1.
Gnutella
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Gnutella is a large peer-to-peer network. It was the first decentralized peer-to-peer network of its kind, leading to other, later adopting the model. It celebrated a decade of existence on March 14,2010 and has a base in the millions for peer-to-peer file sharing. In June 2005, gnutellas population was 1.81 million computers increasing to three million nodes by January 2006. In late 2007, it was the most popular file sharing network on the Internet with a market share of more than 40%. The first client from which the network got its name was developed by Justin Frankel and Tom Pepper of Nullsoft in early 2000, on March 14, the program was made available for download on Nullsofts servers. The event was announced on Slashdot, and thousands downloaded the program that day. The source code was to be released later, under the GNU General Public License, the next day, AOL stopped the availability of the program over legal concerns and restrained Nullsoft from doing any further work on the project. This did not stop gnutella, after a few days, the protocol had been reverse engineered and this parallel development of different clients by different groups remains the modus operandi of gnutella development today. The gnutella network is a distributed alternative to such semi-centralized systems as FastTrack. Initial popularity of the network was spurred on by Napsters threatened legal demise in early 2001 and this growing surge in popularity revealed the limits of the initial protocols scalability. In early 2001, variations on the protocol allowed an improvement in scalability, instead of treating every user as client and server, some users were now treated as ultrapeers, routing search requests and responses for users connected to them. This allowed the network to grow in popularity, in late 2001, the gnutella client LimeWire Basic became free and open source. In February 2002, Morpheus, a file sharing group, abandoned its FastTrack-based peer-to-peer software and released a new client based on the free. The word gnutella today refers not to any one project or piece of software, Gnutella is not associated with the GNU project or GNUs own peer-to-peer network, GNUnet. This event was the cause of a notable drop in the size of the network, because, while negotiating the injunction. As the injunction came into force, users who had installed affected versions were cut off from the P2P network, since LimeWire was free software, nothing had prevented the creation of forks that omitted the disabling code, as long as LimeWire trademarks were not used. The shutdown did not affect, for example, FrostWire, a fork of LimeWire created in 2004 that carries neither the remote-disabling code nor adware, on November 9,2010, LimeWire was resurrected by a secret team of developers and named LimeWire Pirate Edition
2.
Spread (food)
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A spread is a food that is literally spread, generally with a knife, onto food products such as bread and crackers. Spreads are added to food in order to enhance the flavor or texture of the food, spreads should be distinguished from dips, such as salsa, which are generally not applied to spread onto food but have food dipped into them instead. Peanut butter is an example of spread. Common spreads include dairy spreads, honey, plant-derived spreads, yeast spreads, List of butters List of dips List of foods Food portal
3.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
4.
Piedmont
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Piedmont is one of the 20 regions of Italy. It has an area of 25,402 square kilometres and a population of about 4.6 million, the capital of Piedmont is Turin. The name Piedmont comes from medieval Latin Pedemontium or Pedemontis, i. e. ad pedem montium, meaning “at the foot of the mountains”. Other towns of Piedmont with more than 20,000 inhabitants sorted by population and it borders with France, Switzerland and the Italian regions of Lombardy, Liguria, Aosta Valley and for a very small fragment with Emilia Romagna. The geography of Piedmont is 43. 3% mountainous, along with areas of hills. Piedmont is the second largest of Italys 20 regions, after Sicily and it is broadly coincident with the upper part of the drainage basin of the river Po, which rises from the slopes of Monviso in the west of the region and is Italy’s largest river. The Po collects all the waters provided within the semicircle of mountains which surround the region on three sides, from the highest peaks the land slopes down to hilly areas, and then to the upper, and then to the lower great Padan Plain. 7. 6% of the territory is considered protected area. There are 56 different national or regional parks, one of the most famous is the Gran Paradiso National Park located between Piedmont and the Aosta Valley, Piedmont was inhabited in early historic times by Celtic-Ligurian tribes such as the Taurini and the Salassi. They were later subdued by the Romans, who founded several colonies there including Augusta Taurinorum, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the region was repeatedly invaded by the Burgundians, the Goths, Byzantines, Lombards, Franks. In the 9th–10th centuries there were incursions by the Magyars. At the time Piedmont, as part of the Kingdom of Italy within the Holy Roman Empire, was subdivided into several marks, in 1046, Oddo of Savoy added Piedmont to their main territory of Savoy, with a capital at Chambéry. Other areas remained independent, such as the powerful comuni of Asti and Alessandria, the County of Savoy was elevated to a duchy in 1416, and Duke Emanuele Filiberto moved the seat to Turin in 1563. In 1720, the Duke of Savoy became King of Sardinia, founding what evolved into the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Republic of Alba was created in 1796 as a French client republic in Piedmont. A new client republic, the Piedmontese Republic, existed between 1798 and 1799 before it was reoccupied by Austrian and Russian troops, in June 1800 a third client republic, the Subalpine Republic, was established in Piedmont. It fell under full French control in 1801 and it was annexed by France in September 1802, in the congress of Vienna, the Kingdom of Sardinia was restored, and furthermore received the Republic of Genoa to strengthen it as a barrier against France. Piedmont was a springboard for Italys unification in 1859–1861, following earlier unsuccessful wars against the Austrian Empire in 1820–1821 and this process is sometimes referred to as Piedmontisation. However, the efforts were countered by the efforts of rural farmers
5.
