1.
NASA
–
President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
2.
Pacific Ocean
–
The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
3.
Papua New Guinea
–
Its capital, located along its southeastern coast, is Port Moresby. The western half of New Guinea forms the Indonesian provinces of Papua, Papua New Guinea is one of the most culturally diverse countries in the world. There are 852 known languages in the country, of which 12 have no known living speakers, most of the population of more than 7 million people live in customary communities, which are as diverse as the languages. It is also one of the most rural, as only 18 percent of its live in urban centres. The country is one of the worlds least explored, culturally and geographically and it is known to have numerous groups of uncontacted peoples, and researchers believe there are many undiscovered species of plants and animals in the interior. Papua New Guinea is classified as an economy by the International Monetary Fund. Strong growth in Papua New Guineas mining and resource sector led to the becoming the sixth fastest-growing economy in the world in 2011. Growth was expected to slow once major resource projects came on line in 2015, mining remains a major economic factor, however. Local and national governments are discussing the potential of resuming mining operations in Panguna mine in Bougainville Province, nearly 40 percent of the population lives a self-sustainable natural lifestyle with no access to global capital. Most of the still live in strong traditional social groups based on farming. Their social lives combine traditional religion with modern practices, including primary education, at the national level, after being ruled by three external powers since 1884, Papua New Guinea established its sovereignty in 1975. This followed nearly 60 years of Australian administration, which started during the Great War and it became an independent Commonwealth realm with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state and became a member of the Commonwealth of Nations in its own right. Archaeological evidence indicates that humans first arrived in Papua New Guinea around 42,000 to 45,000 years ago and they were descendants of migrants out of Africa, in one of the early waves of human migration. Agriculture was independently developed in the New Guinea highlands around 7000 BC, a major migration of Austronesian-speaking peoples to coastal regions of New Guinea took place around 500 BC. This has been correlated with the introduction of pottery, pigs, in the 18th century, traders brought the sweet potato to New Guinea, where it was adopted and became part of the staples. Portuguese traders had obtained it from South America and introduced it to the Moluccas, the far higher crop yields from sweet potato gardens radically transformed traditional agriculture and societies. Sweet potato largely supplanted the previous staple, taro, and resulted in a significant increase in population in the highlands. In 1901, on Goaribari Island in the Gulf of Papua, missionary Harry Dauncey found 10,000 skulls in the islands Long Houses, traders from Southeast Asia had visited New Guinea beginning 5,000 years ago to collect bird of paradise plumes
4.
Atoll
–
An atoll, sometimes called a coral atoll, is a ring-shaped coral reef including a coral rim that encircles a lagoon partially or completely. There may be coral islands/cays on the rim, the coral of the atoll often sits atop the rim of an extinct seamount or volcano which has eroded or subsided partially beneath the water. The lagoon forms over the crater or caldera while the higher rim remains above water or at shallow depths that permit the coral to grow. For the atoll to persist, continued erosion or subsidence must be at a slow enough to permit reef growth upwards and outwards to replace the lost height. The word atoll comes from the Dhivehi word atholhu, meaning an administrative subdivision, the distribution of atolls around the globe is instructive, most of the worlds atolls are in the Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean. The Atlantic Ocean has no large groups of atolls, other than eight atolls east of Nicaragua that belong to the Colombian department of San Andres and Providencia in the Caribbean. Reef-building corals will thrive only in tropical and subtropical waters of oceans and seas. The northernmost atoll of the world is Kure Atoll at 28°24 N, the southernmost atolls of the world are Elizabeth Reef at 29°58 S, and nearby Middleton Reef at 29°29 S, in the Tasman Sea, both of which are part of the Coral Sea Islands Territory. The next southerly atoll is Ducie Island in the Pitcairn Islands Group, at this latitude coral reefs would not develop without the warming waters of the Gulf Stream. However, Bermuda is termed a pseudo-atoll because its general form, while there is no atoll directly on the equator, the closest atoll to the Equator is Aranuka of Kiribati, with its southern tip just 12 km north of the equator. In most cases, the area of an atoll is very small in comparison to the total area. Atoll islands are low lying, with their elevations less than 5 meters, measured by total area, Lifou is the largest raised coral atoll of the world, followed by Rennell Island. More sources however list as the largest atoll in the world in terms of land area Kiritimati, the remains of an ancient atoll as a hill in a limestone area is called a reef knoll. The second largest atoll by dry land area is Aldabra with 155 km², the largest atoll in terms of island numbers is Huvadhu Atoll in the south of the Maldives with 255 islands. In 1842, Charles Darwin explained the creation of coral atolls in the southern Pacific Ocean based upon observations made during a voyage aboard the HMS Beagle from 1831 to 1836. In time, subsidence carries the old volcano below the ocean surface, at this point, the island has become an atoll. Atolls are the product of the growth of marine organisms. Volcanic islands located beyond the water temperature requirements of hermatypic organisms become seamounts as they subside and are eroded away at the surface
5.
Equator
–
The Equator usually refers to an imaginary line on the Earths surface equidistant from the North Pole and South Pole, dividing the Earth into the Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere. The Equator is about 40,075 kilometres long, some 78. 7% lies across water and 21. 3% over land, other planets and astronomical bodies have equators similarly defined. Generally, an equator is the intersection of the surface of a sphere with the plane that is perpendicular to the spheres axis of rotation. The latitude of the Earths equator is by definition 0° of arc, the equator is the only line of latitude which is also a great circle — that is, one whose plane passes through the center of the globe. The plane of Earths equator when projected outwards to the celestial sphere defines the celestial equator, in the cycle of Earths seasons, the plane of the equator passes through the Sun twice per year, at the March and September equinoxes. To an observer on the Earth, the Sun appears to travel North or South over the equator at these times, light rays from the center of the Sun are perpendicular to the surface of the Earth at the point of solar noon on the Equator. Locations on the Equator experience the quickest sunrises and sunsets because the sun moves nearly perpendicular to the horizon for most of the year. The Earth bulges slightly at the Equator, the diameter of the Earth is 12,750 kilometres. Because the Earth spins to the east, spacecraft must also launch to the east to take advantage of this Earth-boost of speed, seasons result from the yearly revolution of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the Earths axis relative to the plane of revolution. During the year the northern and southern hemispheres are inclined toward or away from the sun according to Earths position in its orbit, the hemisphere inclined toward the sun receives more sunlight and is in summer, while the other hemisphere receives less sun and is in winter. At the equinoxes, the Earths axis is not tilted toward the sun, instead it is perpendicular to the sun meaning that the day is about 12 hours long, as is the night, across the whole of the Earth. Near the Equator there is distinction between summer, winter, autumn, or spring. The temperatures are usually high year-round—with the exception of high mountains in South America, the temperature at the Equator can plummet during rainstorms. In many tropical regions people identify two seasons, the wet season and the dry season, but many places close to the Equator are on the oceans or rainy throughout the year, the seasons can vary depending on elevation and proximity to an ocean. The Equator lies mostly on the three largest oceans, the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Indian Ocean. The highest point on the Equator is at the elevation of 4,690 metres, at 0°0′0″N 77°59′31″W and this is slightly above the snow line, and is the only place on the Equator where snow lies on the ground. At the Equator the snow line is around 1,000 metres lower than on Mount Everest, the Equator traverses the land of 11 countries, it also passes through two island nations, though without making a landfall in either. Starting at the Prime Meridian and heading eastwards, the Equator passes through, Despite its name, however, its island of Annobón is 155 km south of the Equator, and the rest of the country lies to the north
6.
