serbian culture of that period, the city was heavily devastated in the 1848 Revolution, but it was subsequently restored. Today, along with the city of Belgrade, Novi Sad is the industrial and financial center of the Serbian economy, also. The name Novi Sad means New Plant in Serbian and its Latin name, stemming from establishment of city rights, is Neoplanta. The official names of Novi Sad used by the administration are. Historically, it was also called Neusatz in German, in its wider meaning, the name Grad Novi Sad refers to the City of Novi Sad, which is one of the city-level administrative units of Serbia. Novi Sad could also refer strictly to the part of the City of Novi Sad, as well as only to the historical core on the left Danube bank. Human dwelling on the territory of present-day Novi Sad has been traced as far back as the Stone Age, several settlements and necropoleis were unearthed during the construction of a new boulevard in Avijaticarsko Naselje, and were dated to 5000 BC. A settlement was located on the bank of the river Danube in the territory of present-day Petrovaradin. In antiquity, the region was inhabited by Illyrian, Thracian and Celtic tribes, celts were present in the area since the 4th century BC and founded the first fortress on the right bank of the Danube. Later, in the 1st century BC, the region was conquered by the Romans, during Roman rule, a larger fortress was built in the 1st century with the name Cusum and was included in the Roman province of Pannonia. In the 5th century, Cusum was devastated by the invasion of the Huns, by the end of the 5th century, Byzantines had reconstructed the town and called it by the names Petrikon or Petrikov after St. Peter. Slavic tribes such as the Severians, Obotrites and Serbs, with its subgroup tribes Braničevci and Timočani, the Serbs absorbed the aforementioned Slavs as well as the Paleo-Balkanic peoples in the region. In the Middle Ages, the area was controlled by the Ostrogoths, Gepids, Avars, Franks, Great Moravia, Bulgaria, again by Byzantines. It was included into the medieval Kingdom of Hungary between the 11th and 12th centuries, in the same year, several other settlements were mentioned to exist in the territory of modern urban area of Novi Sad. Some other settlements existed in the area of Novi Sad, Mortályos, Csenei, Keménd
8.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
9.
Serbia
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Serbia, officially the Republic of Serbia, is a sovereign state situated at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. Relative to its territory, it is a diverse country distinguished by a transitional character, situated along cultural, geographic, climatic. Serbia numbers around 7 million residents, and its capital, Belgrade, following the Slavic migrations to the Balkans from the 6th century onwards, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and the Byzantine Empire in 1217, in the early 19th century, the Serbian Revolution established the nation-state as the regions first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia formed a union with Montenegro which dissolved peacefully in 2006, in 2008 the parliament of the province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence, with mixed responses from the international community. Serbia is a member of organizations such as the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC. An EU membership candidate since 2012, Serbia has been negotiating its EU accession since January 2014, the country is acceding to the WTO and is a militarily neutral state. Serbia is an income economy with dominant service sector, followed by the industrial sector. The country ranks high on the Social Progress Index as well as the Global Peace Index, relatively high on the Human Development Index, located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41° and 47° N, and longitudes 18° and 23° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km2, which places it at 113th place in the world, with Kosovo excluded, the area is 77,474 km2. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km, all of Kosovos border with Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are under control of the Kosovo border police. The Pannonian Plain covers the third of the country while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of the part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart. Mountains dominate the third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest, following the flow of the rivers Drina, the Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in a north–south direction in eastern Serbia. Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to the Rilo-Rhodope Mountain system, elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 metres to the lowest point of just 17 metres near the Danube river at Prahovo. The largest lake is Đerdap Lake and the longest river passing through Serbia is the Danube, the climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea
10.
Subdivisions of Serbia
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Autonomous provinces Serbia has two autonomous provinces, Vojvodina in the north and Kosovo and Metohija in the south. The province of Vojvodina has its own Assembly and Government of Vojvodina and it enjoys autonomy on certain matters, such as infrastructure, science, education and culture. The Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija has been transferred to the administration of UNMIK since June 1999, Central Serbia The Central Serbia is the area that lies between the autonomous provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo and Metohija and it was known under that name until 2009. It was not a division, and it did not have any regional authority of its own. In 2009, the National Assembly of Serbia adopted the Law on Equal Territorial Development that formed 7 statistical regions in the territory of Serbia, the Law was amended on 7 April 2010, reducing the number of regions from seven to five. The previously formed region of Eastern Serbia was merged with Southern Serbia, districts are not defined by the Law on Territorial Organisation, but are organised under the Governments Enactment of 29 January 1992. Serbia is divided into 29 districts, while the city of Belgrade presents a district of its own, municipalities Serbia is divided into 147 municipalities and 27 cities, which form the basic units of local government. Each municipality has its own assembly, a president, public service property. Municipalities usually have more than 10,000 inhabitants, municipalities comprise local communities, which mostly correspond to settlements in the rural areas. Urban areas are divided into local communities. Their roles include communication of elected representatives with citizens, organization of citizen initiatives related with public service. They are presided over by councils, elected in semi-formal elections, the role of local communities is far more important in rural areas, due to proximity to municipal centers, many urban local communities are defunct. Cities Cities are another type of local self-government, territories with the status of city usually have more than 100,000 inhabitants, but are otherwise very similar to municipalities. There are 27 cities, each having an assembly and budget of its own, only cities have mayors, although the presidents of the municipalities are often referred to as mayors in everyday usage. The city may or may not be divided into city municipalities, five cities, Belgrade, Novi Sad, Niš, Požarevac and Vranje comprise several municipalities, divided into urban and suburban areas. Competences of cities and their municipalities are divided and this move is not recognized by Serbia, but is recognized by the self-proclaimed Republic of Kosovo. According to the new subdivision, Kosovo is divided into 7 districts and 37 municipalities
11.
Vojvodina
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Vojvodina, officially the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, is an autonomous province of Serbia, located in the northern part of the country, in the Pannonian Plain. Novi Sad is the largest city and administrative center of Vojvodina, Vojvodina has a population of almost 2 million. It has a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural identity, there are some 26 ethnic groups in the province, the term vojvodina in Serbian means a type of duchy – more specifically, a voivodeship. It derives from the word vojvoda which stems from the Proto-Slavic language word voevoda and those words are etymologically connected with modern-day words vojnik and voditi. Its original name was the Serbian Voivodeship which then became Voivodeship of Serbia, Indo-European peoples first settled in the territory of present-day Vojvodina in 4200 BC. Before the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC, Indo-European peoples of Illyrian, Thracian, the first states organized in this area were the Celtic State of the Scordisci with capital in Singidunum, and the Dacian Kingdom of Burebista. During Roman rule, Sirmium was one of the four cities of the Roman Empire. The city was also the capital of several Roman administrative units, including Pannonia Inferior, Pannonia Secunda, the Diocese of Pannonia, Roman rule lasted until the 5th century, after which the region came into the possession of various peoples and states. While Banat was a part of the Roman province of Dacia, Syrmia belonged to the Roman province of Pannonia, Bačka was not part of the Roman Empire and was populated and ruled by Sarmatian Iazyges. After the Romans were driven away from this region, various Indo-European and these peoples included Goths, Sarmatians, Huns, Gepids and Avars. For regional history, the largest in importance was a Gepid state, according to the 7th-century Miracles of Saint Demetrius, Avars gave the region of Syrmia to a Bulgar leader named Kuber circa 680. The Bulgars of Kuber moved south with Maurus to Macedonia where they co-operated with Tervel in the 8th century, Slavs settled todays Vojvodina in the 6th and 7th centuries, before some of them crossed the rivers Sava and Danube and settled in the Balkans. Slavic tribes that lived in the territory of present-day Vojvodina included Abodrites, Severans, Braničevci, in the 9th century, after the fall of the Avar state, the first forms of Slavic statehood emerged in this area. The first Slavic states that ruled over this region included the Bulgarian Empire, Great Moravia, during the Bulgarian administration, local Bulgarian dukes, Salan and Glad, ruled over the region. Salans residence was Titel, while that of Glad was possibly in the rampart of Galad or perhaps in the Kladovo in eastern Serbia. Glads descendant was the duke Ahtum, another ruler from the 11th century who opposed the establishment of Hungarian rule over the region. In the village of Čelarevo archaeologists have found traces of people who practised the Judaic religion. Bunardžić dated Avar-Bulgar graves excavated in Čelarevo, containing skulls with Mongolian features and Judaic symbols, erdely and Vilkhnovich consider the graves to belong to the Kabars who eventually broke ties with the Khazar Empire between the 830s and 862
12.