Ferrero SpA
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Ferrero SpA is an Italian manufacturer of branded chocolate and confectionery products and it is the third biggest chocolate producer and confectionery company in the world. The company saw a period of growth and success under Pietros son Michele Ferrero. His son Pietro, who oversaw global business, died on April 18,2011, in a cycling accident in South Africa at the age of 47. The Ferrero Group worldwide – now headed by CEO Giovanni Ferrero – includes 38 trading companies,18 factories, Ferrero International SAs headquarters is in Luxembourg. Ferrero SpA is a company owned by the Ferrero family and has been described as one of the worlds most secretive firms. Reputation Institutes 2009 survey ranks Ferrero as the most reputable company in the world, the recently announced financial results for 2015/2016 show a +8. 2% increment from the previous year. In 1946, Pietro Ferrero invented a cream of hazelnuts and cocoa, derived from Gianduja and called it Giandujot, the initial product came in solid loaves wrapped in aluminium foil, which had to be sliced with a knife, and was succeeded by a spreadable version Supercrema. With assistance from his brother Giovanni Ferrero, Pietro Ferrero created his new company to produce, following his work, Pietro was succeeded by his son Michele Ferrero as chief executive. Michele and his wife Maria Franca relaunched his fathers recipe as Nutella, after World War II, they opened production sites and offices abroad and Nutella eventually became the worlds leading chocolate-nut spread brand. Ferrero is the worlds largest consumer of hazelnuts, buying up 25% of global production in 2014, the company is currently run by Giovanni Ferrero, grandson of Pietro and son to Michele Ferrero. The company places emphasis on secrecy, reportedly to guard against industrial espionage. It has never held a conference and does not allow media visits to its plants. Ferreros products are made with machines designed by an engineering department. Ferrero produces several lines of goods under various brand names, as well as the chocolate-hazelnut spread. The company has produced Nutella since 1964, the production of Nutella uses one-quarter of the worlds annual hazelnut supply. In 2014, Ferrero acquired Oltan Group, the largest hazelnut supplier in the world. Ferreros Kinder brand line of products include Kinder Surprise, Kinder Joy, Kinder Chocolate, Kinder Happy Hippo, Kinder Maxi, Kinder Duplo, Kinder Country, Kinder Délice. Ferrero has been producing Thorntons products since the company acquired the British chocolate retailer in June 2015 for £112 million, the company also produces Tic Tac candy, available in mint, cinnamon, and fruit flavors, along with sugar free versions
6.
Sugar
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Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
7.
Palm oil
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Palm oil is naturally reddish in color because of a high beta-carotene content. It is not to be confused with palm oil derived from the kernel of the same fruit. The differences are in color, and in saturated fat content, palm oil is 49% saturated, while palm kernel oil and coconut oil are 81% and 86% saturated fats. Along with coconut oil, palm oil is one of the few highly saturated vegetable fats and is semisolid at room temperature, Palm oil is a common cooking ingredient in the tropical belt of Africa, Southeast Asia and parts of Brazil. Its use in the food industry in other parts of the world is widespread because of its lower cost. In 2004, a group called the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil was formed to work with the palm oil industry to address these concerns. It is believed that traders brought the oil palm to Egypt, Palm oil from E. guineensiss has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, and is widely used as a cooking oil. European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as an oil in Europe. Palm oil became a highly sought-after commodity by British traders, for use as a lubricant for machinery during Britains Industrial Revolution. Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers Sunlight soap, by around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries, such as Ghana and Nigeria, although this was overtaken by cocoa in the 1880s. Palm oil, like all fats, is composed of fatty acids, Palm oil has an especially high concentration of saturated fat, specifically, of the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid palmitic acid, to which it gives its name. Monounsaturated oleic acid is also a constituent of palm oil. Unrefined palm oil is a significant source of tocotrienol, part of the vitamin E family. The approximate concentration of fatty acids in palm oil is, Red palm oil is rich in carotenes, such as alpha-carotene, beta-carotene and lycopene, many processed foods either contain palm oil or various ingredients derived from it. After milling, various oil products are made using refining processes. First is fractionation, with crystallization and separation processes to obtain solid, then melting and degumming removes impurities. Then the oil is filtered and bleached, RBDPO is the basic palm oil product sold on the worlds commodity markets. Many companies fractionate it further to produce palm olein for cooking oil, since the mid-1990s, red palm oil has been cold-pressed and bottled for use as cooking oil, and blended into mayonnaise and salad oil
8.
Hazelnut
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Hazelnut is the nut of the hazel and therefore, includes any of the nuts deriving from species of the genus Corylus, especially the nuts of the species Corylus avellana. It also is known as cobnut or filbert nut according to species, a cob is roughly spherical to oval, about 15–25 mm long and 10–15 mm in diameter, with an outer fibrous husk surrounding a smooth shell. A filbert is more elongated, being twice as long as its diameter. The nut falls out of the husk when ripe, about 7 to 8 months after pollination, the kernel of the seed is edible and used raw or roasted, or ground into a paste. The seed has a thin, dark skin, which sometimes is removed before cooking. Hazelnuts are used in confectionery to make praline, and also used in combination with chocolate for chocolate truffles and products such as Nutella, hazelnut oil, pressed from hazelnuts, is strongly flavoured and used as a cooking oil. Turkey is the worlds largest producer of hazelnuts, hazelnuts are rich in protein, monounsaturated fat, vitamin E, manganese, and numerous other essential nutrients. In 1995, evidence of large-scale Mesolithic nut processing, some 9,000 years old, was found in a pit on the island of Colonsay in Scotland. The evidence consists of a large, shallow pit full of the remains of hundreds of thousands of burned hazelnut shells, hazelnuts have been found on other Mesolithic sites, but rarely in such quantities or concentrated in one pit. The nuts were radiocarbon dated to 7720+/-110BP, which calibrates to circa 7000 BC, similar sites in Britain are known only at Farnham in Surrey and Cass ny Hawin on the Isle of Man. This discovery gives an insight into communal activity and planning in the period, the nuts were harvested in a single year, and pollen analysis suggests the hazel trees were all cut down at the same time. The pit was originally on a close to the shore. Because hazelnuts do not generally need to be toasted, indeed, traditionally, ostensibly toasting was done to make them more digestible for children. Toasting the nuts was thought to increase how long they would keep, well documented throughout history, hazel has been grown in coppices for use in wattle and daub buildings and in hedges. The Romans cultivated hazelnuts, including in Britain, although no evidence indicates they spread specific cultivars, cultivated varieties have been grown since at least the sixteenth century, with a great increase in varieties during the nineteenth century. In particular, the first widespread cultivar, the Kentish Cobnut, was introduced in 1830, the traditional term for an area of cultivated hazelnuts is a plat. Some of these are grown for specific qualities of the nut, including large nut size and early– and late–fruiting cultivars, the majority of commercial hazelnuts are propagated from root sprouts. Some cultivars are of hybrid origin between common hazel and filbert, one cultivar grown in Washington, the DuChilly, has an elongated appearance, a thinner and less bitter skin, and a distinctly sweeter flavor than other varieties
9.