New Ireland (island)
–
New Ireland is a large island in Papua New Guinea, approximately 7,404 km² in area with ca.120,000 people. It is the largest island of the New Ireland Province, lying northeast of the island of New Britain, both islands are part of the Bismarck Archipelago, named after Otto von Bismarck, and they are separated by Saint Georges Channel. The administrative centre of the island and of New Ireland province is the town of Kavieng located at the end of the island. While the island was part of German New Guinea, it was named Neumecklenburg, the island is part of the Bismarck Archipelago and is often described as having the shape of a musket. For much of its 360 km in length, the width varies between less than 10 km to 40 km, yet the central mountainous spine is very steep. The highest peak is Mount Taron in the Hans Meyer Range, other mountain ranges are Tirpitz, Schleinitz, Verron and Rossel. The island lies between two and five south of the equator. The original land cover was primarily dense rainforest, New Ireland is surrounded by the Bismarck Sea in the southwest and by the Pacific Ocean in the northeast. The first inhabitants of the Bismarck Archipelago arrived around 33,000 years ago after sailing from what is now Papua New Guinea, later arrivals included the Lapita people approximately 3,000 years ago. Three distinct cultural practices are characteristic of the people of New Ireland, Kabai. In 1616 the Dutch sailors Jacob Le Maire and Willem Schouten were the first Europeans to set foot on the island, in the 1870s and 1880s, the Marquis de Rays, a French nobleman, attempted to establish a French colony on the island called New France. He sent four ill-fated expeditions to the island, the most famous of which caused the death of 123 settlers, from 1885 to 1914 New Ireland was a part of German New Guinea and bore the name Neumecklenburg. Germans managed several highly profitable copra plantations and built a road to transport the goods and this road is currently in service and is named the Boluminski Highway after the German administrator of German New Guinea, Franz Boluminski. After World War I New Ireland was ceded to Australia, Australia renamed the island New Ireland, after the island of Ireland. In January 1942, during World War II, the island was captured by Japanese forces and was under their control. Widespread deforestation and degradation of lowland rainforest is an issue on New Ireland, nearly 60% of their forests are accessible to logging, and by 2002, 63% of the accessible forests had been deforested or degraded. Malagan - funerary arts that originate in Tabar Group, and have been imported to the region of New Ireland. Tatanua - The person who organises a tatanua performance must select the music and dancers, assemble a male chorus, the masks are usually rented from one of the sculptors who makes them
7.
Ontong Java
–
Ontong Java Atoll or Luangiua is one of the largest atolls on earth. It is sometimes referred to as Lord Howe Atoll, not to be confused with Lord Howe Island, geographically it belongs to a scattered group of three atolls which includes nearby Nukumanu Atoll and the wholly submerged Roncador Reef located 75 kilometres to the south. Administratively Ontong Java belongs to the Solomon Islands, as an outlying part of Malaita Province, it forms the northernmost tract of land of this state, over 250 km north of Santa Isabel Island. The entire size of the atoll is 1400 km², but there are only 12 km² of land, the islands are mostly low-lying coral formations, the highest elevation being 13 metres. Approximately 2000 people live on the atoll, there are two main villages where the population is concentrated with 1,386 on the island of Luaniua in the eastern end and 689 on Pelau in the northeast. The islands were first inhabited by Polynesians approximately 2000 years ago, the main cultural and commercial exchanges took place with the inhabitants of neighboring Nukumanu Atoll, with whom Ontong Java people share many cultural affinities. It is likely that first European sighting was by the Spanish expedition of Álvaro de Mendaña on 1 February 1568 and it was charted by them as Bajos de la Candelaria. The following verifiable sighting by Europeans was by Abel Tasman in 1643 who named it Ontong Java, however, it wasnt until 1791 that Europeans set foot on the islands, john Hunter named it Lord Howe Atoll. In 1893 the islands were annexed by Germany and ceded to Great Britain in 1899, today the atolls inhabitants make a subsistence living by means of coconut and taro cultivation, as well as fishing. Until a ban in 2005, the source of income was beche de mer and trochus shells. The inhabitants are involved in copra production. It also has a number of sea birds, including the black-naped tern. Ontong Java is a Polynesian outlier, the inhabitants retain a Polynesian character despite their location in the Melanesian Archipelago of the Solomon Islands. In former times both men and women wore elaborate tattoos all over their bodies, two dialects of one language are spoken in this atoll, Luangiua and Pelau. This language belongs to the Polynesian stock, Ontong Java was visited by English missionary George Brown in mid 19th century. Brown described the population as Polynesian and referred to the place as Lua Niua and he recorded the existence of a two-class system in Ontong Java and, based on it, inferred that it was probable that exogamous classes formerly existed in Samoa as well. This expedition visited both Ontong Java and neighboring Nukumanu Atoll, where they carried out their research. Their work, Luangiua und Nukumanu was published in 1931, Sarfert and Damm claimed that both names of the atoll, Lord Howe and Ontong Java, were incorrect and called this atoll Luangiua in their works
8.
