1.
Latin American
–
Latin America is a group of countries and dependencies in the Americas where Romance languages are predominant. It is therefore broader than the terms Ibero-America or Hispanic America—though it usually excludes French Canada and it has an area of approximately 19,197,000 km2, almost 13% of the Earths land surface area. As of 2015, its population was estimated at more than 626 million and in 2014, Latin America had a combined nominal GDP of 5,573,397 million USD and a GDP PPP of 7,531,585 million USD. The term Latin America was first used in 1861 in La revue des races Latines, a further investigation of the concept of Latin America is by Michel Gobat in the American Historical Review. The term was first used in Paris in an 1856 conference by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao and this term was also used in 1861 by French scholars in La revue des races Latines, a magazine dedicated to the Pan-Latinism movement. Latin America is, therefore, defined as all parts of the Americas that were once part of the Spanish. By this definition, Latin America is coterminous with Ibero-America and this definition emphasizes a similar socioeconomic history of the region, which was characterized by formal or informal colonialism, rather than cultural aspects. As such, some sources avoid this oversimplification by using the phrase Latin America, the distinction between Latin America and Anglo-America is a convention based on the predominant languages in the Americas by which Romance-language and English-speaking cultures are distinguished. Latin America can be subdivided into several subregions based on geography, politics, demographics and it may be subdivided on linguistic grounds into Hispanic America, Portuguese America and French America. *, Not a sovereign state The concept of Latin America has been criticized by a number of intellectuals, the earliest known settlement was identified at Monte Verde, near Puerto Montt in Southern Chile. Its occupation dates to some 14,000 years ago and there is disputed evidence of even earlier occupation. Over the course of millennia, people spread to all parts of the continents, by the first millennium CE, South Americas vast rainforests, mountains, plains and coasts were the home of tens of millions of people. Some groups formed more permanent settlements such as the Chibcha and the Tairona groups and these groups are in the circum Caribbean region. The Chibchas of Colombia, the Quechuas and Aymaras of Bolivia, the region was home to many indigenous peoples and advanced civilizations, including the Aztecs, Toltecs, Maya, and Inca. The Aztec empire was ultimately the most powerful civilization known throughout the Americas, with the arrival of the Europeans following Christopher Columbus voyages, the indigenous elites, such as the Incas and Aztecs, lost power to the heavy European invasion. Hernándo Cortés seized the Aztec elites power with the help of local groups who had favored the Aztec elite, epidemics of diseases brought by the Europeans, such as smallpox and measles, wiped out a large portion of the indigenous population. Historians cannot determine the number of natives who died due to European diseases, due to the lack of written records, specific numbers are hard to verify. Many of the survivors were forced to work in European plantations, intermixing between the indigenous peoples and the European colonists was very common, and, by the end of the colonial period, people of mixed ancestry formed majorities in several colonies
Latin American
–
Presencia de América Latina (Presence of Latin America, 1964–65) is a 300 square meters (3,200 sq ft) mural at the hall of the Arts House of the University of Concepción, Chile. It is also known as Latin America's Integration.
Latin American
–
Latin America
Latin American
–
The Parc de l'Amérique-Latine in
Quebec City, the capital of the French-speaking Canadian province of Quebec, celebrates the cultural ties between Quebec and the other people who speak a Romance language in the Americas.
Latin American
–
A view of
Machu Picchu, a pre-Columbian
Inca site in
Peru. One of the
New Seven Wonders of the World.
2.
Folk music
–
Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th century folk revival. The term originated in the 19th century, but is applied to music older than that. Some types of music are also called world music. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways, as music transmitted orally, music with unknown composers and it has been contrasted with commercial and classical styles. Starting in the century, a new form of popular folk music evolved from traditional folk music. This process and period is called the revival and reached a zenith in the 1960s. This form of music is called contemporary folk music or folk revival music to distinguish it from earlier folk forms. Smaller, similar revivals have occurred elsewhere in the world at other times and this type of folk music also includes fusion genres such as folk rock, folk metal, electric folk, and others. Even individual songs may be a blend of the two, a consistent definition of traditional folk music is elusive. The terms folk music, folk song, and folk dance are comparatively recent expressions and they are extensions of the term folklore, which was coined in 1846 by the English antiquarian William Thoms to describe the traditions, customs, and superstitions of the uncultured classes. Traditional folk music also includes most indigenous music, however, despite the assembly of an enormous body of work over some two centuries, there is still no certain definition of what folk music is. Some do not even agree that the term Folk Music should be used, Folk music may tend to have certain characteristics but it cannot clearly be differentiated in purely musical terms. One meaning often given is that of old songs, with no known composers, the fashioning and re-fashioning of the music by the community that give it its folk character. Such definitions depend upon processes rather than abstract musical types, one widely used definition is simply Folk music is what the people sing. For Scholes, as well as for Cecil Sharp and Béla Bartók, Folk music was already. seen as the authentic expression of a way of life now past or about to disappear, particularly in a community uninfluenced by art music and by commercial and printed song. In these terms folk music may be seen as part of a schema comprising four types, primitive or tribal, elite or art, folk. Music in this genre is often called traditional music. Although the term is only descriptive, in some cases people use it as the name of a genre
Folk music
–
Béla Bartók recording Slovak peasant singers in 1908
Folk music
–
Indians always distinguished between classical and folk music, though in the past even classical Indian music used to rely on the unwritten transmission of repertoire.
Folk music
–
Armenian traditional musicians
Folk music
–
Assyrians playing
zurna and
Davul, the typically used instruments for their folk music.
3.
Guitar music
–
The guitar is a musical instrument classified as a fretted string instrument with anywhere from four to 18 strings, usually having six. The sound is projected either acoustically, using a wooden or plastic and wood box, or through electrical amplifier. It is typically played by strumming or plucking the strings with the fingers, the guitar is a type of chordophone, traditionally constructed from wood and strung with either gut, nylon or steel strings and distinguished from other chordophones by its construction and tuning. There are three types of modern acoustic guitar, the classical guitar, the steel-string acoustic guitar, and the archtop guitar. The tone of a guitar is produced by the strings vibration, amplified by the hollow body of the guitar. The term finger-picking can also refer to a tradition of folk, blues, bluegrass. The acoustic bass guitar is an instrument that is one octave below a regular guitar. Early amplified guitars employed a body, but a solid wood body was eventually found more suitable during the 1960s and 1970s. As with acoustic guitars, there are a number of types of guitars, including hollowbody guitars, archtop guitars and solid-body guitars. The electric guitar has had a influence on popular culture. The guitar is used in a variety of musical genres worldwide. It is recognized as an instrument in genres such as blues, bluegrass, country, flamenco, folk, jazz, jota, mariachi, metal, punk, reggae, rock, soul. The term is used to refer to a number of chordophones that were developed and used across Europe, beginning in the 12th century and, later, in the Americas. The modern word guitar, and its antecedents, has applied to a wide variety of chordophones since classical times. Many influences are cited as antecedents to the modern guitar, at least two instruments called guitars were in use in Spain by 1200, the guitarra latina and the so-called guitarra morisca. The guitarra morisca had a back, wide fingerboard. The guitarra Latina had a sound hole and a narrower neck. By the 14th century the qualifiers moresca or morisca and latina had been dropped, and it had six courses, lute-like tuning in fourths and a guitar-like body, although early representations reveal an instrument with a sharply cut waist
Guitar music
–
Illustration in a
Carolingian psalter from the 9th century showing an instrument of the
chordophone family, most probably a
lute
Guitar music
–
A
classical guitar with nylon
strings
Guitar music
–
A guitarra latina (left) and a guitarra morisca (right), Spain, 13th century
Guitar music
–
Guitar collection in
Museu de la Música de Barcelona
4.
Bass guitar
–
The bass guitar is a stringed instrument played primarily with the fingers or thumb, by plucking, slapping, popping, strumming, tapping, thumping, or picking with a plectrum, often known as a pick. The bass guitar is similar in appearance and construction to a guitar, but with a longer neck and scale length. The four-string bass, by far the most common, is tuned the same as the double bass. The bass guitar is an instrument, as it is notated in bass clef an octave higher than it sounds to avoid excessive ledger lines. Like the electric guitar, the guitar has pickups and it is plugged into an amplifier and speaker on stage, or into a larger PA system using a DI unit. Since the 1960s, the guitar has largely replaced the double bass in popular music as the bass instrument in the rhythm section. While types of basslines vary widely from one style of music to another, many styles of music utilise the bass guitar, including rock, heavy metal, pop, punk rock, country, reggae, gospel, blues, symphonic rock, and jazz. It is often a solo instrument in jazz, jazz fusion, Latin, funk, progressive rock and other rock, the adoption of a guitar form made the instrument easier to hold and transport than any of the existing stringed bass instruments. The addition of frets enabled bassists to play in more easily than on acoustic or electric upright basses. Around 100 of these instruments were made during this period, around 1947, Tutmarcs son, Bud, began marketing a similar bass under the Serenader brand name, prominently advertised in the nationally distributed L. D. Heater Music Company wholesale jobber catalogue of 1948, however, the Tutmarc family inventions did not achieve market success. In the 1950s, Leo Fender, with the help of his employee George Fullerton and his Fender Precision Bass, which began production in October 1951, became a widely copied industry standard. This split pickup, introduced in 1957, appears to have been two mandolin pickups, the pole pieces and leads of the coils were reversed with respect to each other, producing a humbucking effect. Humbucking is a design that electrically cancels the effect of any AC hum, the Fender Bass was a revolutionary new instrument, which could be easily transported, and which was less prone to feedback when amplified than acoustic bass instruments. Monk Montgomery was the first bass player to tour with the Fender bass guitar, roy Johnson, and Shifty Henry with Louis Jordan & His Tympany Five, were other early Fender bass pioneers. Bill Black, playing with Elvis Presley, switched from bass to the Fender Precision Bass around 1957. The bass guitar was intended to appeal to guitarists as well as upright bass players, following Fenders lead, in 1953, Gibson released the first short scale violin-shaped electric bass with extendable end pin, allowing it to be played upright or horizontally. In 1959 these were followed by the more conventional-looking EB-0 Bass, the EB-0 was very similar to a Gibson SG in appearance
Bass guitar
–
A
Music Man StingRay bass
Bass guitar
–
(a standard tuned 4-string bass guitar)
Bass guitar
–
Musical instrument inventor Paul Tutmarc outside his music store in Seattle, Washington
Bass guitar
–
Design patent issued to Leo Fender for the second-generation
Precision Bass
5.
Charango
–
About 66 cm long, the charango was traditionally made with the shell from the back of an armadillo, but also it can be made of wood, which some believe to be a better resonator. Wood is more used in modern instruments. Charangos for children may also be made from calabash, many contemporary charangos are now made with different types of wood. It typically has 10 strings in five courses of 2 strings each, the charango is primarily played in traditional Andean music, but is sometimes used by other Latin American musicians. A charango player is called a charanguista, when the Spanish conquistadores came to South America, they brought the vihuela with them. It is not clear whether the charango is a descendent of a particular Spanish stringed instrument, it may have evolved from the vihuela, bandurria. There are many stories of how the charango came to be made with its distinctive diminutive soundbox of armadillo, one story says that the native musicians liked the sound the vihuela made, but lacked the technology to shape the wood in that manner. Around here in the Andes of Bolivia they called them Charangos, Turino mentions that he found carved sirens representing playing charangos in some Colonial churches in the highlands of Bolivia. One of the churches to which Turino refers may well be that mentioned by Cavour, construction on the San Lorenzo edifice began in 1547, the origin of the term charango is not entirely clear. One source suggests that the instrument took its name from its players, Another traces the term to the alteration of a Spanish term, charanga, which could refer to either a type of military music played on wind instruments, or an out-of-tune orchestra. As support for this he points to the practice of the Conquistadors appropriating local terminology. Charanguista Ernesto Cavour disagrees, and tends to support the second origin, maintaining that the word comes from a mispronunciation of the Spanish word “charanga”. The tern charanga, for example, was used to refer to a small instrumental band. Charanguero, meanwhile, denoted something rough or rustic, nevertheless, the small Spanish-American guitar has been known by the name changango for more than one hundred years. In a footnote to his correspondence with Paulino Lucero regarding the Great War, Hilario Ascasubi explains this situation with indisputable clarity, Changango, research and debate on this topic continues in scholarly circles. Traditionally a charango was made with an armadillo shell for the back and wood for the soundbox top. While still common, this is no longer the norm, rather they are now made of wood. Unlike most wooden lutes, the body and neck are made of a single block of wood
Charango
–
A modern charango.
Charango
–
A sign in
Potosi, Bolivia, in the style of a charango with the words 'Cuna del Charango' (Birthplace of the Charango).
Charango
–
A traditional charango made of armadillo, today superseded by wood made charangos, in
Museu de la Música de Barcelona
Charango
–
Designation of the parts of the charango
6.