Cocoa solids
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Cocoa solids are a mixture of many substances remaining after cocoa butter is extracted from cacao beans. When sold as an end product, it may also be called cocoa powder or cocoa, in contrast, the fatty component of chocolate is cocoa butter. Cocoa butter is 50% to 57% of the weight of cocoa beans, Cocoa liquor or cocoa mass is a paste of roasted cocoa beans with cocoa butter and solids in their natural proportions. Chocolate requires the addition of cocoa butter to cocoa liquor, leading to an excess of cocoa solids. Cocoa solids are one of the richest sources of flavanol antioxidants and they are a key ingredient of chocolate, chocolate syrup, and chocolate confections. Natural cocoa powder has a brown color and an extractable pH of 5.3 to 5.8. The processed cocoa powder is darker in color, ranging from red to nearly black. The alkalization process reduces bitterness and improves solubility, which is important for beverage product applications, all of these pH values are considered safe for food use. Cocoa powder contains several minerals including calcium, copper, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, all of these minerals are found in greater quantities in cocoa powder than either cocoa butter or cocoa liquor. Cocoa solids also contain 230 mg of caffeine and 2057 mg of theobromine per 100g, Cocoa powder is rich in flavonoids, a type of phenolic acid. The amount of flavonoids depends on the amount of processing and manufacturing the cocoa powder undergoes, however, its alkalization, also known as Dutch processing, causes its content of flavonoids to be substantially reduced. Cocoa and cacao powders may contain cadmium, a heavy metal. From January 12019, the European Union will impose a limit for cadmium in cocoa powders of 0.6 µg per gram of cocoa powder, and 0.8 µg per gram for chocolate with >= 50% total dry cocoa solids. In Canada, a serving of a natural health product must contain no more than 6 µg of cadmium for an individual weighing 150 pounds and 3 µg for a 75 lb individual. Baking chocolate Chocolate Cocoa butter Hamel, PJ
10.
Powdered milk
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Powdered milk or dried milk is a manufactured dairy product made by evaporating milk to dryness. One purpose of drying milk is to preserve it, milk powder has a far longer shelf life than milk and does not need to be refrigerated. Another purpose is to reduce its bulk for economy of transportation, powdered milk and dairy products include such items as dry whole milk, nonfat dry milk, dry buttermilk, dry whey products and dry dairy blends. Many dairy products exported conform to standards laid out in Codex Alimentarius, many forms of milk powder are traded on exchanges. Powdered milk is used for food and health, and also in biotechnology, the first commercial production of dried milk was organized by the Russian chemist M. Dirchoff in 1832. In 1855, T. S. Grimwade took a patent on a dried milk procedure, in modern times, powdered milk is usually made by spray drying nonfat skimmed milk, whole milk, buttermilk or whey. Pasteurized milk is first concentrated in an evaporator to approximately 50% milk solids, the resulting concentrated milk is then sprayed into a heated chamber where the water almost instantly evaporates, leaving fine particles of powdered milk solids. Alternatively, the milk can be dried by drum drying, milk is applied as a thin film to the surface of a heated drum, and the dried milk solids are then scraped off. However, powdered milk made this way tends to have a cooked flavor, another process is freeze drying, which preserves many nutrients in milk, compared to drum drying. The drying method and the treatment of the milk as it is processed alters the properties of the milk powder, such as its solubility in cold water, its flavor. Powdered milk is widely used in various sweets such as the famous Indian milk balls known as gulab jamun. Powdered milk is also an item in UN food aid supplies, fallout shelters, warehouses. It is widely used in developing countries because of reduced transport. Like other dry foods, it is considered nonperishable, and is favored by survivalists, hikers, because of its resemblance to cocaine and other drugs, powdered milk is sometimes used in filmmaking as a non-toxic prop that may be insufflated. The weight of nonfat dry milk to use is about 10% of the water weight, alternatively, one cup of potable fluid milk from powdered milk requires one cup of potable water and one-third cup of powdered milk. Milk powders contain all twenty-one standard amino acids, the blocks of proteins. According to USAID, the typical amounts of major nutrients in the unreconstituted nonfat dry milk are 36% protein, 52% carbohydrates, calcium 1. 3%. Whole milk powder, on the hand, contains on average 25-27% protein, 36-38% carbohydrates, 26-40% fat
11.