Solomon Islands
–
The countrys capital, Honiara, is located on the island of Guadalcanal. The islands have been inhabited for thousands of years, in 1568, the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to visit them, naming them the Islas Salomón. Britain defined its area of interest in the Solomon Islands archipelago in June 1893, during World War II, the Solomon Islands campaign saw fierce fighting between the United States and the Empire of Japan, such as in the Battle of Guadalcanal. The official name of the then British overseas territory was changed from the British Solomon Islands Protectorate to Solomon Islands in 1975, self-government was achieved in 1976, independence was obtained two years later. Today, Solomon Islands is a monarchy with the Queen of Solomon Islands, currently Queen Elizabeth II. Manasseh Sogavare is the current prime minister, in 1568, the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to visit the Solomon Islands archipelago, naming it Islas Salomón after the wealthy biblical King Solomon. It is said that they were given name in the mistaken assumption that they contained great riches. During most of the period of British rule the territory was named the British Solomon Islands Protectorate. On 22 June 1975 the territory was renamed Solomon Islands, when Solomon Islands became independent in 1978 they retained the name. The definite article, the, is not part of the official name but is sometimes used. It is believed that Papuan-speaking settlers began to arrive around 30,000 BC, austronesian speakers arrived c.4000 BC also bringing cultural elements such as the outrigger canoe. Between 1200 and 800 BC the ancestors of the Polynesians, the Lapita people, the first European to visit the islands was the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira, coming from Peru in 1568. The people of Solomon Islands were notorious for headhunting and cannibalism before the arrival of the Europeans, missionaries began visiting the Solomons in the mid-19th century. They made little progress at first, because blackbirding led to a series of reprisals, the evils of the labour trade prompted the United Kingdom to declare a protectorate over the southern Solomons in June 1893. Traditional trade and social intercourse between the western Solomon Islands of Mono and Alu and the societies in the south of Bougainville, however. Missionaries settled in the Solomons under the protectorate, converting most of the population to Christianity, in the early 20th century several British and Australian firms began large-scale coconut planting. Economic growth was slow, however, and the islanders benefited little, journalist Joe Melvin visited in 1892, as part of his undercover investigation into blackbirding. In 1908 the islands were visited by Jack London, who was cruising the Pacific on his boat, with the outbreak of the Second World War most planters and traders were evacuated to Australia and most cultivation ceased
9.
Polynesia
–
Polynesia is a subregion of Oceania, made up of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The indigenous people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are termed Polynesians and they share many similar traits including the language family, culture, and beliefs. Historically, they were experienced sailors who used stars to navigate at night, the term Polynesia was first used in 1756 by French writer Charles de Brosses, and originally applied to all the islands of the Pacific. In 1831, Jules Dumont dUrville proposed a restriction on its use during a lecture to the Geographical Society of Paris, historically, these islands have also been referred to as the South Sea Islands. Polynesia is characterized by an amount of land spread over a very large portion of the mid. Most Polynesian islands and archipelagos, including the Hawaiian Islands and Samoa, are composed of volcanic islands built by hotspots, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and Ouvéa, the Polynesian outlier near New Caledonia, are the unsubmerged portions of the largely sunken continent of Zealandia. At first, the Pacific plate was subducted under the Australian plate, the Alpine Fault that traverses the South Island is currently a transform fault while the convergent plate boundary from the North Island northwards is called the Kermadec-Tonga Subduction Zone. The volcanism associated with subduction zone is the origin of the Kermadec. Out of approximately 300,000 or 310,000 square kilometres of land, over 270,000 km2 are within New Zealand, the Zealandia continent has approximately 3,600,000 km2 of continental shelf. The oldest rocks in the region are found in New Zealand and are believed to be about 510 million years old, the oldest Polynesian rocks outside of Zealandia are to be found in the Hawaiian Emperor Seamount Chain, and are 80 million years old. Polynesia is generally defined as the islands within the Polynesian Triangle, geographically, the Polynesian Triangle is drawn by connecting the points of Hawaii, New Zealand and Easter Island. The other main island groups located within the Polynesian Triangle are Samoa, Tonga, there are also small Polynesian settlements in Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Caroline Islands, and in Vanuatu. An island group with strong Polynesian cultural traits outside of this triangle is Rotuma. The people of Rotuma have many common Polynesian traits but speak a non-Polynesian language, some of the Lau Islands to the southeast of Fiji have strong historic and cultural links with Tonga. However, in essence, Polynesia is a term referring to one of the three parts of Oceania. Some islands of Polynesian origin are outside the triangle that geographically defines the region. The Phoenix Islands and Line Islands, most of which are part of Kiribati, are geographically Polynesian islands, tracing Polynesian languages places their prehistoric origins in the Malay Archipelago, and ultimately, in Taiwan. Between about 3000 and 1000 BC speakers of Austronesian languages began spreading from Taiwan into Island Southeast Asia, there are three theories regarding the spread of humans across the Pacific to Polynesia
10.
German colonial empire
–
The German colonial empire constituted the overseas colonies, dependencies and territories of the German Empire. Short-lived attempts of colonization by individual German states had occurred in preceding centuries, Germany lost control when World War I began in 1914 and its colonies were seized by its enemies in the first weeks of the war. However some military units out for a while longer, German South-West Africa surrendered in 1915, Kamerun in 1916. Germany seemed destined to play catch-up, the Hanseatic republics of Hamburg and Bremen sent traders across the globe. These trading houses conducted themselves as successful Privatkolonisatoren and concluded treaties and land purchases in Africa and these early agreements with local entities, however, later formed the basis for annexation treaties, diplomatic support and military protection by the German Empire. Many Germans in the late 19th century viewed colonial acquisitions as an indication of having achieved nationhood. Public opinion eventually arrived at an understanding that prestigious African and Pacific colonies went hand-in-hand with dreams of a High Seas Fleet, both aspirations would become reality, nurtured by a press replete with Kolonialfreunde and by a myriad of geographical associations and colonial societies. Bismarck and many deputies in the Reichstag had no interest in colonial conquests merely to acquire square miles of territory, in essence, Bismarcks colonial motives were obscure as he had said repeatedly. I am no man for colonies and remained as contemptuous of all colonial dreams as ever, indeed, in 1889, tried to give German South-West Africa away to the British. It was, he said, a burden and an expense, the development of German overseas protectorates essentially followed three phases. German traders and merchants began to themselves in the African Cameroon delta. At Apia and the settlements Finschhafen, Simpsonhafen and the islands Neu-Pommern and Neu-Mecklenburg, large African inland acquisitions followed — mostly to the detriment of native inhabitants. In eastern Africa the imperialist and “man-of-action” Karl Peters accumulated vast tracts of land for his colonization group, for some 60 thousand square miles of the Zanzibar Sultanate’s mainland property. Brutality, hanging and flogging prevailed during these land-grab expeditions under Peters’ control as well as others as no-one held a monopoly in the mistreatment of Africans. As Bismarck was converted to the idea by 1884, he favored chartered company land management rather than establishment of colonial government due to financial considerations. Although temperate zone cultivation flourished, the demise and often failure of tropical low-land enterprises contributed to changing Bismarck’s view and he reluctantly acquiesced to pleas for help to deal with revolts and armed hostilities by often powerful rulers whose lucrative slaving activities seemed at risk. German native military forces engaged in dozens of punitive expeditions to apprehend and punish freedom fighters. At that time, the German penchant for giving muscle priority over patience contributed to continued unrest, several of the African colonies remained powder kegs throughout this phase
11.