Districts of Serbia
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The districts of Serbia, officially called administrative districts are the first level administrative subdivisions of the country. Districts are the units of Serbia, comprising several municipalities and cities each. They are defined by the Government of Serbias Enactment of 29 January 1992, Districts are regional centers of state authority and they do not have any form of self-government. They run affairs in the name of the Government, there are 29 districts in Serbia. The only part of Serbia that is not part of any district is the territory of the City of Belgrade which has a special status, every districts has its seat in the largest city of the district. The Slavic word okrug denotes administrative subdivision in some states and its etymology is similar to the German Kreis, circle, okrug is literally something encircling. In the subdivisions of Serbia, the term is translated as district, the territorial organisation of Serbia is regulated by the Law on Territorial Organization, adopted by the National Assembly on 29 December 2007. According to the Law, the organization of the republic comprises municipalities and cities, the City of Belgrade with special status. Districts are not mentioned in law but are defined by the Government of Serbias Enactment of 29 January 1992. They are defined as the districts as regional centers of state authority, Serbia is divided into 29 districts, plus the City of Belgrade. The City of Belgrade is not part of any district, but has a status very similar to that of a district. Serbian laws treat Kosovo and Metohija as integral part of Serbia, the Enactment defines five districts on the territory of Kosovo. But, since 1999, following the Kosovo War Kosovo is under United Nations administration of UNMIK, in 2000, the UNMIK administration changed territorial organisation on the territory of Kosovo. All five districts were abolished, and seven new districts were created, Serbian government does not recognize this move, and accepts only five pre-2000 districts. Five of Serbian Districts are on the territory of Kosovo, comprising 28 municipalities and 1 city, in 2000, UNMIK created 7 new districts and 30 municipalities. Serbia does not exercise sovereignty over this polity, for the UNMIK districts and the districts of Kosovo, see Districts of Kosovo. Because the Serbian government has no control over Kosovo since it declared independence, for current demographic information about Kosovo, see Kosovos 2011 census. Administrative divisions of Serbia Municipalities and cities of Serbia Cities and towns of Serbia Cities, towns and villages of Vojvodina Populated places of Serbia ISO 3166-2, RS Notes References
13.
Municipalities of Serbia
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The municipalities and cities of Serbia are the second level administrative subdivisions of the country. Serbia is divided into 147 municipalities and 27 cities, forming the basic level of local government, also, the city of Belgrade has a status of separate statistical region. Municipalities and cities are the units of Serbia, and they form 29 districts in groups. They are defined by the Government of Serbias Enactment of 29 January 1992, a city may and may not be divided into city municipalities depending on their size. Currently, there are six cities in Serbia with city municipalities, Belgrade, Novi Sad, Niš, Požarevac, Užice and Vranje comprise several city municipalities each, divided into urban, Municipalities Like in many other countries, municipalities are the basic entities of local government in Serbia. The head of the municipality is the President of the municipality, while the power is held by the Municipal council. Municipal assembly is elected on local elections, while the President, Municipalities have their own property and budget. Only the cities officially have mayors, although the presidents are often informally referred to as such. The territory of a municipality is composed of a town and surrounding villages, the municipality bears the name of the seat town. Only one municipality does not share the name with the seat town and this municipality is located in Kosovo, and thus exists only on paper. The territory of the municipality was merged with part of the Municipality of Prizren in 2000 by UNMIK to form new Municipality of Dragaš and this move is not recognised by Serbian Government. Cities and city municipalities Cities are another type of local self-government, the territory with the city status usually has more than 100,000 inhabitants, but is otherwise very similar to municipality. There are 27 cities, each having an assembly and budget of its own, only the cities have mayors, although the presidents of the municipalities are often referred to as mayors in everyday usage. As with a municipality, the territory of a city is composed of a city proper, every city is part of a district. The exception is the capital Belgrade, which is not part of any district, the city may or may not be divided into city municipalities. Six cities, Belgrade, Novi Sad, Niš, Požarevac, Vranje, competences of cities and city municipalities are divided. The city municipalities of these six cities also have their assemblies, the two largest city municipalities by number of residents are the City municipality of Novi Sad and New Belgrade. The city of Kragujevac had its own city municipalities from 2002 until 2008, in 2013, the city municipality of Sevojno within the city of Užice was established
14.
Politics of Novi Sad
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Novi Sad is the capital of the Serbian province of Vojvodina, and second largest city in Serbia. The city was founded in 1694 and its first names were Ratzen Stadt, since 1702, it was part of the Habsburg Military Frontier. In 1746-1748, when one part of Military Frontier was abolished, city was placed under civil administration, the edict of empress Maria Theresa of Austria that made Novi Sad a royal free city was proclaimed on February 1,1748. That is also a time when current name of the city was introduced, in various languages it was written as, Neoplantae, Neusatz, Új-Vidégh, and Novi Sad. During the 1880s, Hungarians took over city administration from Serbs. After 1918, the city government was dominated by Serbs. Briefly, it was a center in the Voivodeship of Serbia. Administrative significance of the city increased in 1918, when it became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats. In 1918-1919, Novi Sad was capital of Banat, Bačka and Baranja region, from 1922 to 1929 it was administrative center of Bačka Oblast, and from 1929 to 1941 administrative center of Danube Banovina. From 1980 to 1989, city was divided into seven municipalities, Stari Grad, Podunavlje, Liman, Slavija, Petrovaradin, Detelinara. In 2000-2002, status of the Mucipality of Novi Sad was changed to City of Novi Sad, since 2002, when the new statute of Novi Sad came into effect, City of Novi Sad is divided into 46 local communities. City has its parliament, governing mayor and a city council, the executive branch is headed by the Mayor of Novi Sad City, who is elected by direct popular vote. The mayors term is four years, and he or she is limited to two terms in office. Until 2004, all mayors and municipality presidents in Serbia were elected by the citys, after changes in the law, in 2004 elections, all mayors and municipality presidents were elected by direct popular vote. The Citys second mayor elected by popular vote in September 2004 was Maja Gojković. The Assembly of the City of Novi Sad is the body of the City. It comprises 78 members from 46 local communities throughout the two municipalities, the Assembly monitors performance of city agencies and makes land use decisions as well as legislating on a variety of other issues. The Assembly also has responsibility for approving the city budget
15.
Scordisci
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The Scordisci were a Gallic Iron Age tribe centered in the territory of present-day Serbia, at the confluence of the Savus, Dravus and Danube rivers. They were historically notable from the beginning of the third century BC until the turn of the common era, the Scordisci consolidated into a tribal state. At their zenith, their territory stretched over regions comprising parts of present-day Serbia, Croatia, Bulgaria and Romania. After the Roman conquest in the 1st century AD, their territories were included into the Roman provinces of Pannonia, Moesia and Dacia. The Scordisci was a Celtic tribe formed after the Gallic invasion of the Balkans and their tribal name may be connected to the Scordus, the Šar mountain. The personal names are noted to have been subsequently Illyricized, having South Pannonian–North Dalmatian influence, according to onomastic evidence, Scordiscan settlements to the east of the Morava river were Thracianized. In parts of Moesia the Scordisci and Thracians lived beside each other, the Scordisci were found during different timelines in Illyria, Thrace and Dacia, sometimes splitting into more than one group like the Scordisci Major and the Scordisci Minor. Extensive La Tène type finds, of production, are noted in Pannonia as well as northern Moesia Superior, attesting to the concentration of Celtic settlements. However, such finds south of the Sava river are scarce, the Scordisci were centered in the territory of present-day Serbia, at the confluence of the Sava, Drava and Danube rivers. The Scordisci consolidated into a tribal state, at their zenith, their core territory stretched over regions comprising parts of present-day Serbia, Croatia, Bulgaria and Romania, while their influence spread even further. The Romans reported that they had the custom of drinking blood, Celtic expansion reached the Carpathians in the beginning of the 4th century BC. According to a Livy, perhaps based on Celtic legend, the Celts that migrated to Italy, the Celts established themselves in Pannonia, subjugating the Pannonians, and in the end of the 4th century they renewed raids into the Balkans. By the early 3rd century BC, Pannonia had been Celtiziced, the Celts, retreating from Delphi, settled on the mouth of the Sava and called themselves Scordisci. The Scordisci established control to the north of the Dardani, there is no mention of the Scordisci until the reign of Philip V of Macedon, when they emerge as Macedon allies against the Dardani and Rome. The Scordisci, having conquered the important Sava valley, the route to Italy, in the second half of the 3rd century BC. They subjugated a number of tribes in Moesia, including the Dardani, several west Thracian tribes, the Scordisci most likely subdued the Dardani in the mid-2nd century BC, after which there are for long no mention of the Dardani. From 141 BC, the Scordisci were constantly involved in battles against Roman held Macedonia and they were defeated in 135 BC. by Cosconius in Thrace. In 118 BC, according to a stone discovered near Thessalonica, Sextus Pompeius
16.