Food energy
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Food energy is chemical energy that animals derive from food and molecular oxygen through the process of cellular respiration. Humans and other animals need a minimum intake of energy to sustain their metabolism. Foods are composed chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, water, vitamins, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, and water represent virtually all the weight of food, with vitamins and minerals making up only a small percentage of the weight. Organisms derive food energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as organic acids, polyols. Some diet components that provide little or no energy, such as water, minerals, vitamins, cholesterol. Water, minerals, vitamins, and cholesterol are not broken down, fiber, a type of carbohydrate, cannot be completely digested by the human body. Ruminants can extract energy from the respiration of cellulose because of bacteria in their rumens. Using the International System of Units, researchers measure energy in joules or in its multiples, the kilojoule is most often used for food-related quantities. An older metric system unit of energy, still used in food-related contexts, is the calorie, more precisely. Within the European Union, both the kilocalorie and kilojoule appear on nutrition labels, in many countries, only one of the units is displayed, in the US and Canada labels spell out the unit as calorie or as Calorie. Fats and ethanol have the greatest amount of energy per gram,37 and 29 kJ/g. Proteins and most carbohydrates have about 17 kJ/g, carbohydrates that are not easily absorbed, such as fiber, or lactose in lactose-intolerant individuals, contribute less food energy. Polyols and organic acids contribute 10 kJ/g and 13 kJ/g respectively, the amount of water, fat, and fiber in foods determines those foods energy density. Theoretically, one could measure food energy in different ways, using the Gibbs free energy of combustion, however, the convention is to use the heat of the oxidation reaction, with the water substance produced being in the liquid phase. The American chemist Wilbur Atwater worked these corrections out in the late 19th century, based on the work of Atwater, it became common practice to calculate energy content of foods using 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins and 9 kcal/g for lipids. The system was improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the USDA. Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, in the European Union, manufacturers of packaged food must label the nutritional energy of their products in both kilocalories and kilojoules, when required. In Australia and New Zealand, the energy must be stated in kilojoules
12.
Alba, Piedmont
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Alba is a town and comune of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Cuneo. It is considered the capital of the UNESCO Human Heritage hilly area of Langhe, the confectionery group Ferrero is based there. Alba was the birthplace of Publius Helvius Pertinax, briefly Roman emperor in 193, after the fall of the Western Empire, the city was repeatedly sacked by Ostrogoths, Burgundians, Byzantines, Lombards, Franks, Hungarians and Saracens. In the 11th century it became a commune and was a member of the Lombard League. Montferrat and the Visconti fought over the town, later it became a possession of the Gonzaga, charles Emmanuel I of Savoy conquered it twice, while later France and Spain battled for its possession. The Treaty of Cherasco assigned Alba definitively to Savoy, during Napoleonic Wars, it was part of the Republic of Alba and of the Subalpine Republic, both French clients, before being annexed to the French Empire in 1802. It was an arrondissement center in firstly Tanaro department between 1802-1805, later in Stura one between 1805-1814 before liberation by Austrian troops and it was returned to Kingdom of Sardinia in 1814. Alba won a Gold Medal for Military Valour for the activity of its citizens in the Italian resistance movement during the course of World War II. On 10 October 1944, the town was liberated by partisans who established a Republic of Alba which for a few weeks was able to maintain its independence from the Fascist Republic of Salò, the republic lasted to 2 November 1944, when Republic of Salo retook it. It was finally liberated by French troops on 2 May 1945, of the Roman city, which had a polygonal form, parts of the fortified gate and remains of some edifices with marble and mosaics can still be seen. Other attractions include, The Palazzo Comunale and the Bishops Palace, some towers of the 14th and 15th centuries, Alba was once known as the City with hundred towers. The Romanesque Alba Cathedral of San Lorenzo, built in the 12th century and it was restructured in the 15th century, by bishop Andrea Novelli, and again in the following centuries. The current appearance is from the restoration of the 19th century. The church is known for its wood-carved chorus made in 1512 by Bernardino Fossati. The current belfry, from the 12th century, includes entirely the original bell tower, the Gothic church of San Domenico, the most artistically relevant church in town. It has a portal with a triple arch within a pointed arch. During the Napoleonic Wars it was used a stable, and was reconsecrated on 22 June 1827, the Baroque church of St. John the Baptist, housing a Madonna of the Graces by Barnaba da Modena and a Madonna with Saints by Macrino dAlba. The city museums include the F. Eusebio Municipal Museum of Archaeology, in addition to traditional agriculture, Alba is a very important center of wine
13.
Commemorative stamp
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A commemorative stamp is a postage stamp, often issued on a significant date such as an anniversary, to honor or commemorate a place, event, person, or object. The subject of the stamp is usually spelled out in print, unlike definitive stamps which normally depict the subject along with the denomination. Many postal services issue several commemorative stamps each year, sometimes holding first day of ceremonies at locations connected with the subjects. Commemorative stamps can be used alongside ordinary stamps, there are several candidates for the title of first commemorative. A 17-cent stamp issued in 1860 by New Brunswick, showing the Prince of Wales in anticipation of his visit is one possibility. The United States 15-cent black stamp of 1866 depicts Abraham Lincoln, and was the first stamp issued after his assassination in 1865, the U. S. also issued a 5-cent stamp in 1882 showing the recently murdered President James A. Garfield. In addition, the United States issued stamped envelopes for the Centennial Exposition in 1876, although technically these are postal stationery and not stamps. In 1870 Peru issued a 5¢ scarlet Locomotive and Arms stamp and is regarded as the first commemorative postage stamp, other premier commemorative stamps were issued by New South Wales in 1888 to mark its 100th anniversary, the six types all include the inscription ONE HUNDRED YEARS. Commemoratives followed in 1891 for Hong Kong and Romania, in 1892 and 1893 a half-dozen nations of America and Spain issued commemoratives for the 400th anniversary of the Wests discovery of America by Christopher Columbus. The organization broke up after attempts at getting collectors at large to comply with their wishes. Today the early commemoratives are still prized by collectors, definitive stamp Airmail stamp Stamp collecting Postage stamp Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps Territories of the United States on stamps
14.