Drum
–
The drum is a member of the percussion group of musical instruments. In the Hornbostel-Sachs classification system, it is a membranophone, Drums consist of at least one membrane, called a drumhead or drum skin, that is stretched over a shell and struck, either directly with the players hands, or with a drum stick, to produce sound. There is usually a head on the underside of the drum. Other techniques have been used to cause drums to make sound, Drums are the worlds oldest and most ubiquitous musical instruments, and the basic design has remained virtually unchanged for thousands of years. Drums may be played individually, with the using a single drum. Others are normally played in a set of two or more, all played by the one player, such as drums and timpani. A number of different drums together with form the basic modern drum kit. Drums are usually played by striking with the hand, or with one or two sticks, in many traditional cultures, drums have a symbolic function and are used in religious ceremonies. Drums are often used in therapy, especially hand drums, because of their tactile nature. In popular music and jazz, drums usually refers to a kit or a set of drums. Drums acquired even divine status in places such as Burundi, where the karyenda was a symbol of the power of the king, the shell almost invariably has a circular opening over which the drumhead is stretched, but the shape of the remainder of the shell varies widely. In the western tradition, the most usual shape is a cylinder, although timpani, for example. Other shapes include a design, truncated cones, goblet shaped. Drums with cylindrical shells can be open at one end, or can have two drum heads, single-headed drums typically consist of a skin stretched over an enclosed space, or over one of the ends of a hollow vessel. Drums with two heads covering both ends of a shell often have a small hole somewhat halfway between the two heads, the shell forms a resonating chamber for the resulting sound. Exceptions include the African slit drum, also known as a log drum as it is made from a tree trunk. Drums with two heads can also have a set of wires, called snares, held across the head, top head. The heads tension can be adjusted by loosening or tightening the rods, many such drums have six to ten tension rods
Drum
–
Talking drum.
Drum
–
Drum carried by John Unger, Company B, 40th Regiment New York Veteran Volunteer Infantry Mozart Regiment, December 20, 1863
Drum
–
Several
American Indian -style drums for sale at the
National Museum of the American Indian.
Drum
–
Moche ceramic vessel depicting a drummer.
Larco Museum Collection. Lima-Peru
7.
Guitar
–
The guitar is a musical instrument classified as a fretted string instrument with anywhere from four to 18 strings, usually having six. The sound is projected either acoustically, using a wooden or plastic and wood box, or through electrical amplifier. It is typically played by strumming or plucking the strings with the fingers, the guitar is a type of chordophone, traditionally constructed from wood and strung with either gut, nylon or steel strings and distinguished from other chordophones by its construction and tuning. There are three types of modern acoustic guitar, the classical guitar, the steel-string acoustic guitar, and the archtop guitar. The tone of a guitar is produced by the strings vibration, amplified by the hollow body of the guitar. The term finger-picking can also refer to a tradition of folk, blues, bluegrass. The acoustic bass guitar is an instrument that is one octave below a regular guitar. Early amplified guitars employed a body, but a solid wood body was eventually found more suitable during the 1960s and 1970s. As with acoustic guitars, there are a number of types of guitars, including hollowbody guitars, archtop guitars and solid-body guitars. The electric guitar has had a influence on popular culture. The guitar is used in a variety of musical genres worldwide. It is recognized as an instrument in genres such as blues, bluegrass, country, flamenco, folk, jazz, jota, mariachi, metal, punk, reggae, rock, soul. The term is used to refer to a number of chordophones that were developed and used across Europe, beginning in the 12th century and, later, in the Americas. The modern word guitar, and its antecedents, has applied to a wide variety of chordophones since classical times. Many influences are cited as antecedents to the modern guitar, at least two instruments called guitars were in use in Spain by 1200, the guitarra latina and the so-called guitarra morisca. The guitarra morisca had a back, wide fingerboard. The guitarra Latina had a sound hole and a narrower neck. By the 14th century the qualifiers moresca or morisca and latina had been dropped, and it had six courses, lute-like tuning in fourths and a guitar-like body, although early representations reveal an instrument with a sharply cut waist
Guitar
–
Illustration in a
Carolingian psalter from the 9th century showing an instrument of the
chordophone family, most probably a
lute
Guitar
–
A
classical guitar with nylon
strings
Guitar
–
A guitarra latina (left) and a guitarra morisca (right), Spain, 13th century
Guitar
–
Guitar collection in
Museu de la Música de Barcelona
8.
Panflute
–
The pan flutes are a group of musical instruments based on the principle of the closed tube, consisting of multiple pipes of gradually increasing length. Multiple varieties of panflutes have long been popular as folk instruments, the pipes are typically made from bamboo, giant cane, or local reeds. Other materials include wood, plastic, metal and ivory, the pan flute is named after Pan, the Greek god of nature and shepherds often depicted with such an instrument. The pan flutes tubes are stopped at one end, at which the wave is reflected giving a note an octave lower than that produced by an open pipe of equal length. In the traditional South American style, pipes are fine-tuned to correct pitch by placing small pebbles or dry corn kernels into the bottom of the pipes, contemporary makers of curved Romanian-style panpipes use wax to tune new instruments. Special tools are used to place or remove the wax, corks and rubber stoppers are also used, and are easier to quickly tune pipes. The pan flute is an end-blown flute, sound is produced by the vibration of an air-stream blowing across an open hole at the end of a resonating tube. The length of the tube determines the fundamental frequency, an overblown harmonic register is near a 12th above the fundamental in cylindrical tubes, but can approach an octave jump if a decreasing taper is used. According to the Fundamental Principle for pan flutes, the frequency, every time the pitch goes up one octave, the frequency doubles. Because there are 12 notes in a scale or a full octave. By this, it is possible to calculate the length of any pipe, the formula for calculating the length of a pan flute pipe is L = /4. Because of a property of compression within the tube, the length must be a little shorter to correct flat pitch, the extra length is helpful for a maker, who can use a cork or plug at the bottom to adjust the pitch. Some instruments use wax or pellets to tune the fundamental pitch of each tube, a tube that has a diameter 1/10 of its length yields a typical tone colour. An inner diameter range between 1/7 and 1/14 of the length L is acceptable, a narrow tube will sound reedy, while a wide one will sound flutey. If you are a perfectionist, multiply the bore diameter by 0.82 and this compensates for internal compression slowing frequency and the lips partially covering the voicing. Only tiny adjustments will be needed then to adjust fundamental pitch for air density, the pan flute is played by blowing horizontally across an open end against the sharp inner edge of the pipes. Each pipe is tuned to a keynote, called the fundamental frequency, by overblowing, that is, increasing the pressure of breath and tension of lips, odd harmonics, near a 12th in cylindrical tubes, may also be produced. The Romanian pan flute has the pipes arranged in a curved array, an advanced player can play any scale and in any key
Panflute
–
Andean pan flute, or zampoña.
Panflute
–
Pan and Daphnis - 1st century BC Roman replica of 2nd BC Greek original
Panflute
–
Two Romanian pan flutes
Panflute
–
A Peruvian-American Airman playing an
Incan zampoña.
9.
Argentina
–
Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
Argentina
–
The
Cave of the Hands in
Santa Cruz province, with indigenous artwork dating from 13,000–9,000 years ago
Argentina
Argentina
–
The surrender of Beresford to
Santiago de Liniers during the
British invasions of the Río de la Plata
Argentina
–
Portrait of General
José de San Martin,
Libertador of Argentina,
Chile and
Peru
10.
Brasil
–
Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
Brasil
–
Megaliths in the
Solstice Archaeological Park, in
Amapá, erected between 500 and 2000 years ago, probably to carry out
astronomical observations.
Brasil
–
Flag
Brasil
–
Representation of the landing of
Pedro Álvares Cabral in
Porto Seguro, 1500.
Brasil
–
Painting showing the arrest of
Tiradentes; he was sentenced to death for his involvement in the best known
movement for independence in Colonial Brazil.
11.
Bolivia
–
Bolivia, officially known as the Plurinational State of Bolivia, is a landlocked country located in western-central South America. It is bordered to the north and east by Brazil, to the southeast by Paraguay, to the south by Argentina, to the southwest by Chile, and to the northwest by Peru. One-third of the country is the Andean mountain range, with one of its largest cities and principal economic centers, El Alto, Bolivia is one of two landlocked countries that lie outside Afro-Eurasia. Bolivia is geographically the largest landlocked country in the Americas, but remains a small country in economic. Before Spanish colonization, the Andean region of Bolivia was part of the Inca Empire, Spanish conquistadors arriving from Cuzco and Asunción took control of the region in the 16th century. During the Spanish colonial period Bolivia was administered by the Royal Audiencia of Charcas, spain built its empire in great part upon the silver that was extracted from Bolivias mines. After the first call for independence in 1809,16 years of war followed before the establishment of the Republic, named for Simón Bolívar, on 6 August 1825. Since independence, Bolivia has endured periods of political and economic instability, including the loss of peripheral territories to its neighbors, such as Acre. The countrys population, estimated at 11 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Mestizos, the racial and social segregation that arose from Spanish colonialism has continued to the modern era. Spanish is the official and predominant language, although 36 indigenous languages also have official status, of which the most commonly spoken are Guarani, Aymara, modern Bolivia is constitutionally a unitary state, divided into nine departments. Its geography varies from the peaks of the Andes in the West, to the Eastern Lowlands and it is a developing country, with a medium ranking in the Human Development Index and a poverty level of 53 percent. Its main economic activities include agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and manufacturing such as textiles, clothing, refined metals. Bolivia is very wealthy in minerals, especially tin, Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar, a leader in the Spanish American wars of independence. Sucre opted to create a new nation and, with local support. The original name was Republic of Bolívar, some days later, congressman Manuel Martín Cruz proposed, If from Romulus comes Rome, then from Bolívar comes Bolivia. The name was approved by the Republic on 3 October 1825, the region now known as Bolivia had been occupied for over 2,500 years when the Aymara arrived. However, present-day Aymara associate themselves with the ancient civilization of the Tiwanaku culture which had its capital at Tiwanaku, the capital city of Tiwanaku dates from as early as 1500 BC when it was a small, agriculturally based village. The community grew to urban proportions between AD600 and AD800, becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes
Bolivia
–
Former President, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada
Bolivia
–
Flag
Bolivia
–
Current President,
Evo Morales
Bolivia
–
Evo Morales' inauguration as President.
12.
Chile
–
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
Chile
–
The
Mapuche people were the original inhabitants of southern and central Chile.
Chile
–
Flag
Chile
–
Pedro de Valdivia
Chile
–
Bernardo O'Higgins, The Supreme Director of Chile.
13.
Colombia
–
Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
Colombia
–
San Agustín Archaeological Park
Colombia
Colombia
–
Lost City
Colombia
–
Muisca raft. The figure refers to the ceremony of the legend of
El Dorado. The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries.
14.
Cuba
–
Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is a country comprising the island of Cuba as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean where the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and it is south of both the U. S. state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Haiti, and north of Jamaica. Havana is the largest city and capital, other cities include Santiago de Cuba. Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean, with an area of 109,884 square kilometres, prior to Spanish colonization in the late 15th century, Cuba was inhabited by Amerindian tribes. It remained a colony of Spain until the Spanish–American War of 1898, as a fragile republic, Cuba attempted to strengthen its democratic system, but mounting political radicalization and social strife culminated in the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1952. Further unrest and instability led to Batistas ousting in January 1959 by the July 26 Movement, since 1965, the state has been governed by the Communist Party of Cuba. A point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, a nuclear war broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America, Cuba is a Marxist–Leninist one-party republic, where the role of the vanguard Communist Party is enshrined in the Constitution. Independent observers have accused the Cuban government of human rights abuses. It is one of the worlds last planned economies and its economy is dominated by the exports of sugar, tobacco, coffee, according to the Human Development Index, Cuba is described as a country with high human development and is ranked the eighth highest in North America. It also ranks highly in some metrics of national performance, including health care, the name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant, authors who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by Columbus for the town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal. Before the arrival of the Spanish, Cuba was inhabited by three distinct tribes of indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Taíno, the Guanajatabey, and the Ciboney people. The ancestors of the Ciboney migrated from the mainland of South America, the Taíno arrived from Hispanola sometime in the 3rd century A. D. When Columbus arrived they were the dominant culture in Cuba, having a population of 150,000. The name Cuba comes from the native Taíno language and it is derived from either coabana meaning great place, or from cubao meaning where fertile land is abundant. The Taíno were farmers, while the Ciboney were farmers as well as fishers and hunter-gatherers, Columbus claimed the island for the new Kingdom of Spain and named it Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias. In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa, other towns soon followed, including San Cristobal de la Habana, founded in 1515, which later became the capital
Cuba
–
Hatuey, an early
Taíno chief of Cuba.
Cuba
–
Flag
Cuba
–
Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar,
conquistador of Cuba.
Cuba
–
Slaves in Cuba unloading ice from Maine, c. 1832.
15.