Serbian Progressive Party
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The Serbian Progressive Party is a populist conservative political party in Serbia. The Serbian Progressive Party was formed by a group of 21 former Serbian Radical Party MPs led by Tomislav Nikolić, disenchanted with the direction of the party, the pro-EU members left and formed the Forward Serbia parliamentary group. The SNS was founded and held its first congress meeting on 21 October 2008, of the Serbian Radical Partys representatives elected in the 2008 parliamentary election,21 moved to the Serbian Progressive Party, while 57 remained in the SRS. In 2011, the SNS formed a coalition with New Serbia, the Strength of Serbia Movement. In the 2012 parliamentary election, the party led the Lets Get Serbia Moving coalition, Party leader Tomislav Nikolić defeated Boris Tadić of the Democratic Party in the second round of the 2012 presidential election. Following his election as President of Serbia, Nikolić stepped down as leader of the party on 24 May 2012, Vučić was the only candidate who ran for the party leadership, and was elected on 29 September 2012, with Jorgovanka Tabaković as his deputy. In December 2012, the Peoples Party led by ex-Mayor of Novi Sad Maja Gojković, the Serbian Progressive Party maintains cooperation with the Freedom Party of Austria and United Russia party. On 24 April 2013 the SNS representatives in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe joined the Group of the European Peoples Party, major positions held by Serbian Progressive Party members, Politics of Serbia List of political parties in Serbia List of Presidents of Serbia Official website
17.
Urban area
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An urban area is a human settlement with high population density and infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas are created through urbanization and are categorized by urban morphology as cities, in urbanism, the term contrasts to rural areas such as villages and hamlets and in urban sociology or urban anthropology it contrasts with natural environment. The worlds urban population in 1950 of just 746 million has increased to 3.9 billion in the decades since, in 2009, the number of people living in urban areas surpassed the number living in rural areas and since then the world has become more urban than rural. This was the first time that the majority of the population lived in a city. In 2014 there were 7.25 billion people living on the planet, Urban areas are created and further developed by the process of urbanization. Urban areas are measured for various purposes, including analyzing population density, historian John Gurda writes, I have tried to uncover Milwaukees civic bedrock - the shifting foundation on which individuals have built their lives and the community has constructed its identity. There is no doubt that the deepest layer of bedrock is economic. In every age, people have chosen to live in areas not because of their climates or landmarks or cultural attractions. It was economic opportunity that brought people to Milwaukee, and it is economic opportunity that keeps them there, I define cities as concentrations of people animated by concentrations of capital. More simply put, money is the root of all cities, official definitions vary somewhat between nations. The ten largest metropolitan areas account for half of the population, about 3 million people live in Buenos Aires City and the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area totals around 13 million, making it one of the largest urban areas in the world. The metropolitan areas of Córdoba, Rosario, Mendoza and Tucumán have around 1.3 million inhabitants each and La Plata, seven other provinces have over one million people each, Mendoza, Tucumán, Entre Ríos, Salta, Chaco, Corrientes and Misiones. According to IBGE urban areas already concentrate 84. 35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants. The largest metropolitan areas in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte — all in the Southeastern Region — with 20,12, and 5 million inhabitants respectively. The majority of state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, there are also non-capital metropolitan areas in the states of São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. According to Statistics Canada, an area in Canada is an area with a population of at least 1,000 people where the density is no fewer than 400 persons per square kilometre. If two or more areas are within 2 km of each other by road, they are merged into a single urban area. Accordingly, the new definition set out three types of population centres, small, medium and large
18.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
19.
Central European Summer Time
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It corresponds to UTC + two hours. Other names which have been applied to Central European Summer Time are Middle European Summer Time, Central European Daylight Saving Time, and Bravo Time. Since 1996 European Summer Time has been observed between 1,00 UTC on the last Sunday of March and 1,00 on the last Sunday of October, the following countries and territories use Central European Summer Time. In addition, Libya used CEST during the years 1951–1959, 1982–1989, 1996–1997, European Summer Time Other countries and territories in UTC+2 time zone Other names of UTC+2 time zone
20.
Telephone numbers in Serbia
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Regulation of the telephone numbers in Serbia is under the responsibility of the Regulatory Agency of Electronic Communication and Mail Services, independent from the government. The country calling code of Serbia is +381, the country has an open telephone numbering plan, with most numbers consisting of a 2- or 3-digit calling code and a 6-7 digits of customer number. The country calling code of Serbia is +381, Serbia and Montenegro received the code of +381 following the breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1992. Montenegro switched to +382 after its independence in 2006, so +381 is now used only by Serbia, for domestic calls,0 must be dialed before the area code. For calls from Serbia, the prefix for international calls was 99, Calling code areas in Serbia have been largely unchanged since the time of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. As Socialist Republic of Serbia had been assigned codes starting with 1,2 and 3, Calling code areas, Until 2013, Telekom Srbija had a monopoly on fixed telephony services. The calling codes are assigned to the using the following scheme. However, since 2011 customers can change the operator and retain the old calling code, thus, calling codes do not necessary reflect the operator. It is not possible, however, to transfer a number to a land-based operator. The following special telephone numbers are valid across the country, On 21 May 2012 and this also applied to 976,985,987 and 9860. 112 redirects to 192 on mobile phones, the dialing code for Kosovo is +383. Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in 2008, but retained the +381 calling code for fixed telephony until 2016, dialing code +383 started to be allocated on 15 December 2016. Republic Telecommunication Agency Telephone services in Serbia Telecommunications in Serbia
21.
Vehicle registration plates of Serbia
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Vehicle registration plates of Serbia are issued using a two-letter region code, followed by three or four-digit numeric and a two-letter alpha license code, separated by a hyphen. The region code and the code are separated by the shield of Serbia. A blue field is placed along the side edge, as in European Union countries. License numeric code contains combination of three digits, while two letter code is made of combination of letters using Serbian Latin alphabet order, with addition of letters X, Y and W. The standard dimensions of a Serbian license plates are 520.5 ×112.9 mm, issuance of current license plates started on January 1,2011 and they will be used alongside the old ones during the transitional period until the end of 2011. g. The letter in the middle is denoting the status of the owner and these are issued for agricultural vehicles, e. g. tractors, or construction vehicles. These plates consists of two-letter region code, coat of arms of Serbia and these plates had green background and black letters. Slow traffic vehicles use yellow background plates, the format is like older format of Serbia, it is two-letter regional code, then numbers. Older plates for slow traffic vehicles had white background and almost exactly like agriculture plates, it is regional letters at top on the plates, trailer plates is reversed format of the civilian license plates. It is serial letter, then numbers and then regional code, older trailers had up to six characters then regional code. Military plates had just one letters, then coat of arms, older military plates had a code indicating the branch was on, then one letters and then four numbers. Police plates had the letters П and then six numbers, older plates had letters M Mopeds use plates exactly like an older Serbian plates before 2011. Temporary plates had the letters RPE then regional code then numbers, older plates had the letters RP, then numbers, year of expiration and then number denoting the region. UNHCR plates use blue font then had the letters UNHCR and then numbers and this plate has been replaced by diplomatic plates. Exceptional vehicles had a red background and white letters, UNPF plates had the letters UNPF and then numbers. This plate is no longer issued, dealer plates had the regional letters on the top and then numbers. Military reserve plates had military branch was on and then 5 numbers, portal posvećen registraciji vozila Registracija vozila Nove tablice od 2011, cena 40 evra. Pravilnik o registraciji motornih i priključnih vozila Car Transport in Serbia
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Serbian Cyrillic language
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The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet is an adaptation of the Cyrillic script for the Serbian language, developed in 1818 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić. It is one of the two used to write standard modern Serbian, Bosnian and Montenegrin, the other being Latin. During the same period, Croatian linguists led by Ljudevit Gaj adapted the Latin alphabet, in use in western South Slavic areas, using the same principles. As a result of this joint effort, Cyrillic and Latin alphabets for Serbo-Croatian have a complete one-to-one congruence, with the Latin digraphs Lj, Nj, and Dž counting as single letters. Vuks Cyrillic alphabet was adopted in Serbia in 1868, and was in exclusive use in the country up to the inter-war period. Both alphabets were co-official in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and later in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, in Serbia, Cyrillic is seen as being more traditional, and has the official status. It is also a script in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro, along with Latin. The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was used as a basis for the Macedonian alphabet with the work of Krste Misirkov, Cyrillic is in official use in Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Serbian language in Croatia is officially recognized as a minority language, however, Cyrillic is an important symbol of Serbian identity. In Serbia, official documents are printed in Cyrillic only even though, according to a 2014 survey, Glagolitic appears to be older, predating the introduction of Christianity, only formalized by Cyril and expanded to cover non-Greek sounds. Cyrillic was created by the orders of Boris I of Bulgaria by Cyrils disciples, the earliest form of Cyrillic was the ustav, based on Greek uncial script, augmented by ligatures and letters from the Glagolitic alphabet for consonants not found in Greek. There was no distinction between capital and lowercase letters, the literary Slavic language was based on the Bulgarian dialect of Thessaloniki. Part of the Serbian literary heritage of the Middle Ages are works such as Vukan Gospels, St. Savas Nomocanon, Dušans Code, Munich Serbian Psalter, the first printed book in Serbian was the Cetinje Octoechos. Vuk Stefanović Karadžić fled Serbia during the Serbian Revolution in 1813, there he met Jernej Kopitar, a linguist with interest in slavistics. Kopitar and Sava Mrkalj helped Vuk to reform the Serbian language and he finalized the alphabet in 1818 with the Serbian Dictionary. Karadžić also translated the New Testament into Serbian, which was published in 1868 and he wrote several books, Mala prostonarodna slaveno-serbska pesnarica and Pismenica serbskoga jezika in 1814, and two more in 1815 and 1818, all with the alphabet still in progress. In his letters from 1815-1818 he used, Ю, я, Ы and Ѳ, in his 1815 song book he dropped the Ѣ. The alphabet was adopted in 1868, four years after his death
23.