Euro
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Outside of Europe, a number of overseas territories of EU members also use the euro as their currency. Additionally,210 million people worldwide as of 2013 use currencies pegged to the euro, the euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar. The name euro was adopted on 16 December 1995 in Madrid. The euro was introduced to world markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999. While the euro dropped subsequently to US$0.8252 within two years, it has traded above the U. S. dollar since the end of 2002, peaking at US$1.6038 on 18 July 2008. In July 2012, the euro fell below US$1.21 for the first time in two years, following concerns raised over Greek debt and Spains troubled banking sector, as of 26 March 2017, the euro–dollar exchange rate stands at ~ US$1.07. The euro is managed and administered by the Frankfurt-based European Central Bank, as an independent central bank, the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy. The Eurosystem participates in the printing, minting and distribution of notes and coins in all states. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty obliges most EU member states to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary convergence criteria, all nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course. Since 5 January 2002, the central banks and the ECB have issued euro banknotes on a joint basis. Euro banknotes do not show which central bank issued them, Eurosystem NCBs are required to accept euro banknotes put into circulation by other Eurosystem members and these banknotes are not repatriated. The ECB issues 8% of the value of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem. In practice, the ECBs banknotes are put into circulation by the NCBs and these liabilities carry interest at the main refinancing rate of the ECB. The euro is divided into 100 cents, in Community legislative acts the plural forms of euro and cent are spelled without the s, notwithstanding normal English usage. Otherwise, normal English plurals are used, with many local variations such as centime in France. All circulating coins have a side showing the denomination or value. Due to the plurality in the European Union, the Latin alphabet version of euro is used. For the denominations except the 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, beginning in 2007 or 2008 the old map is being replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the Union like Norway
15.
Brantford
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Brantford is a city in southwestern Ontario, Canada, founded on the Grand River. It is the seat of Brant County, but it is politically separate with a government independent of the county, Brantford is sometimes known as the Telephone City, former city resident Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone at his fathers home, the Bell Homestead. In 1876 he conducted the first long-distance telephone call, making it from Brantford to Paris, Brantford is also the birthplace of hockey player Wayne Gretzky, comedian Phil Hartman, as well as Group of Seven member Lawren Harris. Brantford is named after Joseph Brant, an important Mohawk chief during the American Revolutionary War and later, many of his and other First Nations citizens live on the neighbouring reserve of Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation, the most populous reserve in Canada. This town, like the rest of their settlements, was destroyed when the Iroquois declared war in 1650 over the fur trade, in 1784, Captain Joseph Brant and the Six Nations Indians of the Iroquois Confederacy left New York State for Canada. As a reward for their loyalty to the British Crown, they were given a land grant, referred to as the Haldimand Tract. The original Mohawk settlement was on the edge of the present-day city at a location favourable for landing canoes. Brants crossing of the river gave the name to the area. By 1847, European settlers began to further up the river at a ford in the Grand River. The Mohawk Chapel, built in the original Mohawk settlement, is Ontarios oldest Protestant church, Brantford was incorporated as a city in 1877. The history of the Brantford region from 1793 to 1920 is described at length in the book At The Forks of The Grand, decades later and particularly since the late 20th century, numerous scholarly and artistic works have explored the detrimental effects of the schools in destroying Native cultures. Healing the Legacy of the Residential Schools, a number of historic monuments have been erected within the city marking those events and Brantfords contributions to the Commonwealths defense of the realm. Her Majestys Royal Chapel of the Mohawks is located in Brantford and is an important reminder of the agreements made with Queen Anne in 1710. After the American Revolution, in 1784, Sir Frederick Haldimond granted the Six Nations their land treaty which was six miles on side of the river from the mouth to the source. Joseph Brant led a group of Six Nations members to new settlement called the Mohawk Village, the Mohawk Chapel was built in 1785 as a reminder of the original agreements made with the British. In 1904 the Mohawk Chapel received Royal status for the alliance between the British and Six Nations. He developed early improvements to it in 1876, as part of the invention and development of the telephone, Canadas first telephone factory was built here, and the city was called Brantford, The Telephone City. These buildings constituted one of the longest blocks of pre-Confederation architecture in Canada, included in the list of demolitions were one of Ontarios first grocery stores and an early 1890s office of the Bell Telephone Company of Canada, now Bell Canada
16.
Guanajuato
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Guanajuato, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Guanajuato, is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, are the 32 Federal entities of Mexico. It is divided into 46 municipalities and its capital city is Guanajuato, the largest city in the state is León. It is located in North-Central Mexico and it is bordered by the states of Jalisco to the west, Zacatecas to the northwest, San Luis Potosí to the north, Querétaro to the east and Michoacán to the south. It covers an area of 30,608 km2, Guanajuato is located between the arid north of the country and the lusher south, and it is geographically part of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, the Mexican Plateau and the Sierra Madre Oriental. This route begins at Dolores Hidalgo, and passes though the Sanctuary of Atotonilco, San Miguel de Allende, Celaya, other important cities in the state include León, the most populous, and Irapuato. Guanajuato is located in the center of Mexico, north-west of Mexico City, bordering the states of Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, Michoacán, Querétaro and it covers an area of 30,589 km² and is ranked 20th out of 31 states. The Sierra Madre Oriental in Guanajuato consists of the Sierra Gorda, the Mexican Plateau extends through the center of the state. Within, it subdivides into various regions parted by low-lying mountain chains such as the Sierra de la Cuatralba, the Trans Mexican Volcanic Belt crosses the state in the south and includes the Bajío area, the Altos de Jalisco and the valleys area in the far south. The state is crossed by several ranges which have mountains between 2,300 and 3,000 meters high. Mountain ranges average 2,305 meters and flat areas lie at around 1,725 meters above sea level. The other important mountain ranges include the Sierra Gorda to the north, the Sierra de Guanjuato in the southeast, the Comanja in the northwest, the state is divided into five regions, taking into consideration geography and climate. These are called Altos de Guanajuato, La Sierra Central, Bajío, La Sierra Gorda, the Altos de Guanajuato, located in the north of the state, are a chain of forested mountains interspersed with pastures, small fields and areas with cacti and other desert plants. They begin near the border with San Luis Potosí, and extend south to Dolores Hidalgo and then to San Miguel de Allende, then to the Querétaro border. The altitude of this varies from 1,800 to peaks over 2,900 meters such as the La Giganta. The climate is semiarid with a rainy season in the summer. However, lows in the winter frequently reach 0 °C or lower with frosts, wildlife is found mostly in the most rugged and inaccessible areas and includes deer, coyotes, eagles and rattlesnakes. La Sierra Gorda is shared between Guanajuato and Querétaro and is considered to be an important biosphere and this area is the most rugged in the state where most of the natural areas and small villages are remain intact due to their inaccessibility. The Sierra Gorda is part of the Sierra Madre Occidental, with variations in its geography
17.