Nicaragua
–
Nicaragua, officially the Republic of Nicaragua, is the largest country in the Central American isthmus. Nicaraguas capital, Managua, is the countrys largest city and the third-largest city in Central America, the multi-ethnic population of six million includes indigenous peoples, Europeans, Africans, and Asians. Native tribes on the eastern coast speak their own languages, the Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century. Nicaragua gained independence from Spain in 1821, since its independence, Nicaragua has undergone periods of political unrest, dictatorship, and fiscal crisis—the most notable causes that led to the Nicaraguan Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. Nicaragua is a democratic republic. The biological diversity, warm climate and active volcanoes make Nicaragua an increasingly popular tourist destination. The name Nicaragua was coined by Spanish colonists based on the name Nicarao, when Spaniard Gil González Dávila came to Nicaragua in 1521 he found in the areas between Rivas and San Jorge the first pre-Columbian natives of Nicaragua. At the time the city was called Quauhcapolca and the cacique leaders name was Macuilmiquiztli. The Pipil migrated to Nicaragua from central Mexico after 500 BC, meanwhile, the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by other peoples, mostly Chibcha language groups. They had coalesced in Central America and migrated also to present-day northern Colombia and they lived a life based primarily on hunting and gathering. In 1502, Christopher Columbus became the first European known to have reached what is now Nicaragua as he sailed southeast toward the Isthmus of Panama, on his fourth voyage, Columbus explored the Miskito Coast on the Atlantic side of Nicaragua. The Spanish attempted to convert all three tribes to Christianity, Nicaragua and Nicarao and their people converted, but Dirangen, however, did not, the first attempt to conquer what is now known as Nicaragua was by Gil González Dávila, who arrived in Panama in January 1520. The first Spanish permanent settlements were founded in 1524, conquistador Francisco Hernández de Córdoba founded two of Nicaraguas principal towns in 1524, Granada on Lake Nicaragua was the first settlement, followed by León at a location west of Lake Managua. Córdoba soon built defenses for the cities and fought against incursions by other conquistadors, Córdoba was later publicly beheaded following a power struggle with Pedro Arias Dávila. His tomb and remains were discovered in 2000 in the ruins of León Viejo, the clashes among Spanish forces did not impede their destruction of the indigenous people and their culture. The series of battles came to be known as the War of the Captains, Pedro Arias Dávila was a winner, although he had lost control of Panama, he moved to Nicaragua and successfully established his base in León. Through adroit diplomatic machinations, he became the first governor of the colony, many indigenous people died as a result of new infectious diseases, compounded by neglect by the Spaniards, who controlled their subsistence. In 1610, the Momotombo volcano erupted, destroying the capital and it was rebuilt northwest of what is now known as the ruins of Old León
Nicaragua
–
2,100-year-old human footprints called "huellas de acahualinca" preserved in volcanic mud near
Lake Managua.
Nicaragua
–
Flag
Nicaragua
–
The Colonial
City of Granada near
Lake Nicaragua, is one of the most visited sites in
Central America.
Nicaragua
–
The
Fortress of the Immaculate Conception was constructed in the late 17th century to protect locals in neighboring
Granada from
pirate attacks. Today, it is one of Nicaragua's main tourist attractions.
16.
Paraguay
–
Paraguay lies on both banks of the Paraguay River, which runs through the center of the country from north to south. Due to its location in South America, it is sometimes referred to as Corazón de Sudamérica. Paraguay is one of the two landlocked countries that lie outside Afro-Eurasia, Paraguay is the smallest landlocked country in the Americas. The indigenous Guaraní had been living in Paraguay for at least a millennium before the Spanish conquered the territory in the 16th century, Spanish settlers and Jesuit missions introduced Christianity and Spanish culture to the region. Paraguay was a colony of the Spanish Empire, with few urban centers and settlers. Following independence from Spain in 1811, Paraguay was ruled by a series of dictators who generally implemented isolationist and protectionist policies and he was toppled in an internal military coup, and free multi-party elections were organized and held for the first time in 1993. A year later, Paraguay joined Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay to found Mercosur, as of 2009, Paraguays population was estimated to be at around 6.5 million, most of whom are concentrated in the southeast region of the country. The capital and largest city is Asunción, of which the area is home to nearly a third of Paraguays population. In contrast to most Latin American nations, Paraguays indigenous language and culture, Guaraní, in each census, residents predominantly identify as mestizo, reflecting years of intermarriage among the different ethnic groups. Guaraní is recognized as an official language alongside Spanish, and both languages are spoken in the country. There is no consensus for the derivation or meaning of the name Paraguay, the most common interpretations include, Born from water Riverine of many varieties River which originates a sea Fray Antonio Ruiz de Montoya said that it meant river crowned. The Spanish officer and scientist Félix de Azara suggests two derivations, the Payaguas, referring to the tribe who lived along the river. The French-Argentine historian and writer Paul Groussac argued that it meant river that flows through the sea, Paraguayan poet and ex-president Juan Natalicio González said it meant river of the inhabitants of the sea. Indigenous peoples have inhabited this area for thousands of years, pre-Columbian society in the region which is now Paraguay consisted of semi-nomadic tribes that were known for their warrior traditions. These indigenous tribes belonged to five language families, which was the basis of their major divisions. Differing language groups were generally competitive over resources and territories and they were further divided into tribes by speaking languages in branches of these families. Today 17 separate ethnolinguistic groups remain, the first Europeans in the area were Spanish explorers in 1516. The Spanish explorer Juan de Salazar de Espinosa founded the settlement of Asunción on 15 August 1537, the city eventually became the center of a Spanish colonial province of Paraguay
Paraguay
–
José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, Paraguay's first president.
Paraguay
–
Flag (obverse)
Paraguay
–
Francisco Solano López
Paraguay
–
The
Battle of Tuyutí, May 1866.
17.
Peru
–
Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
Peru
–
Sculpted
Chavin head embedded in one of the walls of the temple of
Chavín de Huantar
Peru
Peru
–
A
Moche ceramic vessel from the 5th century depicting a man's head
Peru
–
The citadel of
Machu Picchu, an iconic symbol of pre-Columbian Peru
18.
Portugal
–
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
Portugal
–
Citânia de Briteiros, in the
Minho Province, is the best preserved
Iron Age and
Castro culture site in Portugal.
Portugal
–
Flag
Portugal
–
The
Roman Temple of Évora, in the
Alentejo, is a symbol of
Lusitania, Roman rule in Portugal.
Portugal
–
Monument in Porto to
Vimara Peres, first ruler of the County of Portugal
19.
Spain
–
By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
Spain
–
Lady of Elche
Spain
–
Flag
Spain
–
Altamira Cave paintings, in
Cantabria.
Spain
–
Celtic castro in
A Guarda,
Galicia.
20.
Uruguay
–
Uruguay, officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, is a country in the southeastern region of South America. It borders Argentina to its west and Brazil to its north and east, with the Río de la Plata to the south and the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast. Uruguay is home to an estimated 3.42 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the area of its capital and largest city. With an area of approximately 176,000 square kilometres, Uruguay is geographically the second-smallest nation in South America, only larger in size than Suriname. Uruguay was inhabited by the Charrúa people for approximately 4000 years before the Portuguese established Colonia del Sacramento, one of the oldest European settlements in the region, in 1680. Montevideo was founded as a stronghold by the Spanish in the early 18th century. Uruguay won its independence between 1811 and 1828, following a struggle between Spain, Portugal, Argentina and Brazil. It remained subject to influence and intervention throughout the 19th century. Modern Uruguay is a constitutional republic, with a president who serves as both head of state and head of government. Uruguay is ranked first in Latin America in democracy, peace, lack of corruption, e-government, on a per-capita basis, Uruguay contributes more troops to United Nations peace-keeping missions than any other country. It ranks second in the region on economic freedom, income equality, per-capita income, Uruguay is the third-best country on the continent in terms of HDI, GDP growth, innovation and infrastructure. It is regarded as a country by the UN. Uruguay is also the third-best ranked in the world in e-Participation, Uruguay is an important global exporter of combed wool, rice, soybeans, frozen beef, malt and milk. Nearly 95% of Uruguays electricity comes from energy, mostly hydroelectric facilities. The Economist named Uruguay country of the year in 2013, acknowledging the innovative policy of legalizing the production, sale, the name of the namesake river comes from the Spanish pronunciation of the regional Guarani word for it. There are several interpretations, including bird-river, the name could also refer to a river snail called uruguá that was plentiful in the water. The only documented inhabitants of Uruguay before European colonization of the area were the Charrúa, the Portuguese discovered the region of present-day Uruguay in 1512. The Spanish arrived in present-day Uruguay in 1516, the indigenous peoples fierce resistance to conquest, combined with the absence of gold and silver, limited their settlement in the region during the 16th and 17th centuries
Uruguay
–
A 5 peso coin celebrating the 150th anniversary of Uruguay's independence
Uruguay
–
Flag
Uruguay
–
The oath of the
Thirty-Three Orientals by Uruguayan painter
Juan Manuel Blanes
Uruguay
–
The
Battle of Caseros, 1852
21.
Venezuela
–
Venezuela, officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, is a federal republic located on the northern coast of South America. It is bordered by Colombia on the west, Brazil on the south, Guyana on the east, Venezuela covers 916,445 km2 and has an estimated population of 31775371. The territory now known as Venezuela was colonized by Spain in 1522 amid resistance from indigenous peoples and it gained full independence as a separate country in 1830. During the 19th century, Venezuela suffered political turmoil and autocracy, since 1958, the country has had a series of democratic governments. This new constitution changed the name of the country to República Bolivariana de Venezuela. Venezuela is a presidential republic consisting of 23 states, the Capital District. Venezuela also claims all Guyanese territory west of the Essequibo River, oil was discovered in the early 20th century, and Venezuela has the worlds largest known oil reserves and has been one of the worlds leading exporters of oil. Previously an underdeveloped exporter of commodities such as coffee and cocoa, oil quickly came to dominate exports. The recovery of oil prices in the early 2000s gave Venezuela oil funds not seen since the 1980s, the Venezuelan government then established populist policies that initially boosted the Venezuelan economy and increased social spending, significantly reducing economic inequality and poverty. However, such policies later became controversial since they destabilized the economy, resulting in hyperinflation, an economic depression. According to the most popular and accepted version, in 1499, the stilt houses in the area of Lake Maracaibo reminded the navigator, Amerigo Vespucci, of the city of Venice, so he named the region Veneziola Piccola Venezia. The name acquired its current spelling as a result of Spanish influence, where the suffix -uela is used as a term, thus. The German language 16th century-term for the area, Klein-Venedig, also means little Venice, however, Martín Fernández de Enciso, a member of the Vespucci and Ojeda crew, gave a different account. In his work Summa de geografía, he states that they found people who called themselves the Veneciuela. Thus, the name Venezuela may have evolved from the native word and it is not known how many people lived in Venezuela before the Spanish conquest, it has been estimated at around one million. In addition to indigenous peoples known today, the population included historic groups such as the Kalina, Auaké, Caquetio, Mariche, the Timoto-Cuica culture was the most complex society in Pre-Columbian Venezuela, with pre-planned permanent villages, surrounded by irrigated, terraced fields. They also stored water in tanks and their houses were made primarily of stone and wood with thatched roofs. They were peaceful, for the most part, and depended on growing crops, regional crops included potatoes and ullucos
Venezuela
–
The signing of Venezuela's independence, by
Martín Tovar y Tovar
Venezuela
–
Flag
Venezuela
–
The
Battle of Carabobo, during the
Venezuelan War of Independence
Venezuela
–
José Gregorio Monagas abolished slavery in 1854.
22.
Iberian peninsula
–
The Iberian Peninsula /aɪˈbɪəriən pəˈnɪnsjᵿlə/, also known as Iberia /aɪˈbɪəriə/, is located in the southwest corner of Europe. The peninsula is divided between Portugal and Spain, comprising most of their territory. With an area of approximately 582,000 km2, it is the second largest European peninsula, at that time, the name did not describe a single political entity or a distinct population of people. Strabos Iberia was delineated from Keltikē by the Pyrenees and included the land mass southwest of there. The ancient Greeks reached the Iberian Peninsula, of which they had heard from the Phoenicians, hecataeus of Miletus was the first known to use the term Iberia, which he wrote about circa 500 BC. Herodotus of Halicarnassus says of the Phocaeans that it was they who made the Greeks acquainted with. According to Strabo, prior historians used Iberia to mean the country side of the Ἶβηρος as far north as the river Rhône in France. Polybius respects that limit, but identifies Iberia as the Mediterranean side as far south as Gibraltar, elsewhere he says that Saguntum is on the seaward foot of the range of hills connecting Iberia and Celtiberia. Strabo refers to the Carretanians as people of the Iberian stock living in the Pyrenees, according to Charles Ebel, the ancient sources in both Latin and Greek use Hispania and Hiberia as synonyms. The confusion of the words was because of an overlapping in political, the Latin word Hiberia, similar to the Greek Iberia, literally translates to land of the Hiberians. This word was derived from the river Ebro, which the Romans called Hiberus, hiber was thus used as a term for peoples living near the river Ebro. The first mention in Roman literature was by the annalist poet Ennius in 200 BC. Virgil refers to the Ipacatos Hiberos in his Georgics, the Roman geographers and other prose writers from the time of the late Roman Republic called the entire peninsula Hispania. As they became interested in the former Carthaginian territories, the Romans began to use the names Hispania Citerior. At the time Hispania was made up of three Roman provinces, Hispania Baetica, Hispania Tarraconensis, and Lusitania, Strabo says that the Romans use Hispania and Iberia synonymously, distinguishing between the near northern and the far southern provinces. Whatever language may generally have been spoken on the peninsula soon gave way to Latin, except for that of the Vascones, the Iberian Peninsula has always been associated with the Ebro, Ibēros in ancient Greek and Ibērus or Hibērus in Latin. The association was so known it was hardly necessary to state, for example. Pliny goes so far as to assert that the Greeks had called the whole of Spain Hiberia because of the Hiberus River, the river appears in the Ebro Treaty of 226 BC between Rome and Carthage, setting the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro. The fullest description of the treaty, stated in Appian, uses Ibērus, with reference to this border, Polybius states that the native name is Ibēr, apparently the original word, stripped of its Greek or Latin -os or -us termination
Iberian peninsula
–
Satellite image of the Iberian Peninsula.