Australia
–
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
12.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
13.
Amelia Earhart
–
Amelia Mary Earhart was an American aviation pioneer and author. Earhart was the first female aviator to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean, distinguished Flying Cross for this accomplishment. She set many records, wrote best-selling books about her flying experiences and was instrumental in the formation of The Ninety-Nines. In 1935, Earhart became a faculty member at Purdue University as an advisor to aeronautical engineering. She was also a member of the National Womans Party and a supporter of the Equal Rights Amendment. During an attempt to make a flight of the globe in 1937 in a Purdue-funded Lockheed Model 10 Electra. Fascination with her life, career and disappearance continues to this day, Earhart was the daughter of Samuel Edwin Stanton Earhart and Amelia Amy. Amelia was the child of the marriage, after an infant stillborn in August 1896. She was of part German descent, alfred Otis had not initially favored the marriage and was not satisfied with Edwins progress as a lawyer. According to family custom, Earhart was named after her two grandmothers, Amelia Josephine Harres and Mary Wells Patton, from an early age, Earhart, nicknamed Meeley was the ringleader while her younger sister, Grace Muriel Earhart, nicknamed Pidge, acted the dutiful follower. Both girls continued to answer to their childhood nicknames well into adulthood and their upbringing was unconventional since Amy Earhart did not believe in molding her children into nice little girls. A spirit of adventure seemed to abide in the Earhart children, as a child, Earhart spent long hours playing with sister Pidge, climbing trees, hunting rats with a rifle and belly-slamming her sled downhill. Although this love of the outdoors and rough-and-tumble play was common to many youngsters, the girls kept worms, moths, katydids and a tree toad in a growing collection gathered in their outings. In 1904, with the help of her uncle, she cobbled together a home-made ramp fashioned after a roller coaster she had seen on a trip to St. Louis, Earharts well-documented first flight ended dramatically. She emerged from the wooden box that had served as a sled with a bruised lip, torn dress. She exclaimed, Oh, Pidge, its just like flying, although there had been some missteps in his career up to that point, in 1907 Edwin Earharts job as a claims officer for the Rock Island Railroad led to a transfer to Des Moines, Iowa. The next year, at the age of 10, Earhart saw her first aircraft at the Iowa State Fair in Des Moines and her father tried to interest her and her sister in taking a flight. One look at the rickety flivver was enough for Earhart, who asked if they could go back to the merry-go-round
14.
Fred Noonan
–
Frederick Joseph Fred Noonan was an American flight navigator, sea captain and aviation pioneer who first charted many commercial airline routes across the Pacific Ocean during the 1930s. Fred Noonan was born in Cook County, Illinois and his parents were Joseph T. Noonan and Catherine Egan. Noonans mother died when he was four, and three years later a census report lists his father as living alone in a Chicago boarding house, relatives or family friends were likely looking after Noonan. In his own words, Noonan left school in summer of 1905 and went to Seattle, Washington, at the age of 17, Noonan shipped out of Seattle as an ordinary seaman on a British sailing bark, the Crompton. Between 1910 and 1915, Noonan worked on over a dozen ships, rising to the ratings of quartermaster and he continued working on merchant ships throughout World War I. Serving as an officer on ships, his harrowing wartime service included being on three vessels that were sunk from under him by U-boats. After the war, Noonan continued in the Merchant Marine and achieved a measure of prominence as a ships officer, throughout the 1920s, his maritime career was characterized by steadily increasing ratings and good work performance reviews. Noonan married Josephine Sullivan in 1927 at Jackson, Mississippi, after a honeymoon in Cuba, they settled in New Orleans. Following a distinguished 22-year career at sea which included sailing around Cape Horn seven times, after learning to fly in the late 1920s, he received a limited commercial pilots license in 1930, on which he listed his occupation as aviator. In the following year, he was awarded marine license #121190, Class Master, any ocean, in March 1935, Noonan was the navigator on the first Pan Am Sikorsky S-42 clipper at San Francisco Bay. In April he navigated the historic round-trip China Clipper flight between San Francisco and Honolulu piloted by Ed Musick. Noonan was subsequently responsible for mapping Pan Ams clipper routes across the Pacific Ocean, participating in many flights to Midway Island, Wake Island, Guam, the Philippines, and Hong Kong. In addition to more modern tools, Noonan as a licensed sea captain was known for carrying a ships sextant on these flights. The tall, very thin, dark auburn-haired and blue-eyed 43-year-old navigator was living in Los Angeles and he resigned from Pan Am because he felt he had risen through the ranks as far as he could as a navigator, and he had an interest in starting a navigation school. In March, he divorced his wife, Josie, in Ciudad Juárez, two weeks later, he married Mary Beatrice Martinelli of Oakland, California. Noonan was rumored to be a drinker of alcoholic beverages. That was fairly common during this era and there is no contemporary evidence Noonan was an alcoholic, although decades later and she planned to circumnavigate the globe at equatorial latitudes. Although this aircraft was of a type for its time
15.
Taro
–
Taro commonly refers to the plant Colocasia esculenta, the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the Araceae family which are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, and petioles. Thus, this describes the dasheen form of taro, another variety of taro is known as eddoe or Colocasia antiquorum. Other species of taro include giant taro, swamp taro, Colocasia esculenta is thought to be native to Southern India and Southeast Asia, but is widely naturalised. It is a perennial, tropical plant primarily grown as a vegetable for its edible starchy corm. It is a staple in African, Oceanic and South Indian cultures and is believed to have been one of the earliest cultivated plants. It is known by local names and often referred to as elephant ears when grown as an ornamental plant. Taro can be grown in fields where water is abundant or in upland situations where water is supplied by rainfall or supplemental irrigation. Taro is one of the few crops that can be grown under flooded conditions and this is due to air spaces in the petiole, which permit underwater gaseous exchange with the atmosphere. For a maximum dissolved oxygen supply, the water should be cool, warm, stagnant water causes basal rotting. For maximum yields, the water level should be controlled so that the base of the plant is always under water, flooded cultivation has some advantages over dry-land cultivation, higher yields, out-of-season production, and weed control. On the other hand, in flooded production systems requires a longer maturation period, investment in infrastructure, and higher operational costs. Like most root crops, taro and eddoes do well in deep, moist or even swampy soils where the rainfall exceeds 2,500 mm. Eddoes are more resistant to drought. The crop attains maturity within six to twelve months after planting in dry-land cultivation, the crop is harvested when the plant height decreases and the leaves turn yellow. These signals are less distinct in flooded taro cultivation. Harvesting is usually done by hand tools, even in mechanized production systems, first, the soil around the corm is loosened, and then, the corm is pulled up by grabbing the base of the petioles. The global average yield is 6.2 tones/hectare but varies according to the region, in Asia, average yields reach 12.6 tones/hectare. Taro contains oxalic acid which forms raphides and it is reduced to safe levels by steeping cubed taro roots in cold water overnight and disposing of the water. Calcium oxalate is highly insoluble and contributes to kidney stones and it has been recommended to consume calcium-rich foods like milk together with taro
16.