Lithgow, New South Wales
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Lithgow is a city in the Central Tablelands of New South Wales, Australia and is the administrative centre of the City of Lithgow local government area. It is located in a valley named Lithgows Valley by John Oxley in honour of William Lithgow. Lithgow is on the Great Western Highway, about 150 km or two hours drive west of Sydney, or via the old route, Bells Line of Road. Geographically, it is situated on the far side of the Sydney basin. At June 2015 Lithgow had an urban population of 13,035. Lithgow is surrounded by a landscape which includes national parks, one of which. The Wollemi National Park is home to the Jurassic-age tree the Wollemi Pine, the city sits on the western edge of the sandstone country of the Blue Mountains and is usually considered the first true country town west of Sydney. The next city to the West is Bathurst,60 km away, Lithgow is in the NSW State electorate of Bathurst, while federally it is part of electorate of Calare. Lithgow benefits from being the terminus for the electric section of the Main Western railway line from Sydney. Lithgow is home to the iconic zig-zag railway, the mountainous terrain of the Blue Mountains and the expense of building long tunnels required the construction of The Great Zig Zag railway between 1866 and 1869. The line was opened as far as Bowenfels, just to the west, in 1869, although it was superseded in 1910 by more modern engineering methods, including ten tunnels, parts of the Zig Zag have been developed into a popular tourist attraction. Following a period of industrialisation in the late 1860s and 1870s, the town of Lithgow boomed during the 1880s, the town is the centre of a coal mining district and there are two coal-powered power stations nearby. It is the site of Australias first commercially viable steel mill, due to the abundance of coal and relative proximity to Sydney, in the areas surrounding Lithgow are two of the largest power stations in NSW, the Mount Piper and Wallerawang power stations. Both are operated by Energy Australia NSW, the Lithgow Power Station was in use from 1928 to 1964. Lithgow features a subtropical climate with warm summers, cool to cold winters. Despite its location on highlands, Lithgow manages to have 90.3 clear days annually, Lithgow is one of the few Australian cities to see snow. One major event was the late season snowfall in October 2014, in 1848, iron smelting began in Mittagong, Australia. It proved unprofitable for the remainder of the 19th century and this situation remained until the early 20th century when no iron ore was being smelted
18.
Sant'Angelo dei Lombardi
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SantAngelo dei Lombardi is a town and comune in the province of Avellino in the Campania region of southern Italy. Sitting on a hilltop near the Fredano river, the town is home to a cathedral and it is bordered by Guardia Lombardi, Lioni, Morra De Sanctis, Nusco, Rocca San Felice, Torella dei Lombardi and Villamaina. Nearby is the Benedictine Abbey of San Guglielmo al Goleto, the name SantAngelo derives from the towns patron saint Michael the Archangel. Lombardi is derived from the migrant workers of Lombardy who settled there around 1000 AD, the cathedral was originally built in the 11th century and was rebuilt in the 16th century. Also near the Piazza of Andrea is the castle of the Lombards, initially it was a jail/prison/fort, and was later modified to serve as a castle. There is a pathway that was constructed under the castle. The town was destroyed by the magnitude 6.9 Irpina earthquake of 23 November 1980. The town has been almost completely reconstructed but the town has yet to back to life. Roman Catholic Archdiocese of SantAngelo dei Lombardi-Conza-Nusco-Bisaccia www. goleto. it Abbey of San Guglielmo al Goleto
19.
Warsaw
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Warsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. It stands on the Vistula River in east-central Poland, roughly 260 kilometres from the Baltic Sea and 300 kilometres from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population is estimated at 1.750 million residents within a metropolitan area of 3.101 million residents. The city limits cover 516.9 square kilometres, while the area covers 6,100.43 square kilometres. Once described as Paris of the East, Warsaw was believed to be one of the most beautiful cities in the world until World War II. On 9 November 1939, the city was awarded Polands highest military decoration for heroism, Warsaw is one of Europe’s most dynamic metropolitan cities. In 2012 the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked Warsaw as the 32nd most liveable city in the world, in 2017 the city came 4th in the “Business-friendly” category and 8th in the “Human capital and life style”. It was also ranked as one of the most liveable cities in Central, Warsaw is considered an Alpha– global city, a major international tourist destination and a significant cultural, political and economic hub. The city is a significant centre of research and development, BPO, ITO, the Warsaw Stock Exchange is the largest and most important in Central and Eastern Europe. Frontex, the European Union agency for external security, has its headquarters in Warsaw. Together with Frankfurt, London and Paris, Warsaw is also one of the cities with the highest number of skyscrapers in the European Union, the city is the seat of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw National Philharmonic Orchestra and the University of Warsaw. The historic city-centre of Warsaw with its picturesque Old Town in 1980 was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, buildings represent examples of nearly every European architectural style and historical period. Warsaw provides many examples of architecture from the gothic, renaissance, baroque, neoclassical and modern periods, furthermore, the city is positioning itself as Europes chic cultural capital with thriving art and club scenes and renowned restaurants. Folk etymology attributes the city name to a fisherman, Wars, according to legend, Sawa was a mermaid living in the Vistula River with whom Wars fell in love. In actuality, Warsz was a 12th/13th-century nobleman who owned a village located at the site of Mariensztat neighbourhood. See also the Vršovci family which had escaped to Poland, the official city name in full is miasto stołeczne Warszawa. A native or resident of Warsaw is known as a Varsovian – in Polish warszawiak, warszawianin, warszawianka, warszawiacy, other names for Warsaw include Varsovia and Varsóvia, Varsovie, Varsavia, Warschau, װאַרשע /Varshe, Варшава /Varšava /Varshava, Varšuva, Varsó. The first fortified settlements on the site of todays Warsaw were located in Bródno, after Jazdów was raided by nearby clans and dukes, a new similar settlement was established on the site of a small fishing village called Warszowa
20.