Iberian peninsula
–
Iberian Peninsula and southern France, satellite photo on a cloudless day in March 2014
Iberian peninsula
–
Map of Spain and Portugal, Atlas historique, dated approximately 1705–1739, of H.A. Chatelain.
Iberian peninsula
–
An 18th-century map of the peninsula depicting various topographical features of the land, as published in Robert Wilkinson's General Atlas, circa 1794.
23.
New Left
–
Sections of the New Left rejected involvement with the labor movement and Marxisms historical theory of class struggle, although others gravitated to variants of Marxism like Maoism. In the United States, the movement was associated with the hippie movement, the origins of the New Left have been traced to several factors. It was from this French new left that the First New Left of Britain borrowed the term, the German-Jewish critical theorist Herbert Marcuse is referred to as the Father of the New Left. He rejected the theory of class struggle and the Marxist concern with labor, according to Leszek Kołakowski, Marcuse argued that since all questions of material existence have been solved, moral commands and prohibitions are no longer relevant. He regarded the realization of mans nature as the true liberation of humanity. Another prominent New Left thinker, Ernst Bloch, believed that socialism would prove the means for all beings to become immortal. The writings of sociologist C. Wright Mills, who popularized the term New Left in a 1960 open letter, Mills biographer, Daniel Geary, writes that his writings had a particularly significant impact on New Left social movements of the 1960s. As a result of Nikita Khrushchevs Secret Speech denouncing Joseph Stalin many abandoned the Communist Party of Great Britain, some joined various Trotskyist groupings or the Labour Party. The Marxist historians E. P. Thompson and John Saville of the Communist Party Historians Group published a dissenting journal within the CPGB called Reasoner. Refusing to discontinue the publication at the behest of the CPGB, Thompson was especially important in bringing the concept of a New Left to the United Kingdom in the Summer of 1959 with a New Reasoner lead essay, in which he described. A generation nourished on 1984 and Animal Farm, which enters politics at the point of disillusion where the middle-aged begin to get out. But their enthusiasm is not for the Party, or the Movement and they do not mean to give their enthusiasm cheaply away to any routine machine. They expect the politicians to do their best to trick or betray them and they prefer the amateur organisation and amateurish platforms of the Nuclear Disarmament Campaign to the method and manner of the left wing professional. They judge with the eyes of the first generation of the Nuclear Age. We have made no sustained critique of the economics of capitalism in the 1950s, but we still have a long way to go, and there are far too many timeless militants for whom the mixture is the same as before. In 1960, The New Reasoner merged with the Universities and Left Review to form the New Left Review and these journals attempted to synthesise a theoretical position of a Marxist revisionism, humanist, socialist Marxism, departing from orthodox Marxist theory. This publishing effort made the ideas of culturally oriented theorists available to a reading audience. In this early period, many on the New Left were involved in the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, under the long-standing editorial leadership of Perry Anderson, the New Left Review popularised the Frankfurt School, Antonio Gramsci, Louis Althusser and other forms of Marxism
New Left
–
Herbert Marcuse, associated with the
Frankfurt School of
critical theory, is celebrated as the "Father of the New Left".
New Left
–
Abbie Hoffman, leader of the countercultural protest group the Yippies
New Left
–
A demonstrator offers a flower to military police at an
anti-Vietnam War protest in
Arlington,
Virginia, 21 October 1967
New Left
–
May 1968 slogan.
Paris. "It is forbidden to forbid."
24.
Hippie
–
The word hippie came from hipster and was initially used to describe beatniks who had moved into New York Citys Greenwich Village and San Franciscos Haight-Ashbury district. The term hippie was first popularized in San Francisco by Herb Caen, the origins of the terms hip and hep are uncertain. By the 1940s, both had become part of African American jive slang and meant sophisticated, currently fashionable, fully up-to-date, the Beats adopted the term hip, and early hippies inherited the language and countercultural values of the Beat Generation. In the United Kingdom in 1970, many gathered at the gigantic Isle of Wight Festival with a crowd of around 400,000 people, in later years, mobile peace convoys of New Age travelers made summer pilgrimages to free music festivals at Stonehenge and elsewhere. In Australia, hippies gathered at Nimbin for the 1973 Aquarius Festival, piedra Roja Festival, a major hippie event in Chile, was held in 1970. Hippie fashion and values had an effect on culture, influencing popular music, television, film, literature. Since the 1960s, many aspects of culture have been assimilated by mainstream society. The religious and cultural diversity espoused by the hippies has gained widespread acceptance, lexicographer Jesse Sheidlower, the principal American editor of the Oxford English Dictionary, argues that the terms hipster and hippie derive from the word hip, whose origins are unknown. The term hipster was coined by Harry Gibson in 1944, by the 1940s, the terms hip, hep and hepcat were popular in Harlem jazz slang, although hep eventually came to denote an inferior status to hip. In Greenwich Village in the early 1960s, New York City, young counterculture advocates were named hips because they were considered in the know or cool, as opposed to being square. In the April 27,1961 issue of The Village Voice, An open letter to JFK & Fidel Castro, Norman Mailer utilizes the term hippies, in questioning JFKs behavior. In a 1961 essay, Kenneth Rexroth used both the hipster and hippies to refer to young people participating in black American or Beatnik nightlife. According to Malcolm Xs 1964 autobiography, the hippie in 1940s Harlem had been used to describe a specific type of white man who acted more Negro than Negroes. Andrew Loog Oldham refers to all the Chicago hippies, seemingly in reference to black musicians, in his rear sleeve notes to the 1965 LP The Rolling Stones. The word hippie was also used in reference to Philadelphia in at least two songs in 1963, South Street by The Orlons, and You Cant Sit Down by The Dovells. In both songs, the term is applied to residents of Philadelphias South Street, in that article, Fallon wrote about the Blue Unicorn Cafe, using the term hippie to refer to the new generation of beatniks who had moved from North Beach into the Haight-Ashbury district. New York Times editor and usage writer Theodore M. Bernstein said the paper changed the spelling from hippy to hippie to avoid the ambiguous description of clothing as hippy fashions. Even the counterculture of the Ancient Greeks, espoused by philosophers like Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics were also early forms of hippie culture
Hippie
–
Young hippie people near the Woodstock festival in August 1969.
Hippie
–
A Hippie-painted VW bug
Hippie
–
American hippies smoking cannabis in Thailand
Hippie
–
Escapin' through the lily fields I came across an empty space It trembled and exploded Left a bus stop in its place The bus came by and I got on That's when it all began There was cowboy Neal At the wheel Of a bus to never-ever land -
Grateful Dead, lyrics from "That's It for the Other One"
25.
Human rights
–
Human rights are moral principles or norms, which describe certain standards of human behaviour, and are regularly protected as legal rights in municipal and international law. They are applicable everywhere and at time in the sense of being universal. They require empathy and the rule of law and impose an obligation on persons to respect the rights of others. They should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on circumstances, for example, human rights may include freedom from unlawful imprisonment, torture. The doctrine of human rights has been influential within international law. Actions by states and non-governmental organizations form a basis of public policy worldwide, the idea of human rights suggests that if the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights. The strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable skepticism and debates about the content, nature, ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights. Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the family is the foundation of freedom. All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. According to Jack Donnelly, in the ancient world, traditional societies typically have had elaborate systems of duties, conceptions of justice, political legitimacy, and human flourishing that sought to realize human dignity, flourishing, or well-being entirely independent of human rights. These institutions and practices are alternative to, rather than different formulations of, one theory is that human rights were developed during the early Modern period, alongside the European secularization of Judeo-Christian ethics. The most commonly held view is that the concept of human rights evolved in the West, for example, McIntyre argues there is no word for right in any language before 1400. One of the oldest records of rights is the statute of Kalisz, giving privileges to the Jewish minority in the Kingdom of Poland such as protection from discrimination. Samuel Moyn suggests that the concept of rights is intertwined with the modern sense of citizenship. The earliest conceptualization of human rights is credited to ideas about natural rights emanating from natural law, in particular, the issue of universal rights was introduced by the examination of extending rights to indigenous peoples by Spanish clerics, such as Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomé de Las Casas. In Britain in 1689, the English Bill of Rights and the Scottish Claim of Right each made illegal a range of oppressive governmental actions, additionally, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 encoded into law a number of fundamental civil rights and civil freedoms. These were followed by developments in philosophy of human rights by philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill, hegel during the 18th and 19th centuries. Although the term had been used by at least one author as early as 1742, in the 19th century, human rights became a central concern over the issue of slavery
Human rights
–
The
Cyrus Cylinder, created by king
Cyrus the Great, is sometimes argued to be the world's first charter of human rights.
Human rights
–
The Bill of Rights (1688 or 1689)
Human rights
–
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen approved by the
National Assembly of France, August 26, 1789.
Human rights
–
The
UN General Assembly
26.
Cumbia
–
Cumbia is a dance-oriented music genre popular throughout Latin America. It began as a courtship dance practiced among the African population on the Caribbean coasts of Colombia and it later mixed with Amerindian and European instruments, steps and musical characteristics and spread throughout Latin America and abroad. By the 1940s Cumbia began spreading from the coast to other parts of Colombia alongside other costeña form of music, like porro, clarinetist Lucho Bermúdez helped bring cumbia into the countrys interior. The early spread of cumbia internationally was helped by the number of companies located on the coast. Today, the best representation of traditional Cumbia is shown every year on the Festival de la Cumbia in El Banco, as Colombias southern neighbor, Ecuador was among the first countries to adopt cumbia as a native genre. Ecuadorian cumbia initially drew heavily upon the Meztizo music of the Andes and gradually absorbed more Afro-Cuban instrumentation, nicaragua became a stronghold of Cumbia music during the 1950s and 1960s. The country has its own variation of music and dance. Cumbia first came to the U. S. from Colombia, another wave of enthusiasm for and knowledge of the music arrived with the Colombian immigrants fleeing the turmoil of the 1980s. Since then, cumbia music scenes have grown up and thrived in U. S. cities within the significant Latin American populations of Los Angeles, New York, Chicago, and Corpus Christi. Cumbia music has also caught on with musicians beyond the Latina Diaspora, resulting in fusions of cumbia with other such as Afrobeat, punk rock. Baila Cumbia villera Latin Grammy Award for Best Cumbia/Vallenato Album Tamborito Tecnocumbia Totó la Momposina Tropical music A Musical Journey Through Cumbia In a Nutshell, Cumbia Guide to cumbia
Cumbia
27.
Andean music
–
Andean music is a group of styles of music from the Andes region in South America. Original chants and melodies come from the area inhabited by Quechuas, Aymaras. This early music then was fused with Spanish music elements and it includes folklore music of parts of Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, Colombia, Peru and Venezuela. Andean music is popular to different degrees across Latin America, having its core public in rural areas, the Nueva Canción movement of the 1970s revived the genre across Latin America and brought it to places where it was unknown or forgotten. The panpipes group include the sikú and antara and these are ancient indigenous instruments that vary in size, tuning and style. Instruments in this group are constructed from aquatic reeds found in lakes in the Andean Region of South America. The sikú has two rows of canes and are tuned in either pentatonic or diatonic scales, some modern single-rowed panpipes modeled after the native Antara are capable of playing full scales, while traditional Sikús are played using two rows of canes wrapped together. It is still commonplace for two performers to share a melody while playing the style of sikú called the toyo. This style of voicing interspersed notes between two musicians is called playing in hocket and is still in use today in many of the traditional songs. Quenas remain popular and are made out of the same aquatic canes as the Sikús, although PVC pipe is sometimes used due to its resistance to heat, cold. Generally, quenas only are played during the dry season, with flutes, either pinkillos or tarkas. Tarkas are constructed from local Andean hard wood sources, marching bands dominated by drums and panpipes are commonplace today and are used to celebrate weddings, carnivals and other holidays. The twentieth century saw changes in Andean society and culture. Bolivia, for example, saw a revolution in 1952, leading to increased rights. The new government established a department in the Bolivian Ministry of Education and radio stations began broadcasting in Aymara. By 1965, a group called Los Jairas formed in La Paz, Bolivia, the quartet fused native sounds into forms suitable for urban Europeans. One member of Los Jairas, Gilbert Favre had previously been an acquaintance of the Parras in Paris, the Parras eventually began promoting indigenous music in Santiago, Chile. The late 1960s released native groups such as Ruphay, Grupo Aymara, the 1970s was a decade in which Andean music saw its biggest growth
Andean music
–
Street band from
Peru performing
El Cóndor Pasa in
Tokyo
Andean music
–
The
panflute is among the most emblematic instruments of Andean music.
28.