Pannonian Plain
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The Pannonian Basin or Carpathian Basin is a large basin in Central Europe. It is a subsystem of the Alps-Himalaya system. Most of the consists of the Great Hungarian Plain and the Little Hungarian Plain. The Pannonian Basin lies in the part of Central Europe. It forms a discrete unit set in the European landscape, surrounded by imposing geographic boundaries - the Carpathian Mountains, the Alps, the Dinarides. The Rivers Danube and Tisza divide the basin roughly in half and it extends roughly between Vienna in the northwest, Zagreb in the southwest, Belgrade in the southeast and Satu Mare in the northeast. The name Pannonian comes from Pannonia, a province of the Roman Empire, in English, the terms Pannonian Basin and Carpathian Basin are used synonymously. The name Pannonian is taken from that of Pannonia, a province of the Roman Empire, the historical province overlapped but was not coterminous with the geographical plain or basin. Pannonia Inferior covered much of the half of the basin. Pannonia Superior included the western fringe of the basin as well as part of the Eastern Alps, the southern fringe of the basin was in Dalmatia and Moesia. The eastern half of the basin was not conquered by the Romans, likewise, the parts north of the Danube were not in the empire, they were considered part of Germania, inhabited by the Quadi. The term Pannonian Plain refers to the parts of the Pannonian Basin as well as those of some adjoining regions like Lower Austria, Moravia, Bosnia. The lands adjoining the plain proper are also called peri-Pannonian. In Hungarian geographical literature various subdivisions of the Carpathian Mountains are also considered parts of the Carpathian Basin on the basis of traditional geopolitical divisions, julius Pokorny derived the name Pannonia from Illyrian, from the Proto-Indo-European root *pen-, swamp, water, wet. For its early settlers, the plain offered few sources of metals or stone, thus when archaeologists come upon objects of obsidian or chert, copper or gold, they have almost unparalleled opportunities to interpret ancient pathways of trade. The Pannonian plain is divided into two parts along the Transdanubian Mountains, the northwestern part is called Western Pannonian plain and the southeastern part Eastern Pannonian plain. The plain was named after the Pannon named Medes, various different peoples inhabited the plain during its history. In the first century BC, the parts of the plain belonged to the Dacian state
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Syrmia
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Syrmia is a fertile region of the Pannonian Plain in Europe, which lies between the Danube and Sava rivers. The majority of Syrmia is located in the Srem and South Bačka districts of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina in Serbia, a smaller area around Novi Beograd, Zemun, and Surčin belongs to the City of Belgrade. The remaining part of Syrmia is in Vukovar-Srijem County, Croatia, over centuries, Syrmia has been ruled by many different entities. The westernmost part of Syrmia is in eastern Croatia in Vukovar-Srijem, the word Syrmia is derived from the ancient city of Sirmium. Sirmium was an Celtic or Illyrian town founded in the third century BC, Srem and Srijem are used in contemporary standard Serbian and Croatian languages to designate the region. Sirmium was conquered by Romans in the first century BC and became the economic, in 6 AD, there was an uprising of the indigenous peoples against Roman rule. However, ten later Roman Emperors were born in Sirmium or nearby and they included Herennius Etruscus, Hostilian, Decius Traian, Claudius II, Quintillus, Aurelian, Probus, Maximianus Herculius, Constantius II and Gratian. These emperors were mostly Romanised Illyrians, in the 6th century AD, Pannonia, was a province of the Byzantine Empire. Through vassal arrangements, Sermia fell under control of various rulers, in the 7th century AD, the ruler of Syrmia was Kuber, a Bulgar leader, who was a vassal of the Avars. In the early 9th century AD, Syrmia was part of the Slavic state of Pannonian Croatia, the ruler, Prince Ljudevit Posavski lost control to the Franks. In 827 AD the Bulgars returned and continued to rule after a treaty in 845 AD. In the 11th century, the ruler of Syrmia was Duke Sermon, vassal of the Bulgarian emperor, there had been Bulgar resistance to Byantine rule. This collapsed and Sermon, who refused to capitulate was captured and killed by Constantine Diogenes, a new but ultimately short lived area of governance named the Thema of Sirmium was established. It included the region of Syrmia and what is now Mačva, in the 12th century, the region was controlled by the Kingdom of Hungary. On 3 March 1229, the acquisition of Syrmia was confirmed by Papal bull, pope Gregory IX wrote, soror…regis Ungarie terram…ulterior Sirmia. In 1231, The Duke of Syrmia was Giletus, in the 1200s, the territory around Syrmia was divided into two counties, Syrmia in the east and Vukovar in the west. In the 13th century, between 1282 and 1316, Syrmia was ruled by Stefan Dragutin of Serbia, initially, Dragutin was a vassal of Hungary but later ruled independently. Dragutin died in 1316, and was succeeded by his son, in 1324, Vladislav II was defeated by Stefan Uroš III Dečanski of Rascia
25.
Danube
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The Danube is Europes second-longest river, after the Volga River, and also the longest river in the European Union region. It is located in Central and Eastern Europe, the Danube was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire, and today flows through 10 countries, more than any other river in the world. Its drainage basin extends into nine more countries, the Latin name Dānuvius is one of a number of Old European river names derived from a Proto-Indo-European *dānu. Other river names from the root include the Dunajec, Dzvina/Daugava, Don, Donets, Dnieper, Dniestr. In Rigvedic Sanskrit, dānu means fluid, drop, in Avestan, in the Rigveda, Dānu once appears as the mother of Vrtra. Known to the ancient Greeks as the Istros a borrowing from a Daco-Thracian name meaning strong, in Latin, the Danube was variously known as Danubius, Danuvius or as Ister. The Dacian/Thracian name was Donaris for the upper Danube and Istros for the lower Danube, the Thraco-Phrygian name was Matoas, the bringer of luck. The Latin name is masculine, as are all its Slavic names, the German Donau is feminine, as it has been re-interpreted as containing the suffix -ouwe wetland. Classified as a waterway, it originates in the town of Donaueschingen, in the Black Forest of Germany, at the confluence of the rivers Brigach. The Danube then flows southeast for about 2,800 km, passing through four capital cities before emptying into the Black Sea via the Danube Delta in Romania and its drainage basin extends into nine more. The highest point of the basin is the summit of Piz Bernina at the Italy–Switzerland border. The land drained by the Danube extends into other countries. Many Danubian tributaries are important rivers in their own right, navigable by barges, from its source to its outlet into the Black Sea, its main tributaries are, The Danube flows through many cities, including four national capitals, more than any other river in the world. Danube remains a mountain river until Passau, with average bottom gradient 0. 0012%. Middle Section, From Devín Gate to Iron Gate, at the border of Serbia and Romania, the riverbed widens and the average bottom gradient becomes only 0. 00006%. Lower Section, From Iron Gate to Sulina, with average gradient as little as 0. 00003%, about 60 of its tributaries are also navigable. In 1994 the Danube was declared one of ten Pan-European transport corridors, routes in Central, the amount of goods transported on the Danube increased to about 100 million tons in 1987. In 1999, transport on the river was difficult by the NATO bombing of three bridges in Serbia during the Kosovo War
26.
Petrovaradin
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Petrovaradin is one of two city municipalities which constitute the city of Novi Sad. As of 2011, the area has 27,083 inhabitants. Lying across the river Danube from the part of Novi Sad, it is built near the Petrovaradin Fortress. Petrovaradin was founded by Celts, but its name is not known. During Roman administration it was known as Cusum, after the Romans conquered the region from the Celtic tribe of Scordisci, they built the Cusum fortress where present Petrovaradin Fortress now stands. In addition, the received its name from the Byzantines, who called it Petrikon or Petrikov. In documents from 1237, the town was first mentioned under the name Peturwarod, Petrovaradin was known under the name Pétervárad during Hungarian administration, Varadin or Petervaradin during Ottoman administration, and Peterwardein during Habsburg administration. Today, the municipality is known in Serbo-Croatian as Petrovaradin/Петроварадин, in Hungarian as Pétervárad, human settlement in the territory of present-day Petrovaradin has been traced as far back as the Stone Age. This region was conquered by Celts and Romans, the Celts founded the first fortress at this location. It was part of the state of the Scordisci, which had its capital in Singidunum. During the Roman administration, a fortress was built with the name Cusum and was included into Roman Pannonia. Subsequently, the fortress was included into the Pannonia Inferior and the Pannonia Secunda, in the 5th century, Cusum was devastated by the invasion of the Huns. The town was conquered by Ostrogoths, Gepids, and Lombards. By the end of the 5th century, Byzantines had reconstructed the town and called it by the names Cusum and it was part of the Byzantine province of Pannonia. Subsequently, it passed into the hands of Avars, Franks, Pannonian Croats, Pannonian Slavs, Bulgarians, and Byzantines again. During Bulgarian administration, the town was known as Petrik and was part of the domain of duke Sermon, while during subsequent Byzantine administration, later, the town was conquered by the Kingdom of Hungary, by the Ottoman Empire, and by the Habsburg Monarchy. During the Ottoman administration, Petrovaradin had 200 houses, and three mosques, there was also a Christian quarter with 35 houses populated with Serbs. Habsburg forces led by Prince Eugene later defeated the Ottomans at Belgrade before the Ottomans sued for peace at Požarevac, during the Habsburg administration, Petrovaradin was part of the Habsburg Military Frontier
27.