Banana
–
The banana is an edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus Musa. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called plantains, in contrast to dessert bananas. The fruit is variable in size, color and firmness, but is elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich in starch covered with a rind which may be green, yellow, red, purple. The fruits grow in clusters hanging from the top of the plant, almost all modern edible parthenocarpic bananas come from two wild species – Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. The scientific names of most cultivated bananas are Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana, the old scientific name Musa sapientum is no longer used. Musa species are native to tropical Indomalaya and Australia, and are likely to have been first domesticated in Papua New Guinea. They are grown in 135 countries, primarily for their fruit, worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between bananas and plantains. Especially in the Americas and Europe, banana usually refers to soft, sweet, dessert bananas, particularly those of the Cavendish group, by contrast, Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called plantains. In other regions, such as Southeast Asia, many kinds of banana are grown and eaten. The term banana is used as the common name for the plants which produce the fruit. This can extend to members of the genus Musa like the scarlet banana, pink banana. It can also refer to members of the genus Ensete, like the snow banana, both genera are classified under the banana family, Musaceae. The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant, all the above-ground parts of a banana plant grow from a structure usually called a corm. Plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy, and are mistaken for trees. Bananas grow in a variety of soils, as long as the soil is at least 60 cm deep, has good drainage and is not compacted. The leaves of plants are composed of a stalk and a blade. The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath, the tightly packed sheaths make up the pseudostem, the edges of the sheath meet when it is first produced, making it tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem the edges are forced apart, cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on the variety and growing conditions
17.
Coconut
–
The coconut tree is a member of the family Arecaceae and the only species of the genus Cocos. The term coconut can refer to the coconut palm or the seed, or the fruit. The spelling cocoanut is a form of the word. The term is derived from the 16th-century Portuguese and Spanish word coco meaning head or skull, coconuts are known for their great versatility, as evidenced by many traditional uses, ranging from food to cosmetics. They form a part of the diets of many people in the tropics and subtropics. Coconuts are distinct from other fruits for their quantity of water. When mature, they can be used as seed nuts or processed to give oil from the kernel, charcoal from the hard shell, the endosperm is initially in its nuclear phase suspended within the coconut water. As development continues, cellular layers of endosperm deposit along the walls of the coconut, when dried, the coconut flesh is called copra. The oil and milk derived from it are used in cooking and frying, as well as in soaps. The husks and leaves can be used as material to make a variety of products for furnishing and decorating, the coconut also has cultural and religious significance in certain societies, particularly in India, where it is used in Hindu rituals. Cocos nucifera is a palm, growing up to 30 m tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m long. Coconuts are generally classified into two types, tall and dwarf. On fertile soil, a coconut palm tree can yield up to 75 fruits per year. Given proper care and growing conditions, coconut palms produce their first fruit in six to ten years, botanically, the coconut fruit is a drupe, not a true nut. Like other fruits, it has three layers, the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, the exocarp and mesocarp make up the husk of the coconuts. Coconuts sold in the shops of nontropical countries often have had the exocarp removed, the mesocarp is composed of a fiber, called coir, which has many traditional and commercial uses. The shell has three germination pores or eyes that are visible on its outside surface once the husk is removed. A full-sized coconut weighs about 1.44 kg and it takes around 6,000 full-grown coconuts to produce a tonne of copra
18.
Raw fish
–
This article is about raw fish or shellfish. It includes marinated raw fish and raw fish which is lightly cured such as gravlax, parasites in fish are a natural occurrence and common. Though not a concern in thoroughly cooked fish, parasites are a concern when consumers eat raw or lightly preserved fish such as sashimi, sushi, ceviche. The popularity of raw fish dishes makes it important for consumers to be aware of this risk. Raw fish should be frozen to a temperature of −20 °C for at least 7 days to kill parasites. It is important to be aware that home freezers may not be enough to kill parasites. Traditionally, fish that all or part of their lives in fresh water were considered unsuitable for sashimi due to the possibility of parasites. Parasitic infections from freshwater fish are a problem in some parts of the world. Fish that spend part of their life cycle in brackish or freshwater, a study in Seattle, Washington showed that 100% of wild salmon had roundworm larvae capable of infecting people. In the same study farm raised salmon did not have any roundworm larvae, parasite infection by raw fish is rare in the developed world, and involves mainly three kinds of parasites, Clonorchis sinensis, Anisakis and Diphyllobothrium. Infection risk of anisakis is particularly higher in fishes which may live in a such as salmon in Salmonidae or mackerel. Such parasite infections can generally be avoided by boiling, burning, preserving in salt or vinegar, in Japan it is common to eat raw salmon and ikura, but these foods are frozen overnight prior to eating to prevent infections from parasites, particularly anisakis. Eating live seafood Lomi salmon List of fish dishes List of seafood dishes
19.