Operation Condor
–
Due to its clandestine nature, the precise number of deaths directly attributable to Operation Condor is highly disputed. Some estimates are that at least 60,000 deaths can be attributed to Condor, victims included dissidents and leftists, union and peasant leaders, priests and nuns, students and teachers, intellectuals and suspected guerillas. Condors key members were the governments in Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, the United States government provided technical support and supplied military aid to the participants during the Johnson, Nixon, Ford, Carter, and Reagan administrations. Such support was frequently routed through the Central Intelligence Agency, ecuador and Peru later joined the operation in more peripheral roles. These efforts, such as Operation Charly, supported the local juntas in their anti-communist repression, Operation Condor, which took place in the context of the Cold War between Western societies and the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc, had the tacit approval of the United States. General Robert W. Porter stated that in order to facilitate the employment of internal security forces within and among Latin American countries. Condor was part of this effort, Condor was an operation similar to Operation Gladio, the strategy of tension used in Italy in the 1970s, of which Licio Gelli was a member. The program was developed following a series of government coups détats by military groups, primarily in the 1970s, the Brazilian military overthrew the president João Goulart in 1964. General Hugo Banzer took power in Bolivia in 1971 through a series of coups, a civic-military dictatorship seized power in Uruguay on 27 June 1973. Forces loyal to General Augusto Pinochet bombed the presidential palace in Chile on 11 September 1973, a military junta headed by General Jorge Rafael Videla seized power in Argentina on 24 March 1976. Their goal was to destroy the threat represented by the presence of thousands of political exiles in Argentina. In August 1974, the corpses of Bolivian refugees were found in garbage dumps in Buenos Aires, from 1976 onwards, the Chilean DINA and its Argentine counterpart, SIDE, were the operations front-line troops. The infamous death flights, theorized in Argentina by Luis María Mendía —, government forces took victims by plane or helicopter out to sea, dropping them to their deaths and planned disappearances. In a report written from Shlaudeman to Kissinger, it was reported that the regimes in South America were coming together to join forces for security reasons. This new force behave in each others countries in secrecy, the dictatorships and their intelligence services were responsible for tens of thousands of killed and missing people in the period between 1975 and 1985. The archive has a total of 60,000 documents, weighing 4 tons, Southern Cone Operation Condor resulted in up to 50,000 killed,30,000 disappeared, and 400,000 arrested and imprisoned. Some of these countries have relied on evidence in the archives to prosecute former military officers, According to these archives, other countries, such as Peru, cooperated by providing intelligence information in response to requests from the security services of the Southern Cone nations. While Peru had no representatives at the secret November 1975 meeting in Santiago de Chile, the terror archives also revealed a degree of cooperation by Colombia and Venezuela
Operation Condor
–
Graffiti in
Buenos Aires, demanding justice for victims of the Dirty War
Operation Condor
–
Green: main active members (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay). Light green: sporadic members (Colombia, Peru, Venezuela). Blue: collaborator (USA).
Operation Condor
–
Lilian Celiberti during a speech in the
World Social Forum.
Porto Alegre, 2010.
Operation Condor
–
Cover of
La Segunda, 25 July 1975, in regards to the murder of
MIR operatives in Argentina. Main header reads "Exterminated like mice".
29.
Cold War
–
The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
Cold War
–
Photograph of the
Berlin Wall taken from the West side. The Wall was built in 1961 to prevent East Germans from fleeing and to stop an economically disastrous drain of workers. It was a symbol of the Cold War and its fall in 1989 marked the approaching end of the war.
Cold War
–
Allied troops in
Vladivostok, August 1918, during the
Allied intervention in the
Russian Civil War.
Cold War
–
The "
Big Three " at the Yalta Conference:
Winston Churchill,
Franklin D. Roosevelt and
Joseph Stalin, 1945.
30.
Francoist Spain
–
It is the opinion of several historians that during the Spanish Civil War, Francos goal was to turn Spain into a totalitarian state based on fascism like Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Franco was also able to take advantage of the resources of the Axis Powers, Francos regime evolved into a more classic autocratic regime. The Spanish Civil War started as a coup by the Spanish military on the peninsula, the coup escalated into a civil war lasting for three years once Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany agreed to support Franco, starting with airlifting of the africanistas onto the mainland. However, the Falange remained the party throughout Francos regime and its ideology, National Syndicalism. At the end of the Spanish Civil War, according to the regimes own figures, there were more than 270,000 men and women held in prisons, large numbers of those captured were returned to Spain or interned in Nazi concentration camps as stateless enemies. Between six and seven thousand exiles from Spain died in Mauthausen and it has been estimated that more than 200,000 Spaniards died in the first years of the dictatorship, from 1940–42, as a result of political repression, hunger, and disease related to the conflict. This changed with the Cold War that soon followed the end of hostilities in 1945, independent political parties and trade unions were banned throughout the duration of the dictatorship. On July 26,1947 Spain was declared a kingdom, Franco was to be succeeded by his Prime Minister Luis Carrero Blanco as head of government with the intention of continuing the Francoist regime, but those hopes ended with his 1973 assassination. With the death of Franco on 20 November 1975, Juan Carlos became the King of Spain and he initiated the countrys subsequent transition to democracy, ending with Spain becoming a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. After Francos victory in 1939, the Falange was declared the legal party in Spain. The Organic Law made the government ultimately responsible for passing all laws, as all ministers were appointed and dismissed by Franco as the Chief of state and government, he was effectively the only source of legislation. The law of national referendums, passed in 1945 approved for all laws to be approved by a popular referendum. Local municipal councils were appointed similarly by heads of families and local corporations through elections, however, Carrero Blanco was assassinated on the same year and Franco named a civilian, Carlos Arias Navarro as the countrys new Prime Minister. Concerns about the situation, Spains possible entry into World War II. The army maintained a strength of about 400,000 men until the end of the war, Spain attempted to retain control of the last remnants of its colonial empire throughout Francos rule. During the Algerian War, Madrid became the base of the Organisation armée secrète right-wing French Army group which sought to preserve French Algeria, despite this, Franco was forced to make some concessions. Henceforth, when French Morocco became independent in 1956, he surrendered Spanish Morocco to Mohammed V, the year after, Mohammed V invaded Spanish Sahara during the Ifni War. Only in 1975, with the Green March and the military occupation, in 1968, under United Nations pressure, Franco granted Spains colony of Equatorial Guinea its independence, and the next year, ceded the exclave of Ifni to Morocco
Francoist Spain
–
By decision of King Juan Carlos I, Franco is entombed in the monument of
Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caídos.
Francoist Spain
–
Flag
Francoist Spain
–
Equestrian statue of Generalisimo Franco in the Plaza del Ayuntamiento (City Hall Plaza) of
Santander. It was taken down in late 2008.
31.
Chile under Pinochet
–
The military dictatorship of Chile was an authoritarian military government that ruled Chile between 1973 and 1990. The dictatorship was established after the democratically elected socialist government of Salvador Allende was overthrown by a CIA-backed coup détat on 11 September 1973, the dictatorship was headed by a military junta presided by General Augusto Pinochet. The perceived breakdown of democracy and the crisis that took place during Allendes presidency were justifications used by the military to seize power. The dictatorship presented its mission as a national reconstruction, the regime was characterized by the systematic suppression of political parties and the persecution of dissidents to an extent that was unprecedented in the history of Chile. Overall, the left over 3,000 dead or missing, tortured ten thousands of prisoners. The dictatorship shaped much of modern Chiles political and economic life, later, in 1980, the regime replaced the Constitution of 1925 with a new one crafted by regime collaborators. Pinochets plans to remain in power were thwarted in 1988 when the regime admitted defeat in a referendum that opened the way for democracy to be reestablished in 1990. However, the regime took great care to ensure that the military would be out of control in the years after the end of dictatorship. The United States government actively attempted to destabilize the Allende government, the Nixon administration also used the Central Intelligence Agency to mount a major destabilization campaign. The CIA worked with right-wing Chilean politicians, military personnel, on 15 April 1973, workers from the El Teniente mining camp had ceased working, demanding higher wages. The strike lasted 76 days and cost the government severely in lost revenues, one of the strikers, Luis Bravo Morales, was shot dead in Rancagua city. On June 29, the Blindados No.2 tank regiment under the command of Colonel Roberto Souper, attacked La Moneda, instigated by the anti-Marxist militia Patria y Libertad, the armoured cavalry soldiers hoped other units would be inspired to join them. Instead, armed units led by generals Carlos Prats and Augusto Pinochet quickly put down the coup attempt. In late July,40,000 truckers, squeezed by price controls and rising costs, tied up transportation in a strike that lasted 37 days. Two weeks before the coup, public dissatisfaction with rising prices, Allende also clashed with Chiles largest circulation newspaper El Mercurio. Tax-evasion charges were trumped up against the newspaper and its director arrested, the Allende government found it impossible to control inflation, which grew to more than 300 percent by September, further dividing Chileans over the Allende government and its policies. On August 22,1973, the Chamber of Deputies passed, by a vote of 81 to 47, the military installed themselves in power as a Military Government Junta, composed of the heads of the Army, Navy, Air Force and Carabineros. Once the Junta was in power, General Augusto Pinochet soon consolidated his control over the government, since he was the commander-in-chief of the oldest branch of the military forces, he was made the titular head of the junta, and soon after President of Chile
Chile under Pinochet
–
Book burning in Chile following the
1973 coup that installed the Pinochet Regime
Chile under Pinochet
–
Flag
Chile under Pinochet
–
Some funeral urns of political activists executed by the Chilean military dictatorship, from 1973 to 1990, in the cemetery of Santiago
Chile under Pinochet
–
Estadio Nacional de Chile as a
concentration camp after the coup.
32.
Estado Novo (Portugal)
–
The Estado Novo, or the Second Republic, was the corporatist authoritarian regime installed in Portugal in 1933. It evolved from the Ditadura Nacional formed after the coup détat of 28 May 1926 against the democratic, together, the Ditadura Nacional and Estado Novo are recognised as the Second Portuguese Republic. Opposed to communism, socialism, anarchism, liberalism and anti-colonialism, the regime was corporatist, conservative, Portugal joined the United Nations in 1955, and was a founding member of NATO, OECD, and EFTA. In 1968 Marcelo Caetano was appointed the new head of government, on 25 April 1974, the Carnation Revolution in Lisbon, a military coup organized by left-wing Portuguese military officers – the Armed Forces Movement – overthrew the Estado Novo regime. Fiercely criticized by most of the community after World War II and decolonization. King Carlos I of Portugal confirmed colonial treaties of the 19th century that stabilized the situation in Portuguese Africa and these agreements were, however, unpopular in Portugal, where they were seen as being to the disadvantage of the country. Carlos responded by appointing João Franco as Prime Minister and subsequently accepting Parliaments dissolution, in 1908, Carlos I was killed in a regicide at Lisbon. The Portuguese monarchy lasted until 1910 when, through the 5 October revolution, it was overthrown, the overthrow of the Portuguese monarchy in 1910 led to a 16-year struggle to sustain parliamentary democracy under republicanism – the Portuguese First Republic. The basis of his regime was a platform of stability, in direct contrast to the environment of the First Republic. After the First Republic, when not even public order was achieved and this transfiguration of Portugal was then known as A Lição de Salazar – Salazars Lesson. Salazars program was opposed to communism, socialism, and liberalism and it was pro-Catholic, conservative, and nationalistic. It incorporated, however, the principles for its military from Benito Mussolinis system in Italy, one of the pillars of the regime was the PIDE, the secret police. Many political dissidents were imprisoned at the Tarrafal prison in the African archipelago of Cape Verde, on the island of Santiago. Strict state censorship was in place, executive authority was nominally vested in a president, elected by popular vote for a five-year term. On paper, the president was vested with sweeping executive and legislative powers, in practice, however, the real power was held by the prime minister, Salazar. The legislature was a unicameral National Assembly, elected four years. An advisory body, the Corporative Chamber, nominally represented economic, the Estado Novo enforced nationalist and conservative Roman Catholic values on the Portuguese population. The whole education system was focused toward the exaltation of the Portuguese nation, the motto of the regime was Deus, Pátria e Familia
Estado Novo (Portugal)
–
Flag
Estado Novo (Portugal)
–
Salazar observing
Edgar Cardoso 's Santa Clara Bridge maquette in
Coimbra.
Estado Novo (Portugal)
–
The
University of Coimbra General Library main building – Edifício Novo (New Building, 1962) in the Alta Universitária, Coimbra.
33.