Manisa
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Manisa is a large city in Turkeys Aegean Region and the administrative seat of Manisa Province. Under Ottoman rule in the centuries that followed, the city had already extended into the terrain at the start of the plain. It is also a point for other visitor attractions of international acclaim which are located nearby within Manisas depending region, such as Sardes. Historically, the city was also called Magnesia, and more precisely as Magnesia ad Sipylum to distinguish from Magnesia on the Maeander at a short distance to the south. Traditional view held that the name Magnesia derived from the tribe of Magnetes who would have immigrated here from Thessaly at the dawn of the recorded history. A connection with native Anatolian languages has also been suggested of recent date, the name is rendered as Μαγνησία in ancient and modern Greek language. The names Sipylus or Sipylum in reference to a settlement here are also encountered in some sources, again in reference to the mountain and as abbreviated forms. Traces of prehistory in the Manisa region, although few in number, the second finds are tombs contemporaneous with Troy II and found in the village of Yortan near Kırkağaç district center, north of Manisa. Original burial practices observed in these sepulchres led scholars to the definition of a Yortan culture in Anatolias prehistory, cybele monument by itself represents a step of innovation in Hittite art where full-faced figures in high relief are rare. The first millennium BC saw the emergence in the region of Phrygians and Maeonians, the accounts concerning which are blended with myths. The vestiges from their capital which reached our day bring together remains from successive civilizations. It became a city of importance under the Roman dominion and, though nearly destroyed by an earthquake in the reign of Tiberius, was restored by that emperor and flourished through the Roman empire. It was an important regional centre through the Byzantine Empire, Magnesia housed the Imperial mint, the Imperial treasury, and served as the functional capital of the empire until the recovery of Constantinople in 1261. Ruins of the Nicean-era fortifications attest to the importance in the Late Byzantine period. In the early 13th century the region of Magnesia was subject to repeated raids by invading Turkish bands, the local population was unable to repulse the Turkish raids. Thus, after an unsuccessful defence lead by the Byzantine Emperor most inhabitants fled to the Aegean coast, as a result of the Turkish invasion in the region and the destruction of the city the area was largely abandoned. His sons held the region until 1390, when the first incorporation of their lands into the expanding Ottoman state took place, after a brief interval caused by the Ottoman interregnum after the Battle of Ankara, Manisa and its surroundings definitely became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1410. Even during the 15th century Magnesia was recorded as being in ruins due to the previous Turkish raids
21.
Stadtallendorf
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Stadtallendorf is a town in the county of Marburg-Biedenkopf, Hesse, Germany. It lies about 18 km east of Marburg, in 2010, the town hosted the 50th Hessentag state festival. Under the German system of Naturräume, Stadtallendorf lies in the West Hesse Depression zone which is divided into basins, with respect to these, the town lies on the Upper Hesse Ridge which separates the Amöneburg Basin in the west from the Schwalmbecken in the east. On this ridge may also be found the Neustadt Saddle, abutted by the towns northeast edge and this upland is part of the divide between the Rhine and Weser watersheds. Niederklein Schweinsberg Erksdorf – This village of 1,000 inhabitants was amalgamated in the 1970s, hatzbach Wolferode Stadtallendorf was given city rights in 1960, it had been known until then simply as Allendorf. During World War II, Stadtallendorf was a secret munitions centre, the armament firms WASAG AG and DAG produced munitions and explosives in two separate large facilities located in the woods nearby. At the time, it was one of the largest of all munitions production centres in Europe, the Munition centre continued throughout the war without being detected by the Allies. Labor was provided by both German and foreign forced laborers, including prisoners of war and concentration camp inmates, housed in about a dozen camps in the surrounding area. Since 1991, the premises have undergone a far-reaching cleanup, in March 2006, according to information from the Hesse Environment Ministry, the cleanup cost €167 million. 154 tonnes of contaminants were dug out of the ground,697 tonnes were dug out of a dump, steinlager Allendorf was a primitive American prison near the University of Marburg[. Where Nazi Germany general and staff officers such as Franz Halder and Heinz Guderian, the Hessian lion and the Wheel of Mainz stand for the towns old allegiances. Until secularization, Stadtallendorf belonged to the Archbishopric of Mainz, the bear is a reference to an old name for the town, Allendorf im Bärenschießen, once used to distinguish the town from other places called Allendorf, and now needless thanks to the towns newer name. The arms have been kept even as other communities have been amalgamated with the old Allendorf as part of Hesses municipal reforms, the town is economically successful, as large factories such as Ferrero oHG mbH, Fritz Winter GmbH & Co. KG, Hoppe AG, and others have chosen to build here, the towns transport connections are by road to the Federal Highways B454 and B62, and by rail to the railway station on the Main-Weser line. In an area of 78.3 km² live approx,21,600 inhabitants,16,900 of those in the main centre, whose population is about 25% foreign
22.