Sremska Kamenica
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Sremska Kamenica is a town and urban neighborhood of Novi Sad, in Serbia. In Serbian, the town is known as Sremska Kamenica, in Croatian as Srijemska Kamenica, in Hungarian as Kamanc, the town is located in the Syrmia region, on the northern slopes of the Fruška Gora mountain range and on the river Danube. The Freedom Bridge crosses the River Danube and connects the town with the part of Novi Sad. Sremska Kamenica and the villages Bukovac, Ledinci and Stari Ledinci, are all part of Petrovaradin urban municipality, the town is divided into a couple of neighborhoods, Donja Kamenica, Gornja Kamenica, Bocke, Tatarsko Brdo, Čardak, and Staroiriški Put. The settlements of Paragovo, Popovica, Glavica, and Artinjeva are also parts of Sremska Kamenica. These settlements are a weekend retreat for people from Novi Sad into the countryside, according to the last official census, the population of Sremska Kamenica numbered 11,205 inhabitants, of whom 8,806 were ethnic Serbs. Other ethnic groups include Croats, Yugoslavs, Hungarians, Montenegrins, Slovaks, the population of the town also includes Serbs from Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, who came here during the 1990s, escaping the wars in these two countries. According to an estimate from 2005, the population of the town numbered 11,234 people. Historical population,1961,3,6461971,5,0511981,7,5321991,7,955 Sremska Kamenica was first mentioned in documents in 1237. In this time the town was administered by the Kingdom of Hungary, the name of the town derives from the Slavic word kamen and was recorded as villa Camanch in 1237 and Kamenez in 1349. In the 15th century, the town had a school and a theater, during the medieval Hungarian administration, it was a fortified town and was administratively a part of the Syrmia County. Since the Ottoman conquest in 1521-1526, the town was part of the Ottoman Empire, in 1527-1530, it was part of the vassal Ottoman Duchy of Syrmia ruled by Serb duke Radoslav Čelnik, and subsequently came under direct Ottoman administration as part of the Ottoman Sanjak of Syrmia. Before the Ottoman conquest in the 16th century, the town had about 150 houses, while during the Ottoman administration, in 1567, the inhabitants of the town during Ottoman administration were Serbs. After the establishment of the Habsburg administration in 1699, the Habsburg census from 1702 recorded 40 houses in the town, during the 18th century, the number of Orthodox inhabitants increased to 1,000. Until the middle of the 18th century, the town was under military administration, the civil administration was introduced in 1745 and the town was included into Syrmia County, which was part of the Habsburg Kingdom of Slavonia. The town was also a possession of the Marcibanji and Karačonji families, in 1848-1849, the town was part of autonomous Serbian Vojvodina, and in 1849-1860 part of the Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar. After the abolishment of the voivodeship in 1860, Kamenica was again incorporated into the Syrmia County of the Kingdom of Slavonia. In 1868, Kingdom of Slavonia was joined with the Habsburg Kingdom of Croatia into the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, administratively, the town was part of the Irig municipality
28.
Serb
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The Serbs are a South Slavic ethnic group that formed in the Balkans. The majority of Serbs inhabit the state of Serbia, as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina. They form significant minorities in Croatia, Macedonia and Slovenia, there is a large Serb diaspora in Western Europe, and outside Europe there are significant communities in North America and Australia. The Serbs share many traits with the rest of the peoples of Southeast Europe. They are predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christians by religion, the Serbian language is official in Serbia, co-official in Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and is spoken by the majority in Montenegro. The modern identity of Serbs is rooted in Eastern Orthodoxy and traditions, in the 19th century, the Serbian national identity was manifested, with awareness of history and tradition, medieval heritage, cultural unity, despite living under different empires. When the Principality of Serbia gained independence from the Ottoman Empire, Orthodoxy became crucial in defining the national identity, instead of language which was shared by other South Slavs. The tradition of slava, the family saint feast day, is an important ethnic marker of Serb identity, the origin of the ethnonym is unclear. Serbia has among the tallest people in the world, after Montenegro and Netherlands, Slavs invaded and settled the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries. Up until the late 560s their activity was raiding, crossing from the Danube, the Danube and Sava frontier was overwhelmed by large-scale Slavic settlement in the late 6th and early 7th century. What is today central Serbia was an important geo-strategical province, through which the Via Militaris crossed and this area was frequently intruded by barbarians in the 5th and 6th centuries. The numerous Slavs mixed with and assimilated the descendants of the indigenous population, numerous small Serbian states were created, located in modern Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia. With the decline of the Serbian state of Duklja in the late 11th century, Raška separated from it, prince Stefan Nemanja conquered the neighbouring territories of Kosovo, Duklja and Zachlumia. The Nemanjić dynasty ruled over Serbia until the 14th century, over the next 140 years, Serbia expanded its borders. Its cultural model remained Byzantine, despite political ambitions directed against the empire, the medieval power and influence of Serbia culminated in the reign of Stefan Dušan, who ruled the state from 1331 until his death in 1355. Ruling as Emperor from 1346, his territory included Macedonia, northern Greece, Montenegro, when Dušan died, his son Stephen Uroš V became Emperor. With the death of two important Serb leaders in the battle, and with the death of Stephen Uroš that same year, hrebeljanović was subsequently accepted as the titular leader of the Serbs because he was married to a member of the Nemanjić dynasty. In 1389, the Serbs faced the Ottomans at the Battle of Kosovo on the plain of Kosovo Polje, both Lazar and Sultan Murad I were killed in the fighting
29.
Petrovaradin fortress
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Petrovaradin Fortress is a fortress in the town of Petrovaradin, itself part of the City of Novi Sad, Serbia. It is located on the bank of the Danube river. The cornerstone of the southern part of the fortress was laid on 18 October 1692 by Charles Eugène de Croÿ. Petrovaradin Fortress has many underground tunnels as well as 16 km of uncollapsed underground countermine system, in 1991 Petrovaradin Fortress was added to Spatial Cultural-Historical Units of Great Importance list, and it is protected by the Republic of Serbia. Recent archeological discoveries have offered a new perspective not only on the history of Petrovaradin, at the Upper Fortress, the remains of an earlier Paleolithic settlement dating from 19,000 to 15,000 BC has been discovered. With this new development it has established that there has been a continuous settlement at this site from the Paleolithic age to the present. During the excavations carried out in 2005, archeologists also discovered another significant find, examining remains from the early Bronze age, ramparts were discovered which testify that already at that time a fortified settlement existed at the Petrovaradin site. The first larger fortifications were created with the arrival of the Romans who built the fortress which was a part of the borders along the Danube. The turning point in the history of the came in 1235 AD when King Bela IV of Hungary brought a group of the Order of Cistercians from France. This order of monks built the monastery Belakut upon the remains of the Roman fortress of Cusum, the walls of this monastery were built between 1247 and 1252 and represent the fortifications at this site during the Middle Ages. The fortress was strengthened due to the threat of Turkish invasion, however the fortress fell after a two-week siege in 1526. The Austrian Army captured Petrovaradin after 150 years of Turkish control during the Great Turkish War in 1687, the Austrians began to tear down the old fortress and build new fortifications according to contemporary standards. In 1692, the Hofkriegsrath ordered engineers to Petrovaradin to investigate the area in order to build a new fortress, Count Keysersfeld received both financial and personnel support. The first plans for the fortress were designed by the engineer Colonel Count Mathias Keyserfeld, on September 9,1694, the Grand Vizier Sürmeli Ali Paşa arrived at Petrovaradin Fortress from Belgrade. A siege of 23 days was laid on, however weather conditions in October forced the Turkish forces to retreat towards Belgrade with their task left unfinished. The victory of the Austrians under the command of Prince Eugene of Savoy at Senta on September 11,1697 resulted in creating the conditions for the conclusion of the peace at Karlowitz in 1699, a new war with the Turks was imminent. In order to prepare for the battle, Prince Savoy ordered the concentration of Austrian troops around Futog under the temporary command of Count Johann Pálffy. Prince Eugene arrived personally on July 9, the entire Austrian army numbered 76,000 troops
30.