National Reorganization Process
–
The National Reorganization Process was the name used by its leaders for the military dictatorship that ruled Argentina from 1976 to 1983. In Argentina it is known simply as la última junta militar or la última dictadura. The Argentine military seized power during the March 1976 coup. The junta continued the Dirty War, after losing the Falklands War to the United Kingdom in 1982, the junta faced mounting public opposition and finally relinquished power in 1983. The military has always been influential in Argentine politics, and Argentine history is laced with frequent. The popular Argentine leader, Juan Perón, three-time President of Argentina, was a colonel in the army who first came to power in the aftermath of a 1943 military coup. He advocated a new policy dubbed Justicialism, a nationalist policy which he claimed was a third way, after being re-elected to the office of president by popular vote, Perón was deposed and exiled by the Revolución Libertadora in 1955. His return was marked by the June 20,1973 Ezeiza massacre, peron was democratically elected President in 1973, but died in July 1974. His vice president and third wife, Isabel Martínez de Perón, succeeded him, the situation escalated until Mrs. Perón was overthrown. She was replaced on March 24,1976 by a junta led by Lieutenant General Jorge Rafael Videla. Many cases were never reported, when families were disappeared. Among the disappeared were pregnant women, who were alive until giving birth under often primitive circumstances in the secret prisons. The infants were generally adopted by military or political families affiliated with the administration. Thousands of detainees were drugged, loaded aircraft, stripped naked. The film The Official Story, which won the Oscar for the Best Foreign Film category in 1985, the Argentine secret service SIDE also cooperated with the DINA in Pinochets Chile and other South American intelligence agencies. The United States supported endeavours to eradicate left-leaning politics on the continent and it is estimated to have caused the deaths of more than 60.000 people. SIDE also trained – for example in the Honduran Lepaterique base – the Nicaraguan Contras who were fighting the Sandinista government there, the regime shut down the legislature and restricted both freedom of the press and freedom of speech, adopting severe media censorship. The 1978 World Cup, which Argentina hosted and won, was used as a means of propaganda and to rally its people under a nationalist pretense
National Reorganization Process
National Reorganization Process
National Reorganization Process
National Reorganization Process
34.
Orange Revolution
–
Kiev, the Ukrainian capital, was the focal point of the movements campaign of civil resistance, with thousands of protesters demonstrating daily. Nationwide, the revolution was highlighted by a series of acts of civil disobedience, sit-ins. The nationwide protests succeeded when the results of the original run-off were annulled, under intense scrutiny by domestic and international observers, the second run-off was declared to be fair and free. The final results showed a victory for Yushchenko, who received about 52% of the vote. Yushchenko was declared the winner and with his inauguration on 23 January 2005 in Kiev. In the following years, the Orange Revolution had a negative connotation among pro-government circles in Belarus, Yanukovych was ousted from power four years later following the February 2014 Euromaidan clashes in Kievs Independence Square. Unlike the bloodless Orange Revolution, these resulted in more than 100 deaths. Georgiy Gongadze, a Ukrainian journalist and the founder of Ukrayinska Pravda was kidnapped and murdered in 2000, though no-one accused Ukrainian President Kuchma of personally murdering him, persistent rumours suggested that the President had ordered the killing. This murder sparked a movement against Kuchma in 2000 that can be seen as the origin of the Orange Revolution in 2004, the state of Ukraine during the 2004 presidential election is considered an “ideal condition” for an outburst from the public. During this time Ukrainians were impatient while waiting for economic and political transformation, the results of the election were thought to be fraudulent and considered “a nail in the coffin” of the preceding events. The Ukrainian regime that was in power before the Orange Revolution created a path for a society to emerge. It was based on a “competitive authoritarian regime” that is considered a “hybrid regime”, allowing for a democracy, the election fraud definitely emphasised the Ukrainian citizens’ desire for a more pluralistic type of government. The Cassette Scandal definitely sparked the public’s desire to create a reform movement. It not only undermined the peoples’ respect for Kuchma as a president, because of Kuchma’s scandalous behaviour, he lost many of his supporters with high ranking government positions. Many of the government officials who were on his side went on to support the election campaign of Yuschenko. After a clear lack of faith in the government had been instilled in the Ukrainian population, Yushchenko was a charismatic candidate who showed no signs of being corrupt. Yuschenko was on the level as his constituents and presented his ideas in a “non-Soviet” way. Young Ukrainian voters were extremely important to the outcome of the 2004 Presidential election and this new wave of younger people had different views of the main figures in Ukraine
Orange Revolution
–
Orange-clad demonstrators gather in the
Independence Square in
Kiev on 22 November 2004
Orange Revolution
–
Viktor Yushchenko, the main opposition candidate
Orange Revolution
–
Viktor Yanukovych, Yushchenko's antagonist
Orange Revolution
–
Protest during the Orange Revolution
35.
Violeta Parra
–
Violeta del Carmen Parra Sandoval was a Chilean composer, songwriter, folklorist, ethnomusicologist and visual artist. In 2011 Andrés Wood directed a biopic about her, titled Violeta Went to Heaven, Parra was born in San Fabián de Alico, near San Carlos, Ñuble Province, a small town in southern Chile on 4 October 1917, as Violeta del Carmen Parra Sandoval. Violeta Parra was a member of the prolific Parra family, among her brothers were the notable modern poet, better known as the anti-poet, Nicanor Parra, and fellow folklorist Roberto Parra. Her son, Ángel Parra, and her daughter, Isabel Parra, are important figures in the development of the Nueva Canción Chilena. Their children have also maintained the familys artistic traditions. Her father was a teacher and her mother worked on a farm. Two years after Violetas birth, the moved to Santiago, then. It was in Chillán that Violeta started singing and playing the guitar, together with her siblings Hilda, Eduardo and Roberto, after Parras father died in 1929, the life circumstances of her family greatly deteriorated. Violeta and her siblings had to work to feed the family. In 1932, at the insistence of her brother Nicanor, Parra moved to Santiago to attend the Normal School, later, she moved back with her mother and siblings to Edison street, in the Quinta Normal district. The Parras performed in nightclubs, such as El Tordo Azul and El Popular, in the Mapocho district, interpreting boleros, rancheras, Mexican corridos and other styles. In 1934, she met Luis Cereceda, a driver, whom she married four years later. Parra began singing songs of Spanish origin, from the repertoire of the famous Argentinian singers Lolita Torres and she sang in restaurants and, also, in theatres, calling herself Violeta de Mayo. In 1945, she appeared with her children Isabel and Angel in a Spanish show in the Casanova confectionery, in 1948, after ten years of marriage, Parra and Luis Cereceda separated. Parra and her sister Hilda began singing together as The Parra Sisters, in 1949, Violeta met and married Luis Arce. Their daughter Carmen Luisa was born in the same year, Parra continued performing, she appeared in circuses and toured, with Hilda and with her children, throughout Argentina. In 1952, Parras second daughter, Rosita Clara, was born, in that same year, driven by her brother Nicanor, Violeta began to collect and collate authentic Chilean folk music from all over the Chile. She abandoned her old repertoire for songs, and began composing her own songs based on traditional folk forms
Violeta Parra
–
Violeta Parra in the 1960s
36.
Poverty
–
Poverty is general scarcity or the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money. It is a concept, which includes social, economic. Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the lack of necessary to meet basic needs such as food, clothing. Absolute poverty is meant to be about the independent of location. After the industrial revolution, mass production in factories made producing goods increasingly less expensive, of more importance is the modernization of agriculture, such as fertilizers, to provide enough yield to feed the population. Strategies of increasing income to make basic needs more affordable typically include welfare, economic freedoms, Poverty reduction is a major goal and issue for many international organizations such as the United Nations and the World Bank. The World Bank forecasts that 702.1 million people, down from 1.75 billion in 1990, of these, about 347.1 million people lived in Sub-Saharan Africa and 231.3 million lived in South Asia. According to the World Bank, between 1990 and 2015, the percentage of the population living in extreme poverty fell from 37. 1% to 9. 6%. Nevertheless, given the current economic model, built on GDP, extreme poverty is a global challenge, it is observed in all parts of the world, including developed economies. UNICEF estimates half the children live in poverty. It has been argued by some academics that the policies promoted by global financial institutions such as the IMF. Another estimate places the true scale of poverty much higher than the World Bank, with an estimated 4.3 billion people living with less than $5 a day and unable to meet basic needs adequately. In 2012 it is estimated that, given a poverty line of $1.25 a day 1.2 billion people lived in poverty, the word poverty comes from old French poverté, from Latin paupertās from pauper. The English word poverty via Anglo-Norman povert, there are several definitions of poverty depending on the context of the situation it is placed in, and the views of the person giving the definition. Income Poverty, a familys income fails to meet a federally established threshold that differs across countries, United Nations, Fundamentally, poverty is the inability of having choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of capacity to participate effectively in society. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and it means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation. World Bank, Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions and it includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity
Poverty
–
An example of urban poverty in this
slum in
Jakarta,
Indonesia
Poverty
–
Children of the
Depression -era migrant workers, Arizona, 1937
Poverty
–
An early morning outside the Opera Tavern in Stockholm, with a gang of beggars waiting for delivery of the scraps from the previous day.
Sweden, 1868.
Poverty
–
A
Somali boy receiving treatment for malnourishment at a health facility.
37.
Imperialism
–
Imperialism is an action that involves a country extending its power by the acquisition of territories. It may also include the exploitation of these territories, an action that is linked to colonialism, colonialism is generally regarded as an expression of imperialism. However, both are examples of imperialism, the word imperialism originated from the Latin word imperium, which means supreme power. It first became common in Great Britain, during the 1870s and was used with a negative connotation, the term was and is mainly applied to Western political and economic dominance, especially in Asia and Africa, in the 19th and 20th centuries. Its precise meaning continues to be debated by scholars, some writers, such as Edward Said, use the term more broadly to describe any system of domination and subordination organised with an imperial center and a periphery. This definition encompasses both nominal empires and neocolonialism, the word empire comes from the Latin word imperium, for which the closest modern English equivalent would perhaps be sovereignty, or simply rule. The greatest distinction of an empire is through the amount of land that a nation has conquered and expanded, Political power grew from conquering land, however cultural and economic aspects flourished through sea and trade routes. A distinction about empires is that although political empires were built mostly by expansion overland, economic, some of the main aspects of trade that went overseas consisted of animals and plant products. European empires in Asia and Africa have come to be seen as the forms of imperialism. European expansion caused the world to be divided by how developed, the two main regions are the core and the periphery. The core consists of areas of income and profit, the periphery is on the opposing side of the spectrum consisting of areas of low income. These critical theories of Geo-politics have led to increased discussion of the meaning and this idea from Lenin stresses how important new political world order has become in our modern era. Geopolitics now focuses on states becoming major players in the market, some states today are viewed as empires due to their political. The term imperialism is often conflated with colonialism, however scholars have argued that each have their own distinct definition. Imperialism and colonialism have been used in order to describe ones superiority, domination, colonialism in modern usage also tends to imply a degree of geographic separation between the colony and the imperial power. Thus it can be said that imperialism includes some form of colonialism, colonialism is seen to be the architect deciding how to start dominating areas and then imperialism can be seen as creating the idea behind conquest cooperating with colonialism. Colonialism is when the imperial nation begins a conquest over an area, colonialisms core meaning is the exploitation of the valuable assets and supplies of the nation that was conquered and the conquering nation then gaining the benefits from the spoils of the war. The meaning of imperialism is to create an empire, by conquering the states lands
Imperialism
–
Ottoman wars in Europe
Imperialism
–
Cecil Rhodes and the
Cape-Cairo railway project. Rhodes founded the
De Beers Mining Company, owned the
British South Africa Company and had his name given to what became the state of
Rhodesia. He liked to "paint the map
British red" and declared: "all of these stars... these vast worlds that remain out of reach. If I could, I would annex other planets".
Imperialism
–
French poster about the "
Madagascar War "
Imperialism
–
Japanese march into
Zhengyangmen of
Beijing after capturing the city in July 1937.
38.
Latin Americans
–
Latin Americans are the citizens of the Latin American countries and dependencies. Latin American countries are multi-ethnic, home to people of different ethnic, as a result, some Latin Americans dont take their nationality as an ethnicity, but identify themselves with both their nationality and their ancestral origins. Aside from the indigenous Amerindian population, all Latin Americans or their ancestors immigrated within the past five centuries, Latin America has the largest diasporas of Spaniards, Portuguese, French, Black Africans, Italians, Lithuanians, Lebanese, and Japanese in the world. Besides the second largest German diaspora after the US, and the Argentine, various Black, Asian, and Zambo minorities are also identified in most countries. White Latin Americans are the largest single group, together with the people of part-European ancestry they combine for approximately 80% of the population, or even more. Latin Americans and their descendants can be found almost everywhere in the world, the most important migratory destinations for Latin Americans are found in the United States, Spain, Canada, and Japan. Latin America is the region of the Americas where Romance languages (i. e. those derived from Latin—particularly Spanish and Portuguese, if we consider this definition strictly, we should consider Canada and in particular Quebec as part of Latin America. Latin America, therefore, can be defined as all parts of the Americas that were once part of the French, Spanish, or Portuguese Empires. The population of Latin America comprises a variety of ancestries, ethnic groups, Black, Asian, and Zambo minorities are also identified regularly. White people are the largest single group, accounting for more than a third, the indigenous population of Latin America, the Native Americans, arrived during the Lithic stage. In post-Columbian times they experienced tremendous population decline, particularly in the decades of colonization. They have since recovered in numbers, surpassing sixty million, though with the growth of the other groups meanwhile, they now compose a majority only in Bolivia, in Guatemala, Native American are a large minority that comprises two-fifths of the population. Mexicos 14% is the next largest ratio, and one of the largest Amerindian population in the Americas in absolute numbers, Most of the remaining countries have Native American minorities, in every case making up less than one-tenth of the respective countrys population. In many countries, people of mixed Native American and European ancestry make up the majority of the population, people of Asian descent number several million in Latin America. The first Asians to settle in the region were Filipino, as a result of Spains trade involving Asia, the majority of Asian Latin Americans are of Japanese or Chinese ancestry and reside mainly in Brazil and Peru, there is also a growing Chinese minority in Panama. Ethnic Koreans also number tens of thousands of individuals in Argentina, Peru, with 1.47 million people of Asian descent, has one of the largest Chinese communities in the world, with nearly one million Peruvians being of Chinese ancestry. There is a strong presence in Peru, where a past president. The Martiniquais population includes an African-White-Indian mixed population, and an East Indian population, the Guadeloupean East Indian population is estimated at 14% of the population
Latin Americans
–
Wititi dancers from
Colca Canyon, Peru.