Sea cucumber as food
–
Sea cucumbers are marine animals of the class Holothuroidea. They are used in fresh or dried form in various cuisines, in some cultural contexts the sea cucumber is thought to have medicinal value. The creature and the product are commonly known as bêche-de-mer in French, trepang in Indonesian, namako in Japanese, balatan in Tagalog. In Malay, it is known as the gamat, most cultures in East and Southeast Asia regard sea cucumbers as a delicacy. A number of dishes are made with sea cucumber, and in most dishes it has a slippery texture, common ingredients that go with sea cucumber dishes include winter melon, conpoy, kai-lan, shiitake mushroom, and Chinese cabbage. Sea cucumbers destined for food are traditionally harvested by hand from small watercraft and they are dried for preservation, and must be rehydrated by boiling and soaking in water for several days. They are mainly used as an ingredient in Chinese cuisine soups or stews, many commercially important species of sea cucumber are harvested and dried for export for use in Chinese cuisine as 海参 （hai shen in sound）. The fishing of the species known as bêche-de-mer is regulated by state. Five other species are targeted in the states bêche-de-mer harvest, these are Holothuria noblis, Holothuria whitmaei, Thelenota ananas, Actinopyga echninitis, in the far north of Queensland, Australia, sea cucumber are harvested from the Great Barrier Reef and the Coral Sea. Targeted species include Holothuria noblis, Holothuria whitmaei and H. scabra, divers are supplied air via hose or hookah from the surface and collect their catch by hand, diving to depths of up to 40 m. The largest American species is Holothuria floridana, which abounds just below low-water mark on the Florida reefs, there are plans to harvest this species for the overseas market. The Asian market for sea cucumber is estimated to be US$60 million, the dried form accounts for 95% of the sea cucumber traded annually in China, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, Malaysia, Korea, and Japan. It is typically used in Chinese cuisines, the biggest re-exporters in the trade are China, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Of the 650 species of sea cucumbers, just 10 species have commercial value, in 2013, the Chinese government cracked down on the purchasing of sea cucumbers by officials as their expensive price tag could be seen as a sign of opulence. In Japan, sea cucumber is also eaten raw, as sashimi or sunomono, and its intestine is eaten as konowata. The dried ovary of sea cucumber is also eaten, which is called konoko or kuchiko, Sea cucumbers are considered non-kosher by some Jewish sources. Both a fresh form and a form are used for cooking, though its preparation is complex due to its taste being entirely tasteless. For these reasons, it is also the most difficult ingredient to prepare well, much of the preparation of sea cucumber goes into cleaning and boiling it, then stewing it in meat broths and extracts to infuse each sea cucumber with flavour
20.
Trochus
–
Trochus is a genus of medium-sized to large, top-shaped sea snails with an operculum and a pearly inside to their shells, marine gastropod molluscs in the family Trochidae, the top snails. Tectus niloticus is no longer classified as a Trochus species, and it is no longer classified in the family Trochidae, it is now placed in the family Tegulidae. The name Trochus, according to P. Fischer was used for the first time by Guillaume Rondelet, in 1558, linnaeus genus Trochus is composed principally of true Trochidae, but it is now viewed as having contained species of several other very different families. Further revisions have narrowed down the number of species in this genus, sea snails in the genus Trochus have large, thick, solid shells that have a broadly conical spire and a flat base. The base of the shell is flat or convex, the outer and basal lips are smooth within. The columella has a fold above, ending in an obtuse tooth below. The interior of the shell is pearly and iridescent because of a layer of nacre. Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, ii,824 pp. A. Adams, Contributions toward a Monograph of the Trochidae, in Proc. R- A. Philippi, Monograph of Trochus in Syst, lovell Reeve, In Conchologia Iconica vol. xiii. Revision of the Trochinae, tribe Trochini of southern Africa, annals of the natal Museum 34, 239-308. Le Renard, J. Bouchet, P. Mollusca, in, Costello, european register of marine species, a check-list of the marine species in Europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification. Collection Patrimoines Naturels,50, pp. 180–213 NZ Mollusca Powell A. W. B
21.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
22.
Admiralty Islands
–
The Admiralty Islands are an archipelago group of 18 islands in the Bismarck Archipelago, to the north of New Guinea in the South Pacific Ocean. These are also called the Manus Islands, after the largest island. These rainforest-covered islands form part of Manus Province, the smallest and least-populous province of Papua New Guinea, the total area is 2,100 km2. Many of the Admiralty Islands are atolls and uninhabited, the larger islands in the center of the group are Manus Island and Los Negros Island. The other larger islands are Tong Island, Pak Island, Rambutyo Island, Lou Island, other islands that have been noted as significant places in the history of Manus include Ndrova Island, Pitylu Island and Ponam Island. The temperature of the Admiralty Islands varies little throughout the year, reaching highs of 30–32 °C. Average annual rainfall is 3,382 mm and is somewhat seasonal, Manus reaches an elevation of 700 m and is volcanic in origin and probably broke through the oceans surface in the late Miocene, 8–10 million years ago. The substrate of the island is either directly volcanic or from uplifted coral limestone, the main town in the islands is Lorengau on Manus, connected by road to an airport on nearby Los Negros Island, otherwise transport around the islands is by boat. There is little tourism, although the seas are attractive to divers, the majority of the forests on Manus still remain, but some of the smaller islands have been cleared for coconut farming. The typical tree species are various Calophyllum and Sararanga species,58.5 km2 Ndrolowa Wildlife Management Area was declared March 1985 south of Lorengau on Manus Island and contains both terrestrial and marine regions. 240 km2 protected area has established around the highest mountain on Manus, Mt. Dremsel. Further study of this ecoregion is required, three of the bird species endemic to Admiralty Islands have been listed as vulnerable in the IUCN Red List, Manus fantail, Superb pitta and Manus masked owl. Three other birds are endemic to Admiralty Islands but are classified as non-threatened or least concern, white-naped friarbird, Manus monarch and Manus hawk owl. The islands are home to two endemic Platymantis frogs and four lizards, while the green snail of Manus was the first terrestrial snail to be listed as vulnerable by the IUCN. This early society appears to have cultivated taro, and to have deliberately introduced wild animals from New Guinea such as bandicoots, obsidian was gathered and traded throughout the Admiralty Islands archipelago. The Lapita culture arose around 3,500 years ago, and its extent ranged from the Admiralty Islands to Tonga and its origins are contested, but it may well have been a product of another wave of migration from Southeast Asia. Lapita society, as a culture and extended trade network. The first European to visit the islands was the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Saavedra when trying to return from Tidore to New Spain in the summer of 1528, Saavedra charted Manus as Urays la Grande
23.
Ambitle
–
Ambitle is a volcanic island which, together with Babase, another volcanic island, is one of the two Feni Islands in the Bismarck Archipelago. The island is located within the Papua New Guineas New Ireland Province, Ambitle is a stratovolcano, reaching 450 metres above sea level. It last erupted in about 350 BCE based on radiocarbon dating and its caldera,3 kilometres wide, contains thermal areas on its western side. Venting of hydrothermal water also occurs in coral reefs to the west of this island, list of volcanoes in Papua New Guinea Ambitle
24.