Habsburg
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The House of Habsburg, also called House of Hapsburg, or House of Austria, was one of the most influential royal houses of Europe. The throne of the Holy Roman Empire was continuously occupied by the Habsburgs between 1438 and 1740, from the sixteenth century, following the reign of Charles V, the dynasty was split between its Austrian and Spanish branches. Although they ruled distinct territories, they maintained close relations. The House takes its name from Habsburg Castle, a built in the 1020s in present-day Switzerland, in the canton of Aargau, by Count Radbot of Klettgau. His grandson Otto II was the first to take the name as his own. The House of Habsburg gathered dynastic momentum through the 11th, 12th, by 1276, Count Radbots seventh generation descendant Rudolph of Habsburg had moved the familys power base from Habsburg Castle to the Duchy of Austria. Rudolph had become King of Germany in 1273, and the dynasty of the House of Habsburg was truly entrenched in 1276 when Rudolph became ruler of Austria, which the Habsburgs ruled until 1918. A series of dynastic marriages enabled the family to expand its domains to include Burgundy, Spain and its colonial empire, Bohemia, Hungary. In the 16th century, the separated into the senior Habsburg Spain and the junior Habsburg Monarchy branches. The House of Habsburg became extinct in the 18th century, the senior Spanish branch ended upon the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and was replaced by the House of Bourbon. It was succeeded by the Vaudemont branch of the House of Lorraine, the new successor house styled itself formally as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, although it was often referred to as simply the House of Habsburg. His grandson Radbot, Count of Habsburg founded the Habsburg Castle, the origins of the castles name, located in what is now the Swiss canton of Aargau, are uncertain. There is disagreement on whether the name is derived from the High German Habichtsburg, or from the Middle High German word hab/hap meaning ford, the first documented use of the name by the dynasty itself has been traced to the year 1108. The Habsburg Castle was the seat in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries. The Habsburgs expanded their influence through arranged marriages and by gaining political privileges, in the 13th century, the house aimed its marriage policy at families in Upper Alsace and Swabia. They were also able to high positions in the church hierarchy for their members. Territorially, they often profited from the extinction of other families such as the House of Kyburg. By the second half of the 13th century, count Rudolph IV had become one of the most influential territorial lords in the area between the Vosges Mountains and Lake Constance
31.
Serbian culture
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Serbian culture refers to the culture of Serbia and of ethnic Serbs. Early on, Serbs may have influenced by the Paleo-Balkan peoples. The Serbian Orthodox Church gained autocephaly from Constantinople in 1219, whereas Stephen the First Crowned was declared king by the Pope, the Republic of Venice influenced the maritime regions in the Middle Ages. Central Serbia was the first to emancipate as the Principality of Serbia in 1815, following Serbias autonomy after the Serbian revolution and eventual independence, the culture of Serbia was restrengthened within its people. After the Schism, those who lived under the Byzantine sphere of influence became Orthodox, later, with the arrival of the Ottoman Empire, many Serbs converted to Islam. Their modern descendants are considered to be members of the Gorani, the Serbian Orthodox Church was the westernmost bastion of Orthodox Christianity in Europe, which shaped its historical fate through contacts with Catholicism and Islam. During World War II, the Serbs, living in an area, were persecuted by various peoples. The outcome of these visions was the death of at least 700,000 people, the conversion of 250,000. As with most Western cultures, a child is given a first name chosen by their parents, the given name comes first, the surname last, e. g. Željko Popović, where Željko is a first name and Popović is a family name. Female names end with -a, e. g. Dragan -> Dragana, popular names are mostly of Serbian, Christian, Greek and Latin origin. Serbian, Bogdan, Dragan, Goran, Radovan, Slobodan, Greek, Nikola, Đorđe, Aleksandar, Jelena, and Katarina. Biblical, Ana, Jovan, Marko, Petar, Pavle, most Serbian surnames have the surname suffix -ić. This is often transliterated as -ic or -ici, in history, Serbian names have often been transcribed with a phonetic ending, -ich or -itch. This form is associated with Serbs from before the early 20th century, hence Milutin Milanković is usually referred to, for historical reasons. The -ić suffix, with variants -ović/-ević, is originally a Slavic diminutive, other common surname suffixes are -ov or -in which is the Slavic possessive case suffix, thus Nikolas son becomes Nikolin, Petars son Petrov, and Jovans son Jovanov. Those are more typical for Serbs from Vojvodina, the two suffixes are often combined. The most common surnames are Marković, Nikolić, Petrović, most people in Serbia will have three meals daily, breakfast, lunch and dinner, with lunch being the largest and most important meal. However, traditionally, only lunch and dinner existed, with breakfast being introduced in the half of the 19th century
32.
Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas
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A set of revolutions took place in the Austrian Empire from March 1848 to November 1849. The nationalist picture was complicated by the simultaneous events in the German states. Besides these nationalists, liberal and even socialist currents resisted the Empires longstanding conservatism, the events of 1848 were the product of mounting social and political tensions after the Congress of Vienna of 1815. Conflicts between debtors and creditors in agricultural production as well as land use rights in parts of Hungary led to conflicts that occasionally erupted into violence. Conflict over organized religion was pervasive in pre-1848 Europe, tension came both from within Catholicism and between members of different confessions. These conflicts were often mixed with conflict with the state, important for the revolutionaries were state conflicts including the armed forces and collection of taxes. Draft commissions led to brawls between soldiers and civilians, all of this further agitated the peasantry, who resented their remaining feudal obligations. Despite lack of freedom of the press and association, there was a flourishing liberal German culture among students and they published pamphlets and newspapers discussing education and language, a need for basic liberal reforms was assumed. These middle class liberals largely understood and accepted that labor is not efficient. The question was of how to institute such reforms, notable liberal clubs of the time in Vienna included the Legal-Political Reading Club and Concordia Society. They had merely advocated relaxed censorship, freedom of religion, economic freedoms, and, above all and they were outright opposed to popular sovereignty and the universal franchise. To their left was a radicalized, impoverished intelligentsia, educational opportunities in 1840s Austria had far outstripped employment opportunities for the educated. In 1846 there had been an uprising of Polish nobility in Austrian Galicia, the economic crisis of 1845-47 was marked by recession and food shortages throughout the continent. At the end of February 1848, demonstrations broke out in Paris, louis-Philippe of France abdicated the throne, prompting similar revolts throughout the continent. With no forces rallying to Metternichs defense, nor word from Ferdinand I of Austria to the contrary, metternich fled to London, and Ferdinand appointed new, nominally liberal, ministers. The established order collapsed rapidly because of the weakness of the Austrian armies, Field Marshal Joseph Radetzky was unable to keep his soldiers fighting Venetian and Milanese insurgents in Lombardy-Venetia, and had to, instead, order the remaining troops to evacuate. Social and political conflict as well as inter and intra confessional hostility momentarily subsided as much of the continent rejoiced in the liberal victories, mass political organizations and public participation in government became widespread. However, liberal ministers were unable to establish central authority, the victory of the party of movement was looked at as an opportunity for lower classes to renew old conflicts with greater anger and energy
33.
Economy of Serbia
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The economy of Serbia is the 84th or 79th largest in the world at $43.866 billion or $95.492 billion by nominal gross domestic product or purchasing power parity respectively. Its economy is based on various services, industry and agriculture. After the ousting of former Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević in October 2000, the country went through an economic liberalization process, GDP per capita went from $1,241 in 2000 to $6,123 in 2014. In March 2012, it became a candidate for the European Union, after years of economy decline due to world financial crisis, in 2011, the economy GDP growth was 2%. Serbia entered a recession in 2012, causing GDP to decline 1. 5% for that year. In 2013, Serbia was among the top ten of European countries in regard to GDP growth, as of 2016 estimations, the unemployment rate was at 19. 3%. Estimated GDP for 2016 calendar year is $43.866 billion, which is $6,123 per capita, while the estimated GDP is $100.18 billion, which is $14,047 per capita. Since the 1990s, Serbia has experienced a brain drain, especially during the wars at that time, each year. Despite the loss, the Serbian diasporas transfers account between 10% and 15% of Serbias GDP and significantly increase living standards in some parts of the country. In recent years, Serbia has seen an increasingly swift foreign direct investment trend, including industry, metal processing, building materials, food and beverages, textiles, leather. By countries, most cash investments in the 2000–2012 period came from Italy, Austria, Norway, Belgium and Greece, while other major countries also include United States, Russia. The average growth of Serbias GDP in the last ten years was 2. 45% per year, GDP structure by sector in 2015 was, services 51. 1%, industry 38. 5%, agriculture 10. 4%. GDP structure by components in 2015 was, private consumption 81. 0%, public consumption 17. 9%, fixed capital investments 17. 8%, inventories investments -10. 1%, exports 46. 0%, imports -52. 6%. The main export products of Serbia in 2013 were, motor vehicles, electrical machines, fruit and vegetables, cereals and non-ferrous metals. The main Serbian agriculture products are wheat, maize, sunflower, sugar beets, fruits, vegetables, beef, pork, and meat products, milk and dairy products, grapes/wine. Agriculture accounts for 8. 2% of Serbias GDP and almost one fourth of the total exports. The average growth of Serbian industry total from 2000 to 2013 was 1. 51% per year, industrial production growth rate by industries, The Serbian Ministry of Finance performs tasks related to the state budget, public revenue, public spending and public debt in the country. Serbias public debt relative to GDP from 2000 to 2008 decreased by 140.1 percentage points, Serbian foreign exchange reserves were highly augmented from 2000 to 2007, when they amounted 10.86 billion euros
34.