Native Americans make up the majority of the population in
Bolivia and
Guatemala, and almost half in
Peru
Latin Americans
Latin Americans
–
Mexican dancer in a regional costume of
Chiapas.
Latin Americans
–
Woman from
Curitiba, one of over a million
Japanese Brazilians.
39.
Spanish music
–
The music of Spain has a long history and has played an important role in the development of Western music and has greatly influenced Latin American music. Spanish music is associated with traditional styles such as flamenco. While these forms of music are common, there are many different traditional musical, for example, music from the north-west regions is heavily reliant on bagpipes, the jota is widespread in the centre and north of the country, and flamenco originated in the south. Spanish music played a part in the early developments of western classical music. The Iberian peninsula has had a history of receiving different musical influences from around the Mediterranean Sea, hence, there have been more than two thousand years of internal and external influences and developments that have produced a large number of unique musical traditions. Isidore of Seville wrote about the music in the 6th century. His influences were predominantly Greek, and yet he was an original thinker, as the Christian reconquista progressed, these chants were almost entirely replaced by the Gregorian standard, once Rome had regained control of the Iberian churches. In the royal Christian courts of the reconquistors, music like the Cantigas de Santa Maria, other important medieval sources include the Codex Calixtinus collection from Santiago de Compostela and the Codex Las Huelgas from Burgos. The so-called Llibre Vermell de Montserrat is an important devotional collection from the 14th century, in the early Renaissance, Mateo Flecha el Viejo and the Castilian dramatist Juan del Encina ranked among the main composers in the post-Ars Nova period. Renaissance song books included the Cancionero de Palacio, the Cancionero de Medinaceli, the Cancionero de Upsala, the Cancionero de la Colombina, the organist Antonio de Cabezón stands out for his keyboard compositions and mastery. An early 16th-century polyphonic vocal style developed in Spain was closely related to that of the Franco-Flemish composers, Music composed for the vihuela by Luis de Milán, Alonso Mudarra and Luis de Narváez was one of the main achievements of the period. The Aragonese Gaspar Sanz authored the first learning method for guitar, Spanish composers of the Renaissance included Francisco Guerrero, Cristóbal de Morales, and Tomás Luis de Victoria, all of whom spent a significant portion of their careers in Rome. The latter was said to have reached a level of perfection and expressive intensity equal or even superior to Palestrina. Most Spanish composers returned home from travels abroad late in their careers to spread their knowledge in their native land. By the end of the 17th century the musical culture of Spain was in decline. Classicism in Spain, when it arrived, was inspired by Italian models, some outstanding Italian composers such as Domenico Scarlatti and Luigi Boccherini were appointed to the Madrid royal court. The short-lived Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga is credited as the beginner of Romantic sinfonism in Spain. Although symphonic music was never too important in Spain, chamber, solo instrumental vocal, zarzuela, a native form of opera that includes spoken dialogue, is a secular musical genre which developed in the mid-17th century, flourishing most importantly in the century after 1850
Spanish music
–
The modern classical guitar and its baroque predecessor originated in Spain
Spanish music
–
Cantigas de Santa maría, medieval
Spain
Spanish music
–
Front cover of book: Escuela Música según la práctica moderna published in 1723-1724
Spanish music
–
Flamenco dancing in
Seville.
40.
Cuban music
–
The music of Cuba, including its instruments, performance and dance, comprises a large set of unique traditions influenced mostly by west African and European music. Due to the nature of most of its genres, Cuban music is often considered one of the richest and most influential regional musics of the world. For instance, the son cubano merges an adapted Spanish guitar, melody, harmony, almost nothing remains of the original native traditions, since the native population was exterminated in the 16th century. Since the 19th century Cuban music has been popular and influential throughout the world. It has been perhaps the most popular form of music since the introduction of recording technology. Cuban music has contributed to the development of a variety of genre and musical styles around the globe, most notably in Latin America. Examples include rhumba, Afro-Cuban jazz, salsa, soukous, many West African re-adaptations of Afro-Cuban music, Spanish fusion genres, large numbers of African slaves and European, mostly Spanish, immigrants came to Cuba and brought their own forms of music to the island. European dances and folk musics included zapateo, fandango, paso doble, later, northern European forms like minuet, gavotte, mazurka, contradanza, and the waltz appeared among urban whites. There was also an immigration of Chinese indentured laborers later in the 19th century, the African slaves and their descendants made many percussion instruments and preserved rhythms they had known in their homeland. The most important instruments were the drums, of which there were originally about fifty different types, today only the bongos, congas, also important are the claves, two short hardwood batons, and the cajón, a wooden box, originally made from crates. Claves are still used often, and wooden boxes were used during periods when the drum was banned. In addition, there are other instruments in use for African-origin religious ceremonies. Chinese immigrants contributed the corneta china, a Chinese reed instrument still played in the comparsas, or carnival groups, the great instrumental contribution of the Spanish was their guitar, but even more important was the tradition of European musical notation and techniques of musical composition. Hernando de la Parras archives give some of our earliest available information on Cuban music and he reported instruments including the clarinet, violin and vihuela. There were few professional musicians at the time, and fewer still of their songs survive, one of the earliest is Ma Teodora, supposed to be related to a freed slave, Teodora Ginés of Santiago de Cuba, who was famous for her compositions. The piece is said to be similar to 16th-, 17th- and 18th-century Spanish popular songs, Cuban music has its principal roots in Spain and West Africa, but over time has been influenced by diverse genres from different countries. Important among these are France, and the United States, Cuban music has been immensely influential in other countries. The African beliefs and practices certainly influenced Cubas music, polyrhythmic percussion is an inherent part of African music, as melody is part of European music
Cuban music
–
Ancient print of colonial Havana
Cuban music
–
Manuel Saumell
Cuban music
–
Ignacio Cervantes
Cuban music
–
L. M. Gottschalk
41.
Latin American folklore
–
Latin American culture is the formal or informal expression of the people of Latin America, and includes both high culture and popular culture as well as religion and other customary practices. Latin America also has many races, from a cultural perspective, * Latin America generally includes those parts of the Americas where Spanish, French or Portuguese prevail, Mexico, most of Central America, and South America. There is also an important Latin American cultural presence in the United States, there is also increasing attention to the relations between Latin America and the Caribbean as a whole. See further discussion of definitions at Latin America, European colonial culture, owing to the regions history of colonization by Spain, Portugal, and France. European influence is marked in so-called high culture, such as literature, painting. Moreover, this imperial history left a mark of their influence in their languages. 19th- and 20th-century immigration also transformed especially countries such as Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, Cuba, Chile, Venezuela, Dominican Republic, Latin America has a very diverse population with many ethnic groups and different ancestries. Only in three countries, do the Amerindians make up the majority of the population and this is the case of Peru, Guatemala and Bolivia. In the rest of the continent, most of the Native American descendants are of mixed race ancestry, in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries there was a flow of Iberian emigrants who left for Latin America. Of the European immigrants, men outnumbered women and many married natives. This resulted in a mixing of the Amerindians and Europeans and today their descendants are known as mestizos, even Latin Americans who are considered European usually have some native ancestry. Today, mestizos make up the majority of Latin Americas population, starting in the late 16th century, a large number of African slaves were brought to Latin America, especially to Brazil and the Caribbean. Nowadays, Blacks make up the majority of the population in most Caribbean, mixes between the Blacks and Amerindians also occurred, and their descendants are known as Zambos. Many Latin American countries also have a substantial population, which ancestry is a mix of Amerindians, Europeans and Africans. Large numbers of European immigrants arrived in Latin America in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most of them settling in the Southern Cone. In this same period, immigrants came from the Middle East and Asia, including Indians, Lebanese, Syrians and these people only make up a small percentage of Latin Americas population but they have communities in the major cities. This diversity has profoundly influenced religion, music and politics and this cultural heritage is called Latin or Latino in United States English. Outside of the U. S. and in many languages Latino just means Latin, Latin American is the proper term
Latin American folklore
–
Presencia de América Latina (Presence of Latin America, Chile, 1964-65). Also known as Latin America's Integration, is a 300 square meters (3,200 sq ft) mural at the hall of the Arts House of the University of Concepción and used in its 75th anniversary commemorative postal stamp.
Latin American folklore
–
Cineteca nacional in Mexico
Latin American folklore
–
Intermediate level international-style Latin dancing at the 2006 MIT ballroom dance competition. A judge stands in the foreground.
Latin American folklore
–
Gold maize. Moche culture 300 A.D.,
Larco Museum,
Lima, Peru.
42.
Cueca
–
Cueca is a family of musical styles and associated dances from Argentina, Chile and Bolivia. In Chile, the cueca holds the status of national dance, while cuecas origins are not clearly defined, it is considered to have mostly European Spanish and arguably indigenous influences. The most widespread version of its origins relates it with the zamacueca which arose in Peru as a variation of Spanish Fandango dancing with criollo, the dance is then thought to have passed to Chile and Bolivia, where its name was shortened and where it continued to evolve. Due to the popularity in the region, the Peruvian evolution of the zamacueca was nicknamed la chilena. Later, after the Pacific War, the marinera, in honor of Perus naval combatants. In March 1879 the writer and musician Abelardo Gamarra renamed the “chilena” as the “marinera”, the Marinera, Zamba and the Cueca styles are distinct from each other and from their root dance, the zamacueca. Another theory is that Cueca originated in the early 19th century bordellos of South America, the usual interpretation of this courting dance is zoomorphic, it tries to reenact the courting ritual of a rooster and a hen. The male displays a quite enthusiastic and at times even aggressive attitude while attempting to court the female, the dance often finishes with the man kneeling on one knee, with the woman placing her foot triumphantly on his raised knee. In Bolivia, there are many throughout the different regions. Cueca styles of La Paz, Potosí and Sucre are the elegant and static versions, whereas in Cochabamba and Tarija the style is much livelier, the same could be said with the music where in different regions rhythm and speed slightly differ amongst the regions. While dancing, handkerchiefs are used by male and female dancers by twirling over the head. It is said the twirling of the handkerchief is a way to lure the woman, in Chile the cueca was developed and spread in the bars and taverns, which in the 19th century were popular centers of entertainment and parties. During the second half of the 19th century the cueca was spread to diverse Latin American countries, similarly to the majority of Argentina the cueca was known as the “chilena” in Bolivia as well. Chilean sailors and adventurers spread the cueca to the coast of Mexico in the cities of Guerrero and Oaxaca, in Peru the dance transformed into one of the most popular dances during the 1860’s and 1870’s and was also known as the “chilena”. The clothing worn during the dance is very traditional Chilean clothes. They wear black costumes or dresses, the men in the dance wear the huasos hat, shirts, flannel poncho, riding pants and boots, short jacket, riding boots, and spurs. Cueca dancing resembles a rooster-chicken relationship, the man approaches the woman and offers his arm, then the women accompanies him and they walk around the room. They then face each other and hold their handkerchief in the air and they never touch, but still maintain contact through facial expressions and movements
Cueca
–
People dancing Cueca in 1906.
Cueca
–
La Zamacueca, by
Manuel Antonio Caro.
Cueca
–
Youth dance group, Santiago.
43.
Quena
–
The quena is the traditional flute of the Andes. Traditionally made of cane or wood, it has 6 finger holes and one thumb hole and it is normally in the key of G, with G4 being the lowest note. It produces a textured and dark timbre because of the length-to-bore ratio of about 16 to 20. The quenacho is a greater, lower-toned version of the quena and it is in the key of D, with D4 being the lowest note, a perfect fourth lower than the quena. It produces a very rich timbre because of the ratio of about 25. Quena is mostly used in traditional Andean music, the quena is also relatively common in World music. Quenas are usually played in pairs, in harmony, in Peru, one sees white quenas made from the leg-bone of the condor. Other Andean flutes include The pinkillu has the fingering as the quena. The auxiliary tube acts as an aeroduct, in most towns in the Andes, vamos a ir a la quena was a popular sentence to threaten little children, because according to popular beliefs the instrument was also used to whip
Quena
–
The quena is a South American wind instrument, mostly used by Andean musicians
44.