Bougainville Island
–
Bougainville Island is the main island of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville of Papua New Guinea. This region is known as Bougainville Province or the North Solomons. Its land area is 9,300 km2, the population of the province is 175,160, which includes the adjacent island of Buka and assorted outlying islands including the Carterets. Mount Balbi at 2,700 m is the highest point, although Bougainville Island is geographically part of the Solomon Islands archipelago, it is not a part of the state of Solomon Islands. Bougainville was first settled some 28,000 years ago, Three to four thousand years ago, Austronesian people arrived, bringing with them domesticated pigs, chickens, dogs and obsidian tools. The first European contact with Bougainville was in 1768, when the French explorer Louis de Bougainville arrived and named the island for himself. Germany laid claim to Bougainville in 1899, annexing it into German New Guinea, Christian missionaries arrived on the island in 1902. During World War I, Australia occupied German New Guinea, including Bougainville and it became part of the Australian Territory of New Guinea under a League of Nations mandate in 1920. In 1942, during World War II, Japan invaded the island, following the war, the Territory of New Guinea, including Bougainville, returned to Australian control. On 9 September 1975, the Parliament of Australia passed the Papua New Guinea Independence Act 1975, the Act set 16 September 1975 as date of independence and terminated all remaining sovereign and legislative powers of Australia over the territory. Bougainville was to part of an independent Papua New Guinea, however, on 11 September 1975, in a failed bid for self-determination. The republic failed to any international recognition, and a settlement was reached in August 1976. Bougainville was then absorbed politically into Papua New Guinea with increased self-governance powers, between 1988 and 1998, civil war on the island claimed over 15,000 lives. The Peace talks brokered by New Zealand began in 1997, leading to autonomy for the island, a multinational Peace Monitoring Group under Australian leadership was deployed. In 2001, a agreement was signed including promise of a referendum on independence from PNG. Bougainville is the largest island in the Solomon Islands archipelago and it is part of the Solomon Islands rain forests ecoregion. Bougainville and the island of Buka are a single landmass separated by a deep 300-metre-wide strait. The island is 9000 square kilometres, and there are several active, mount Bagana in the north central part of Bougainville is conspicuously active, spewing out smoke that is visible many kilometres distant
25.
Babase Island
–
Babase Island is an island of the Feni Islands in Papua New Guinea, located east of New Ireland. It consists of a stratovolcano and a dome, joined by an isthmus
26.
Baluan Island
–
Baluan Island is the southern most island of the Admiralty Islands group which make up the majority of Manus Province in Papua New Guinea. It belongs to the Pam Islands, a sub group to the south of Lou Island. It is formed from an extinct volcano, the crater of the volcano can be seen from the top of the island. The main foods on the island are fish and vegetables grown on the perfect growing volcanic soil, the most famous Baluan person was Sir Paliau Moloat, who was elected as the First National Member of Assembly for Manus Province in 1964. He died in 1991 and is buried on Baluan
27.
Basilaki Island
–
Basilaki Island is an island in the Louisiade Archipelago in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. It is located at the end of the New Guinea mainland. First recorded sighting by Europeans was by the Spanish expedition of Luís Vaez de Torres on 18 July 1606, a party of French naturalists was believed to have been murdered in James Bay in October 1880. This island was the scene of the murder of 2 sailors by natives in Hoopiron Bay, the men were Captain John Friar and John Watkins, a carpenter of the Lallah Rook, a schooner registered in Saint John, New Brunswick. The vessel anchored in the bay to take on fresh water, after the murders, the crew sailed away. The murders were revenge taken for two deaths of natives in Friars employ. Later the Diamond returned and burned all the villages nearby,3 planes were ditched off the island in 1943, a P-38H Lightning, a P-38F Lightning, and a B-24D Liberator The Leila Belle. The island is part of the following Wards, Hamama, on the western part, Buairi, which is on Buairi island, includes a small portion of the western part. Bedauna, on the southeast area Yokowa, on the northeast area, all Wards belong to Bwanabwana Rural Local Level Government Area LLG, Samarai-Murua District, which are in Milne Bay Province. Basilaki is located on the east of Samarai Islands of the Louisiade Archipelago, the island is part of the Basilaki group. Mount Kova Sina reaches a height of 531 meters, and is located at the center of the island, mount Baiaule is 444 meters, and is located at the center of the island. Mount Salawie is 333 meters, and is located at the south of the island, the population of 1883 is living in 37 villages across the island. Yokowa, where the school is located, is the largest village, although, the main dock is at Habani, at the other side of the island. The islanders, are farmers as opposed to eastern Louisiade Archipelago islanders and they grow Sago, Taro, and Yams for crops. There is a dock at Habani
28.
Bismarck Archipelago
–
The Bismarck Archipelago is a group of islands off the northeastern coast of New Guinea in the western Pacific Ocean and is part of the Islands Region of Papua New Guinea. Its area is about 50,000 square km, later arrivals included the Lapita people. The first European to visit these islands was Dutch explorer Willem Schouten in 1616, the islands remained unsettled by western Europeans until they were annexed as part of the German protectorate of German New Guinea in 1884. The area was named in honour of the Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, on 13 March 1888, a volcano erupted on Ritter Island causing a megatsunami. Almost the entire volcano fell into the ocean, leaving a crater lake. Following the outbreak of World War I, the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force seized the islands in 1914 and they remained under Australian administration—interrupted only by Japanese occupation during World War II—until Papua New Guinea became independent in September 1975. The Bismarck Archipelago includes mostly volcanic islands with a land area of 49,700 km2. The archipelago encompasses the Bismarck Sea and sits upon the North Bismarck Plate, the Manus Plate, Georges Channel after St. Georges Channel in the British Isles between Wales and Ireland. Tides of History, The Pacific Islands in the Twentieth Century, Papua New Guinea Atlas, A Nation in Transition. Bathurst, Australia, R. Brown and the University of Papua New Guinea, New Guinea, Crossing Boundaries and History. Ryan, Peter, ed. Encyclopedia of Papua New Guinea,3 volumes, Vol I, A - K, maps, black and white illustrations, xv + 588pp. Vol II, l - Z, maps, black and white illustrations, Vol III, Index, folding colour map in rear pocket, map, colour illustration, v + 83pp
29.