European Capital of Culture
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The European Capital of Culture is a city designated by the European Union for a period of one calendar year during which it organises a series of cultural events with a strong European dimension. An international panel of experts is in charge of assessing the proposals of cities for the title according to criteria specified by the European Union. Consequently, the beneficial socio-economic development and impact for the city are now also considered in determining the chosen cities. The European Capital of Culture programme was called the European City of Culture and was conceived in 1983, by Melina Mercouri. Mercouri believed that at the time, culture was not given the attention as politics and economics. The European City of Culture programme was launched in the summer of 1985 with Athens being the first title-holder, during the German presidency of 1999, the European City of Culture programme was renamed the European Capital of Culture. 1 A new framework makes it possible for a city in a country or potential candidate for EU membership to hold the title every third year as of 2021. This will be selected through a competition, meaning that cities from various countries may compete with each other. Association for Tourism and Leisure Education
35.
Serbian language
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Serbian is the standardized variety of the Serbo-Croatian language mainly used by Serbs. It is the language of Serbia and one of the three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In addition, it is a minority language in Montenegro, Croatia, Macedonia, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia. Standard Serbian is based on the most widespread dialect of Serbo-Croatian, Shtokavian, which is also the basis of Standard Croatian, Bosnian, the other dialect spoken by Serbs is Torlakian in southeastern Serbia, which is transitional to Macedonian and Bulgarian. Serbian is practically the only European standard language with complete synchronic digraphia, the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was devised in 1814 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić, who created the alphabet on phonemic principles. The Latin alphabet was designed by Croatian linguist Ljudevit Gaj in 1830, Serbian is a standardized variety of Serbo-Croatian, a Slavic language, of the South Slavic subgroup. Other standardized forms of Serbo-Croatian are Bosnian, Croatian, and Montenegrin and it has lower intelligibility with the Eastern South Slavic languages Bulgarian and Macedonian, than with Slovene. The 2011 census show that 42. 88% still declare Serbian to be their native language, Standard Serbian language uses both Cyrillic and Latin script. Even in official government documents this constitutional requirement is rarely enforced, Serbian is a rare example of synchronic digraphia, a situation where all literate members of a society have two interchangeable writing systems available to them. Media and publishers typically select one alphabet or another, for example, the public broadcaster, Radio Television of Serbia, predominantly uses the Cyrillic script whereas the privately run broadcasters, like RTV Pink, predominantly use the Latin script. A survey from 2014 showed that 47% of the Serbian population favors the Latin alphabet whereas 36% favors the Cyrillic one and these are the tenses of the indicative mood. Apart from the mood, there is also the imperative mood. The conditional mood has two more tenses, the first conditional and the second conditional, Serbian has active and passive voice. As for the verb forms, Serbian has one infinitive. Most Serbian words are of native Slavic lexical stock, tracing back to the Proto-Slavic language, there are many loanwords from different languages, reflecting cultural interaction throughout history. Notable loanwords were borrowed from Greek, Latin, Italian, Turkish, Hungarian, Russian, Serbian literature emerged in the Middle Ages, and included such works as Miroslavljevo jevanđelje in 1192 and Dušanov zakonik in 1349. In the mid-15th century, Serbia was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, however, some of the greatest literary works in Serbian come from this time, in the form of oral literature, the most notable form being Serbian epic poetry. The epic poems were written down in the 19th century, and preserved in oral tradition up to the 1950s
36.
Serbian Cyrillic alphabet
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The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet is an adaptation of the Cyrillic script for the Serbian language, developed in 1818 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić. It is one of the two used to write standard modern Serbian, Bosnian and Montenegrin, the other being Latin. During the same period, Croatian linguists led by Ljudevit Gaj adapted the Latin alphabet, in use in western South Slavic areas, using the same principles. As a result of this joint effort, Cyrillic and Latin alphabets for Serbo-Croatian have a complete one-to-one congruence, with the Latin digraphs Lj, Nj, and Dž counting as single letters. Vuks Cyrillic alphabet was adopted in Serbia in 1868, and was in exclusive use in the country up to the inter-war period. Both alphabets were co-official in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and later in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, in Serbia, Cyrillic is seen as being more traditional, and has the official status. It is also a script in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro, along with Latin. The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was used as a basis for the Macedonian alphabet with the work of Krste Misirkov, Cyrillic is in official use in Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Serbian language in Croatia is officially recognized as a minority language, however, Cyrillic is an important symbol of Serbian identity. In Serbia, official documents are printed in Cyrillic only even though, according to a 2014 survey, Glagolitic appears to be older, predating the introduction of Christianity, only formalized by Cyril and expanded to cover non-Greek sounds. Cyrillic was created by the orders of Boris I of Bulgaria by Cyrils disciples, the earliest form of Cyrillic was the ustav, based on Greek uncial script, augmented by ligatures and letters from the Glagolitic alphabet for consonants not found in Greek. There was no distinction between capital and lowercase letters, the literary Slavic language was based on the Bulgarian dialect of Thessaloniki. Part of the Serbian literary heritage of the Middle Ages are works such as Vukan Gospels, St. Savas Nomocanon, Dušans Code, Munich Serbian Psalter, the first printed book in Serbian was the Cetinje Octoechos. Vuk Stefanović Karadžić fled Serbia during the Serbian Revolution in 1813, there he met Jernej Kopitar, a linguist with interest in slavistics. Kopitar and Sava Mrkalj helped Vuk to reform the Serbian language and he finalized the alphabet in 1818 with the Serbian Dictionary. Karadžić also translated the New Testament into Serbian, which was published in 1868 and he wrote several books, Mala prostonarodna slaveno-serbska pesnarica and Pismenica serbskoga jezika in 1814, and two more in 1815 and 1818, all with the alphabet still in progress. In his letters from 1815-1818 he used, Ю, я, Ы and Ѳ, in his 1815 song book he dropped the Ѣ. The alphabet was adopted in 1868, four years after his death
37.
Pannonian Rusyn language
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Pannonian Rusyn or simply Rusyn is the language of the Pannonian Rusyns, in north-western Serbia and eastern Croatia. Before the re-establishment of independent Serbian and Croatian states, in the 1990s, Pannonian Rusyn is one of the official languages of the Serbian Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. The Pannonian Rusyns themselves call their language Bačvanska ruska bešeda, or Bačvanski ruski yazik, Pannonian Rusyn has also sometimes been known as Yugoslavo-Ruthenian, Vojvodina-Ruthenian or Bačka-Ruthenian. Like most other Rusyns – and unlike Serbs or Croats – most Pannonian Rusyns were traditionally members of the Ruthenian Catholic Church, religious differences have also, therefore, significantly influenced the distinctiveness of the Pannonian Rusyn language. While up to date figures are not available, the Yugoslavian federal census of 1981 counted 23,286 Rusyns, both Pannonian Rusyn and Carpathian Rusyn are East Slavic languages. There are regular television and radio programmes in Pannonian Rusyn, including the radio station Radio Novi Sad. The breakdown of minutes of Novi Sad original broadcasting by language in 2001 was,23. 5% Serbian,23. 5% Hungarian,5. 7% Slovak,5. 7% Romanian,3. 8% Rusyn,2. 2% Romany, and 0. 2% Ukrainian. Pannonian Rusyn was codified by Mikola Kočiš in Правопис руского язика and Ґраматика руского язика and is written in a Cyrillic script. The codification was necessary because the Rusyn language has never officially recognized in Ukraine. Hence Pannonian Rusyn is similar to Ukrainian alphabet, although it lacks the letter I/i, old Ruthenian Rusyn language Pannonian Rusyns Rusyn exonyms National Council of the Rusyn National Minority in Serbia
38.
Croatian language
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It is the official and literary standard of Croatia and one of the official languages of the European Union. Croatian is also one of the languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a recognized minority language in Serbia. Croatian is written in Gajs Latin alphabet, besides the Shtokavian dialect, on which Standard Croatian is based, there are two other main dialects, Chakavian and Kajkavian. It is still used now in parts of Istria, which became a crossroads of various mixtures of Chakavian with Ekavian/Ijekavian/Ikavian dialects, the cultural apex of this 17th century idiom is represented by the editions of Adrianskoga mora sirena by Petar Zrinski and Putni tovaruš by Katarina Zrinska. However, this first linguistic renaissance in Croatia was halted by the execution of Petar Zrinski. Subsequently the Croatian elite in the 18th century gradually abandoned this combined Croatian standard, specifically, three major groups of dialects were spoken on Croatian territory, and there had been several literary languages over four centuries. The leader of the Illyrian movement Ljudevit Gaj standardized the Latin alphabet in 1830–1850, the uniform Neo-Shtokavian then became common in the Croatian elite. In the 1860s, the Zagreb Philological School dominated the Croatian cultural life, drawing upon linguistic, while it was dominant over the rival Rijeka Philological School and Zadar Philological Schools, its influence waned with the rise of the Croatian Vukovians. Croatian is commonly characterized by the Ijekavian pronunciation, the use of the Latin alphabet. Some differences are absolute, while some appear mainly in the frequency of use, Croatian, although technically a form of Serbo-Croatian, is sometimes considered a distinct language by itself. Differences between various forms of Serbo-Croatian are often exaggerated for political reasons. Most Croatian linguists regard Croatian as a language that is considered key to national identity. The issue is sensitive in Croatia as the notion of a language being the most important characteristic of a nation is widely accepted. The terms Serbo-Croatian or Serbo-Croat are still used as a term for all these forms by foreign scholars. Within ex-Yugoslavia, the term has largely replaced by the ethnic terms Serbian, Croatian. In 2013, the EU started publishing a Croatian language version of its official gazette, Standard Croatian is the official language of the Republic of Croatia and, along with Standard Bosnian and Standard Serbian, one of three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is also official in the regions of Burgenland, Molise, additionally, it has co-official status alongside Romanian in the communes of Carașova and Lupac, Romania. Croatian is officially used and taught at all the universities in Croatia, there is no regulatory body that determines the proper usage of Croatian
39.