Mercedes Sosa
–
Haydée Mercedes Sosa, sometimes known as La Negra, was an Argentine singer who was popular throughout Latin America and many countries outside the region. She was born on Argentinas Independence Day, with her roots in Argentine folk music, Sosa became one of the preeminent exponents of nueva canción. She gave voice to songs written by many Latin American songwriters and her music made people hail her as the voice of the voiceless ones, and the voice of America. Her career spanned four decades and she was the recipient of several Grammy awards and nominations and she served as an ambassador for UNICEF. Sosa was born on 9 July 1935, in San Miguel de Tucumán, in the northwestern Argentine province of Tucumán, of mestizo, Spanish, French and she recorded her first album, La Voz de la Zafra, in 1959. Sosa and her first husband, Manuel Óscar Matus, with whom she had one son, were key players in the mid-60s nueva canción movement and her second record was Canciones con Fundamento, a collection of Argentine folk songs. In 1967, Sosa toured the United States and Europe with great success, in later years, she performed and recorded extensively, broadening her repertoire to include material from throughout Latin America. In the early 1970s, Sosa released two albums in collaboration with composer Ariel Ramírez and lyricist Félix Luna, Cantata Sudamericana. She also recorded a tribute to Chilean musician Violeta Parra in 1971, including what was to one of Sosas signature songs. She also increased the popularity of songs written by Milton Nascimento of Brazil and Pablo Milanés, after the military junta of Jorge Videla came to power in 1976, the atmosphere in Argentina grew increasingly oppressive. Sosa faced death threats against both her and her family, but refused for years to leave the country. At a concert in La Plata in 1979, Sosa was searched and arrested on stage and their release came about through international intervention. Banned in her own country, she moved to Paris and then to Madrid, a double album of recordings from these performances became an instant best seller. In subsequent years, Sosa continued to both in Argentina and abroad, performing in such venues as the Lincoln Center in New York. In a poor condition of health for much of the 1990s, in 1994, she played the Sistine Chapel in Vatican City. In 2002, she sold out both Carnegie Hall in New York and the Colosseum in Rome in the same year, a supporter of Perón, she favored leftist causes throughout her life. She opposed President Carlos Menem, who was in office from 1989 to 1999, and supported the election of Néstor Kirchner, Sosa was a UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador for Latin America and the Caribbean. Her song Balderrama is featured in the 2008 movie Che, starring Benicio del Toro as the Argentine Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara, Sosa was former Co-Chair of Earth Charter International Commission
Mercedes Sosa
–
Mercedes Sosa, photograph by
Annemarie Heinrich.
Mercedes Sosa
–
Mercedes Sosa lying in repose, with her family and President
Cristina Fernández de Kirchner viewing.
Mercedes Sosa
–
Mercedes Sosa in 2005, with Argentina's then-First Lady (now president),
Cristina Fernández de Kirchner.
45.
Atahualpa Yupanqui
–
Atahualpa Yupanqui (in Quechua, He who comes from faraway lands to say something was an Argentine singer, songwriter, guitarist, and writer. He is considered the most important Argentine folk musician of the 20th century, Yupanqui was born Héctor Roberto Chavero Aramburu in Pergamino, in the Argentine pampas, about 200 kilometers away from Buenos Aires. His father was a descended from indigenous people, while his mother was born in the Basque country. His family moved to Tucumán when he was ten, in a bow to two legendary Incan kings, he adopted the stage name Atahualpa Yupanqui, which became famous the world over. In his early years, Yupanqui travelled extensively through the northwest of Argentina and he became politically active and joined the Communist Party of Argentina. In 1931, he took part in the failed Kennedy brothers uprising against the de facto government of José Félix Uriburu, after the uprising was defeated, he was forced to seek refuge in Uruguay. He returned to Argentina in 1934, in 1935, Yupanqui paid his first visit to Buenos Aires, his compositions were growing in popularity, and he was invited to perform on the radio. Because of his Communist Party affiliation, his work suffered from censorship during Juan Peróns presidency and he left for Europe in 1949. Édith Piaf invited him to perform in Paris on 7 July 1950 and he immediately signed a contract with Chant Du Monde, the recording company that published his first LP in Europe, Minero Soy. In 1952, Yupanqui returned to Buenos Aires and he broke with the Communist Party, which made it easier for him to book radio performances. While with Nenette they constructed their house on Cerro Colorado, Yupanqui alternated between houses in Buenos Aires and Cerro Colorado, Córdoba province. During 1963–1964, he toured Colombia, Japan, Morocco, Egypt, Israel, in 1967, he toured Spain, and settled in Paris. He returned regularly to Argentina and appeared in Argentinísima II in 1973, some of his songs are included in the programs of Institutes and Schools where Castilian Literature is taught. In 1989, an important cultural center of France, the University of Nanterre, the piece, entitled The Sacred Word, was released before high French authorities. It was not a recollection of historical facts but rather a tribute to all the peoples that freed themselves. Yupanqui died in Nîmes, France in 1992 at the age of 84, profile of Atahualpa Yupanqui Muchas Gracias Atahualpa. Educational and cultural project promoting the work of Don Atahualpa Yupanqui, the site contains videos, songs, poetry, books, testimonials and awards. Official site – Fundacion Atahualpa Yupanqui Discography, books and other
Atahualpa Yupanqui
–
Yupanqui in 1935.
Atahualpa Yupanqui
–
Yupanqui at Cosquín Festival (1979).
Atahualpa Yupanqui
–
Atahualpa Yupanqui en la sala de grabación.
46.
Isabel Parra
–
Violeta Isabel Cereceda Parra, better known as Isabel Parra, is a famous Chilean singer-songwriter and interpreter of Latin American musical folklore. Parra was born in Chile in 1939 and began her career in music at the age of 13 when she made her first recording with her world-renowned mother and she has since interpreted and recorded the songs of some of the most famous Latin American folk singers. After the September 11,1973 Chilean coup d’etat she lived in exile in Argentina and she returned to Chile when democracy returned to her country. Parra has toured extensively during her career and was a figure in the Nueva Canción Chilena movement. Isabel Parra is also the sister of the folk singer Ángel Parra
Isabel Parra
–
Roberto Trenca and Isabel Parra
47.
Patricio Manns
–
Patricio Manns is a Chilean composer, author, poet, novelist, essayist, play writer and journalist. Patricio Manns was born in the town of Nacimiento, in the south of Chile on 3 August 1937. He is the son of a school teacher of French descent. Both of his parents played the piano, his father was a jazz aficionado and his mother was also central in cultivating his interest in literature. In his youth he took up a range of occupations. At the beginning of the 1963s he moved to Santiago where he continued his journalistic work. He was initiated in the field of music when he composed Bandido in 1959, which was recorded in Argentina in 1962 by the folk group Los Travadores del Norte and in Chile by Los Cuatro Cuartos. Manns was a member of the New Chilean Song, with Rolando Alarcón and the Parras and of the Peña of Carmen 340, Víctor Jara joined the Peña. Nueva Canción Chilena movement – for some a folkloric renaissance which led to a revolution in the music of the country. Manns would go on to participate in the extensive production of a series of travelling shows called Chile Rie y Canta which were organized throughout Chile by René Largo Farías. In this song, which has been traced as one of the cantatas to be heard in Latin America. Song XII of the cantata América Novia Mia has been recorded by himself, during this time he recorded the album Patricio Manns which included one of his best-known compositions Valdivia en la niebla and the prophetic No Cierres los Ojos. In this recording, which was accompanied by Inti-illimani, the Symphony Orchestra of Chile and the Philharmonic Orchestra of Santiago, the musical arrangements were done by Luis Advis. The military coup of September 11,1973 found him in Chile, late in 1973, Manns settled in Cuba where he began a life in exile that was to last decades. He collaborated with Humberto Solás with the script for the movie La Cantata de Chile, from Cuba he travelled to France where he settled and formed the ensemble Karaxú in 1974 with which he continued to musically collaborate with Cuban artists. From exile Manns launched his struggle against the Pinochet dictatorship becoming a spokesman of the Chilean resistance and this was also reflected in almost all his musical productions, Chansons de la Résistence Chilienne. This collaboration began to form in the works of Inti-illimani. Subsequently, other songs of this period included Medianoche, Arriesgare mi piel
Patricio Manns
–
"Karaxú Live" recorded in Hamburg in the former GFR in September 1975. The album cover features the Chilean revolutionary,
Miguel Enriquez, with
Che Guevara in the background.
48.
X Vietnam (album)
–
X Vietnam or Por Vietnam is an album by Quilapayún released in 1968. This was among the first albums to be released under the DICAP label and was a success upon its release in Chile, the music and subject matter of the recording is very internationalist and was the first recording success of the Nueva Canción Chilena. Songs by Violeta Parra and Sergio Ortega inter alia with the local folkloric rhythms, the song Los Pueblos Americanos by Violeta Parra denounces disputes over national boundaries and calls on Latin America to unite. Sergio Ortega’s Cueca de Joaquín Murieta is based on the character of Joaquín Murieta. Ultimately the Chilean outlaw, Murieta is apprehended and is decapitated by what could be the KKK, the song Canto a la pampa depicts the poverty and bleak existence of mining communities of the north of Chile
X Vietnam (album)
–
X Vietnam
49.
Salvador Allende
–
Salvador Guillermo Allende Gossens was a Chilean physician and politician, known as the first Marxist to become president of a Latin American country through open elections. Allendes involvement in Chilean political life spanned a period of forty years. As a member of the Socialist Party, he was a senator, deputy and he unsuccessfully ran for the presidency in the 1952,1958, and 1964 elections. In 1970, he won the presidency in a close three-way race and he was elected in a run-off by Congress as no candidate had gained a majority. A centre-right majority including the Christian Democrats, whose support had enabled Allendes election, denounced his rule as unconstitutional, on 11 September 1973, the military moved to oust Allende in a coup détat sponsored by the United States Central Intelligence Agency. As troops surrounded La Moneda Palace, he gave his last speech vowing not to resign, later that day, Allende committed suicide with an assault rifle, according to an investigation conducted by a Chilean court with the assistance of international experts in 2011. Allende was born on 26 June 1908 in Santiago and he was the son of Salvador Allende Castro and Laura Gossens Uribe. Allendes family belonged to the Chilean upper middle class and had a tradition of political involvement in progressive. His grandfather was a prominent physician and a social reformist who founded one of the first secular schools in Chile, Salvador Allende was of Belgian and Basque descent. Allende attended high school at the Liceo Eduardo de la Barra in Valparaíso, as a teenager, his main intellectual and political influence came from the shoe-maker Juan De Marchi, an Italian-born anarchist. Allende was an athlete in his youth, being a member of the Everton de Viña del Mar sports club. Allende then graduated with a degree in 1933 from the University of Chile. During his time at medical school Allende was influenced by Professor Max Westenhofer, Allende co-founded a section of the Socialist Party of Chile in Valparaíso and became its chairman. He married Hortensia Bussi with whom he had three daughters and he was a Freemason, a member of the Lodge Progreso No.4 in Valparaíso. In 1933, he published his doctoral thesis Higiene Mental y Delincuencia in which he criticized Cesare Lombrosos proposals, in 1938, Allende was in charge of the electoral campaign of the Popular Front headed by Pedro Aguirre Cerda. The Popular Fronts slogan was Bread, a Roof and Work, after its electoral victory, he became Minister of Health in the Reformist Popular Front government which was dominated by the Radicals. Upon entering the government, Allende relinquished his seat for Valparaíso. Around that time, he wrote La Realidad Médico Social de Chile, after the Kristallnacht in Nazi Germany, Allende was one of 76 members of the Congress who sent a telegram to Adolf Hitler denouncing the persecution of Jews
Salvador Allende
–
Salvador Allende
Salvador Allende
–
Salvador Allende in 1964.
Salvador Allende
–
Chilean workers marching in support of Allende in 1964.
Salvador Allende
–
Statue of Allende in front of the
Palacio de la Moneda. A portion of the statue's drapery, shown worn as a cape, is the national flag of Chile
50.
Inti-Illimani
–
Inti-Illimani are an instrumental and vocal Latin American folk music ensemble from Chile. At the moment of the September 11,1973 Chilean coup they were on tour in Europe and were unable to return to their country where their music was proscribed by the military junta. They are perhaps the best internationally known members of the nueva canción movement and their name means Sun of the Illimani. In Aymara Illimani is the name of a mountain in the Bolivian Andes and they influenced Yeni Türkü, a Turkish group, during their debut album, Buğdayın Türküsü in 1979. The group was formed by students at Universidad Técnica del Estado at Santiago, in 1973 as they were on tour abroad, General Augusto Pinochet launched a coup detat and took power. They continued their efforts supporting Chilean democracy internationally, magnitizdat copies of their work continued to be distributed in Chile. In September 1988, days after they were no longer banned from Chile and they helped organize the voting down of the referendum that would have re-elected Pinochet. Recently, they were supported by Chile as representatives of Chilean culture. In the past the group was led by Horacio Salinas. However, in 2001 there was a split of the group. They were replaced by Manuel Meriño, Cristián González and Juan Flores, due to the importance of departed members, many called into question the ability of the remainder to carry on the Inti-Illimani name. Meanwhile, the three departed members started their own group they call Inti-Histórico, La Nueva Canción Chilena Canto de Pueblos Andinos Hacia La Libertad Canto de Pueblos Andinos, Vol. Tributo a su música 2009 - Tributo a Inti-Illimani Histórico
Inti-Illimani
–
Inti-Illimani Nuevo (New) performing on February 26, 2007 (left to right): Christián González, César Jara, Manuel Merino and Marcelo Coulón.