Buka Island
–
Buka Island is the second largest island in the Autonomous Region of Bougainville, in eastern Papua New Guinea. It is in the North Bougainville District, with the Autonomous Regions, the island is separated by the narrow Buka Passage from the northwestern coast of Bougainville Island. Buka was first occupied by humans in the Paleolithic period, with evidence for human habitation at Kilu Cave some 30,000 years ago. The present inhabitants speak languages that are from the push of Austronesian languages of the Lapita Culture complex. The island was occupied by Japan during World War II, although the island was strafed and bombed by allied airforces, allied armies never fought in Buka. The Japanese surrendered when the Allies were approaching the Selau peninsula in nearby Bougainville, the economy of Buka can be divided into a very small urban component and the village sector. Vanilla and tropical spice crops have made a progress. There are a number of businesses in the island. Buka is a flat island some 52 kilometres long in the north-south axis. It is separated from Bougainville by the Buka Passage, a narrow, deep, the east coast is the windward side for most of the year, and is characterised by a coastal cliff that rises close to the ocean, leaving only a narrow and often rocky beach. A coral reef rings the island, it is narrow on the east coast. Along the western coast there is a mountain range, named the Richard Parkinson Range. The highest peak in this range is Mt. Bei, which is 458 metres in elevation, the range runs between Buka and Carola Harbour. The few larger rivers on the flow from headwaters in the ranges interior. The largest is the Gagan River, the rest of the island is a large raised limestone formation. It rises 10 metres inland, and 70–100 metres along the cliffs at the eastern coast, the cliffs correspond to the reef of an ancient lagoon. The limestone morphology means that there is little surface water available throughout most of the island. This poses a problem for the residents, especially during the dry season
30.
Calvados Chain
–
The Calvados Chain are a group of islands in the Solomon Sea, belonging to Papua New Guinea within the Louisiade Archipelago. The group extends from Pana Varavara in the west to the island of Nigaho in the east over a distance of 88 km. The easternmost island of Nigaho is where the chain of islands end, Pana Tinani is separated from the group by the isolated Magamaga Channel. The islands rise up to 302 meters steeply from the sea and are either wooded or overgrown with grass, many islands are surrounded by their own reefs and small lagoons. Apart from the islands, there are numerous low coral islands. The eastern edge of the lies to the northwest of Vanatinai Island. Twelve of the islands are inhabited, with a total of 3276 residents, the islanders speak the Misima-Paneati Language
31.
Carteret Islands
–
The Carteret Islands are Papua New Guinea islands located 86 km north-east of Bougainville in the South Pacific. The group is made up of islands named after the British navigator Philip Carteret. As of 2005, about one thousand live on the islands. Han is the most significant island, with the others being small islets around the lagoon, the main settlement is at Weteili on Han island. The island is near the edge of the geologic formation called the Ontong Java Plateau. When visited in 1830 by Benjamin Morrell in the schooner Antarctic, one small island was uninhabited and covered with heavy timber. Departing after an attack on his crew, Morrell named the islands the Massacre Islands. Food staples have been cultivated, taro and coconut and fishing supports the people, the area had been inhabited for about 1,000 years before European contact in about 1880, when the copra trade and other activities altered the economy and customs. Population grew rapidly in the early 1900s, and overcrowding in the 1930s caused a population decline, food shortages since the 1960s, in recent times caused by international commercial fishers, caused resettlement of some islanders to the Kuveria area of Bougainville from 1984 through the late 1980s. In the 1990s the islanders were identified as economic refugees, although taro has been a cultivated crop planted in watered areas, by 2002 that had been forgotten by an island leader who complained about wild taro no longer growing. The Carteret Islands inhabitants are a Halia-speaking community closely related to the population of Hanhan Bay and they are a dark-skinned people with customs very similar to those of the Buka, although with some important adaptations to the atoll environment. The Carteret Islanders call themselves the Tuluun, like the Halia, Hakö, Selau and Solos groups in Buka and Bougainville, the Tuluun reckon descent matrilineally. They are primarily organized into two groups, the Nakaripa and Naboen. Unlike moieties in a true dual system, Nakaripa and Naboen are not exogamous in practice. Exogamy is important in the organization of political power, male and female chiefs attempt to organize cross-moiety marriages, the main reason for this being that the legitimation of chiefly power requires the participation of the opposite moiety. Oral tradition states that the Carteret Islands were originally inhabited by a Polynesian group closely related to the Nukumanu, the islands were discovered by a fishing expedition from Hahalis. According to the Halia tradition, the first attempt to reach the islands had a peaceful intention, the Munihil, or paramount chief of Hanahan Bay then organized a large flotilla of canoes to attack the Polynesian population, and conquered the islands. By contrast, the Mortlock Islanders state that the Halia mounted a blood, genealogical information suggest that the Halia invasion took place in the early 18th century
32.
D'Entrecasteaux Islands
–
DEntrecasteaux Islands /ˌdɒntrəˈkæstoʊ/ are situated near the eastern tip of New Guinea in the Solomon Sea in Milne Bay Province of Papua New Guinea. DEntrecasteaux Islands show signs of volcanism, the inhabitants of DEntrecasteaux Islands are indigenous subsistence horticulturalists living in small, traditional settlements. People of this area produced and traded clay pots as well as participated in the Kula exchange of shell valuables, during the more recent past, people harvested copra, trochus and pearl-shells and some timber for cash. Alluvial gold mining was important and in recent years the area has been subject to mineral exploration. The three principal islands, from northwest to southeast, are Goodenough, then across Moresby Straight to Fergusson, in addition there are numerous small islands and reefs. Sanaroa and Dobu are the most significant of the islands, while Sori or Wild is named for the HMS Challengers artist. The highest peak in the group is the 2,536 metres Mount Vineuo on Goodenough Island, the DEntrecasteaux Islands are volcanically active, with a number of areas of historic/geologic volcanism and active geothermal fields. Fergusson island has three volcanic masses over 1,828 m high, there are geothermal areas in the south east area of Goodenough Island and the Bwabwadana and Iamalele on Fergusson Island. A particularly active hot springs is located at Deidei on Fergusson, geologically the islands are largely made up of rock that probably once belonged to the northern edge of the Australian plate that was thrust deep into the Earths crust by plate collision. The burial of these rocks to great depths metamorphosed the rocks to eclogite facies, >2GPa, the rock at the centre of the tall domes in these islands was thus recently very deep in the Earth. The DEntrecasteaux thus represent a stage of continental breakup just preceding fully-fledged volcanic spreading, almost a century latter in 1874 Captain John Moresby of HMS Basilisk made a running survey of the west coast of the islands and became the first European to make landfall. In 1891 the Methodist Church of Australia established a station on Dobu Island. There natives were recruited to work in mines and on copra plantations. Another mission was established in 1898 at Bwaidoga, Mud Bay, the island group became a focus of activity in World War II when Imperial Japanese troops were marooned on Goodenough Island briefly in 1942, before being attacked by the Australian 2/12th Battalion. It was used by allied forces from June 1943 to August 1944 as a point for operations in New Guinea. Vivigani airstrip has been open to commercial service since 1963, a US Navy PT-Boat base was established on Fergusson Island in June,1942. Normanby Island may have been a secret British military base during the war