Romanian language
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Romanian is a Romance language spoken by around 24 million people as a native language, primarily in Romania and Moldova, and by another 4 million people as a second language. It has official status in Romania and the Republic of Moldova and it is one of the official languages of the European Union and the Latin Union. Romanian is a part of the Balkan-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin separated from the Western Romance during the 5th–8th centuries. To distinguish it within that group in comparative linguistics it is called Daco-Romanian as opposed to its closest relatives, Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, and Istro-Romanian. Eastern Romance languages, like the branches of Romance languages, descend from Vulgar Latin. These vestiges of military usage are unique to Romanian in its language family. s. o, sat village, șes plain, a supune, tindă veranda, țară homeland a. s. o. This linguistic evidence challenges the Roeslerian theory, the vestiges from sermo castrensis particularize the Romanian language in the neolatin area, together with its isolated history. e. With Rom. māgurā and Alb. magulë etc, the Roman Empire withdrew from Dacia in 271–272 AD, leaving it to the Goths. The history of Eastern Romance between the 3rd century and the development of Proto-Romanian by the 10th century, when the area came under the influence of the Byzantine Empire, is unknown. It is a matter of debate whether Proto-Romanian developed among Romanized people who were left behind in Dacia by the Roman withdrawal or among Latin-speakers in the Balkans south of the Danube, during the Middle Ages, Romanian became influenced by the Slavic languages and to some degree by Greek. Romanian remains unattested throughout the Middle Ages, and only enters the record in the early 16th century. The use of the denomination Romanian for our language and use of the demonym Romanians for speakers of this language predates the foundation of the modern Romanian state. In 1534, Tranquillo Andronico notes, Valachi nunc se Romanos vocant, francesco della Valle writes in 1532 that Romanians are calling themselves Romans in their own language, and he subsequently quotes the expression, Știi Românește. After travelling through Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania Ferrante Capecci accounts in 1575 that the population of these regions call themselves românești. Pierre Lescalopier writes in 1574 that those who live in Moldavia, Wallachia, the Transylvanian Saxon Johann Lebel writes in 1542 that Vlachi se numeau între ei Romuini and the Polish chronicler Stanislaw Orzechowski notes in 1554 that în limba lor walachii se numesc romini. In Palia de la Orăștie stands written «, că văzum cum toate limbile au și înfluresc întru cuvintele slăvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbă nu avem. și le-au dăruit voo fraților români. », nevertheless, the oldest extant document written in Romanian remains Neacșus letter and was written using Cyrillic letters. There are no records of any documents written in Romanian from before 1521
40.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
41.
History of Novi Sad
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This is the history of Novi Sad. Human settlement in the territory of present-day Novi Sad has been traced as far back as the Stone Age and this settlement was located on the right bank of the river Danube in the territory of present-day Petrovaradin. This region was conquered by Celts and Romans, the Celts founded the first fortress at this location, which was located on the right bank of the Danube. During Roman rule, a fortress was built in the 1st century AD with the name Cusum and was included into Roman province Pannonia. In the 5th century, Cusum was devastated by the invasion of the Huns, by the end of the 5th century, Byzantines had reconstructed the city and called it by the names Cusum and Petrikon. The city in time conquered by the Ostrogoths, Gepids, Avars, Franks, Bulgarians. The city was conquered by the Kingdom of Hungary, by the Ottoman Empire. The city was first mentioned under the name Peturwarad in documents from 1237, another name used for it was Bélakút. Petrovaradin was known under the name Pétervárad under Hungarian rule, Varadin under Ottoman rule, during the Ottoman rule, Petrovaradin had 200 houses, and three mosques. There was also a Christian quarter with 35 houses populated with ethnic Serbs, sremska Kamenica was first mentioned in historical documents in 1237. In this time the town was under administration of the Kingdom of Hungary, although its name has a Slavic origin, the name of the town derives from the Slavic word kamen and was recorded as villa Camanch in 1237 and Kamenez in 1349. Before the Ottoman conquest in the 16th century, the town had about 150 houses, while during the Ottoman rule, in 1567, the inhabitants of the town during Ottoman rule were Serbs. After the establishment of the Habsburg rule, the Habsburg census from 1702 recorded 40 houses in the town, during the 18th century, the number of Orthodox inhabitants increased to 1,000. During the Habsburg rule, the town was a possession of the Marcibányi and Karácsonyi families, before the foundation of Novi Sad in 1694, several other settlements existed on the left bank of the river Danube in the territory of present-day Novi Sad. In 1237, several settlements were mentioned to exist at this location, kűszentmárton - this settlement was located in the area of modern neighborhood of Telep. Bivalyos or Bivalo - this settlement was located in the area of modern neighborhood of Slana Bara, vásárosvárad - this settlement was located in the periphery of modern neighborhood of Klisa. Zajol I - this settlement was located in the area of neighborhoods of Klisa. Zajol II - this settlement was located in the area of modern neighborhood of Sajlovo, bistritz - this settlement was located in the area of modern neighborhood of Bistrica
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Stone Age
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The Stone Age was a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make implements with an edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted roughly 3.4 million years, and ended between 8700 BCE and 2000 BCE with the advent of metalworking, bone tools were used during this period as well but are rarely preserved in the archaeological record. The Stone Age is further subdivided by the types of tools in use. According to the age and location of the current evidence, the cradle of the genus is the East African Rift System, especially toward the north in Ethiopia, where it is bordered by grasslands. The closest relative among the living primates, the genus Pan, represents a branch that continued on in the deep forest. The rift served as a conduit for movement into southern Africa and also north down the Nile into North Africa and through the continuation of the rift in the Levant to the vast grasslands of Asia. The oldest indirect evidence found of stone tool use is fossilised animal bones with tool marks, the oldest stone tools were excavated from the site of Lomekwi 3 in West Turkana, northwestern Kenya, and date to 3.3 million years old. Prior to the discovery of these Lomekwian tools, the oldest known stone tools had been found at sites at Gona, Ethiopia, on the sediments of the paleo-Awash River. All the tools come from the Busidama Formation, which lies above a disconformity, or missing layer, the oldest sites containing tools are dated to 2. 6–2.55 mya. One of the most striking circumstances about these sites is that they are from the Late Pliocene, excavators at the locality point out that. the earliest stone tool makers were skilled flintknappers. The possible reasons behind this seeming abrupt transition from the absence of tools to the presence thereof include. The species who made the Pliocene tools remains unknown, fragments of Australopithecus garhi, Australopithecus aethiopicus and Homo, possibly Homo habilis, have been found in sites near the age of the Gona tools. Innovation of the technique of smelting ore ended the Stone Age, the first most significant metal manufactured was bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, each of which was smelted separately. The Chalcolithic by convention is the period of the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age, the transition out of the Stone Age occurred between 6000 BCE and 2500 BCE for much of humanity living in North Africa and Eurasia. Note the Rudna Glava mine in Serbia, Ötzi the Iceman, a mummy from about 3300 BCE carried with him a copper axe and a flint knife. In regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa, the Stone Age was followed directly by the Iron Age, the Middle East and southeastern Asian regions progressed past Stone Age technology around 6000 BCE. Europe, and the rest of Asia became post–Stone Age societies by about 4000 BCE, the proto-Inca cultures of South America continued at a Stone Age level until around 2000 BCE, when gold, copper and silver made their entrance
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listen); Hungarian: Újvidék; Slovak: Nový Sad; see below for other names) is the second largest city of Serbia, the capital of the autonomous province of Vojvodina and the administrative center of the South Bačka District. It is located in the southern part of the Pannonian Plain, on the border of the Bačka and Srem geographical regions, on the banks of the Danube river, facing the northern slopes of Fruška Gora mountain.
Habsburg Monarchy 1694–1804
Austro-Hungarian Empire 1867–1918
Kingdom of Yugoslavia[13] 1918–1941
Kingdom of Hungary 1941–1944
SFR Yugoslavia[14] 1944–1992
Serbia and Montenegro[15] 1992–2006
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Novi Sad travel guide from Wikivoyage