Lecithin
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Lecithins are usually phospholipids, composed of phosphoric acid with choline, glycerol or other fatty acids usually glycolipids or triglyceride. Glycerophospholipids in lecithin include phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylserine, Lecithin was first isolated in 1845 by the French chemist and pharmacist Theodore Gobley. In 1850, he named the phosphatidylcholine lécithine, Lecithin can easily be extracted chemically using any non-polar solvent such as hexane, ethanol, acetone, petroleum ether, benzene, etc. or extraction can be done mechanically. It is usually available from such as soybeans, eggs, milk, marine sources, rapeseed, cottonseed. It has low solubility in water, but is an excellent emulsifier, in aqueous solution, its phospholipids can form either liposomes, bilayer sheets, micelles, or lamellar structures, depending on hydration and temperature. This results in a type of surfactant that usually is classified as amphipathic, Lecithin is sold as a food additive and dietary supplement. In cooking, it is used as an emulsifier and to prevent sticking. While lecithin is also a source of a variety of types of dietary fats. Lecithin is a source for methyl groups via its metabolite, trimethylglycine although this is consumed from plants. Phosphatidylcholine occurs in all organisms, being one of the major components of the phospholipid portion of the cell membrane. Commercial lecithin, as used by manufacturers, is a mixture of phospholipids in oil. The lecithin can be obtained by water degumming the extracted oil of seeds and it is a mixture of various phospholipids, and the composition depends on the origin of the lecithin. A major source of lecithin is soybean oil, the main phospholipids in lecithin from soya and sunflower are phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl inositol, phosphatidyl ethanolamine, and phosphatidic acid. They often are abbreviated to PC, PI, PE, and PA, purified phospholipids are produced by companies commercially. To modify the performance of lecithin to make it suitable for the product to which it is added, in hydrolysed lecithins, a portion of the phospholipids have one fatty acid removed by phospholipase. The most commonly used phospholipase is phospholipase A2, which removes the fatty acid at the C2 position of glycerol, lecithins may also be modified by a process called fractionation. During this process, lecithin is mixed with an alcohol, usually ethanol, some phospholipids, such as phosphatidylcholine, have good solubility in ethanol, whereas most other phospholipids do not dissolve well in ethanol. The ethanol is separated from the sludge, after which the ethanol is removed by evaporation to obtain a phosphatidylcholine-enriched lecithin fraction
23.
Saturated fat
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A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acids all have single bonds. A fat is made of two kinds of molecules, monoglyceride and fatty acids. Fats are made of chains of carbon atoms. Some carbon atoms are linked by bonds and others are linked by double bonds. Double bonds can react with hydrogen to form single bonds and they are called saturated, because the second bond is broken up and each half of the bond is attached to a hydrogen atom. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated, various fats contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fat. Certain vegetable products have high saturated fat content, such as coconut oil, many prepared foods are high in saturated fat content, such as pizza, dairy desserts, and sausage. The effect of saturated fat on risk of disease is controversial, many reviews recommend a diet low in saturated fat and argue it will lower risks of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, or death. However, other reviews have rejected those arguments or advocated for examining the proportion of saturated to unsaturated fat in the diet, while nutrition labels regularly combine them, the saturated fatty acids appear in different proportions among food groups. Lauric and myristic acids are most commonly found in tropical oils, the saturated fat in meat, eggs, cacao, and nuts is primarily the triglycerides of palmitic and stearic acids. Sources of lower saturated fat but higher proportions of unsaturated fatty acids include olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, avocados, safflower, corn, sunflower, soy, the effect of saturated fat on cardiovascular disease is controversial. Until the picture becomes clearer, experts recommend people stick to the current guidelines on fat consumption, the consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia, which in turn is a risk factor for some types of cardiovascular disease. There are strong, consistent, and graded relationships between saturated fat intake, blood levels, and the mass occurrence of cardiovascular disease. The relationships are accepted as causal, meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels. High total cholesterol levels, which may be caused by many factors, are associated with a risk of cardiovascular disease. However, other indicators measuring cholesterol such as high total/HDL cholesterol ratio are more predictive than total serum cholesterol, in a study of myocardial infarction in 52 countries, the ApoB/ApoA1 ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD among all risk factors. Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels, a meta-analysis published in 2003 found a significant positive relationship in both control and cohort studies between saturated fat and breast cancer. However two subsequent reviews have found weak or insignificant associations of saturated fat intake and breast cancer risk, one review found limited evidence for a positive relationship between consuming animal fat and incidence of colorectal cancer
24.
Sodium
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Sodium is a chemical element with symbol Na and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal, Sodium is an alkali metal, being in group 1 of the periodic table, because it has a single electron in its outer shell that it readily donates, creating a positively charged atom—the Na+ cation. Its only stable isotope is 23Na, the free metal does not occur in nature, but must be prepared from compounds. Sodium is the sixth most abundant element in the Earths crust, Sodium was first isolated by Humphry Davy in 1807 by the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide. Among many other useful compounds, sodium hydroxide is used in soap manufacture, and sodium chloride is a de-icing agent. Sodium is an element for all animals and some plants. Sodium ions are the major cation in the fluid and as such are the major contributor to the ECF osmotic pressure. Loss of water from the ECF compartment increases the sodium concentration, isotonic loss of water and sodium from the ECF compartment decreases the size of that compartment in a condition called ECF hypovolemia. In nerve cells, the charge across the cell membrane enables transmission of the nerve impulse—an action potential—when the charge is dissipated. The melting and boiling points of sodium are lower than those of lithium but higher than those of the alkali metals potassium, rubidium. All of these high-pressure allotropes are insulators and electrides.3 nm, spin-orbit interactions involving the electron in the 3p orbital split the D line into two, at 589.0 and 589.6 nm, hyperfine structures involving both orbitals cause many more lines. Twenty isotopes of sodium are known, but only 23Na is stable, 23Na is created in the carbon-burning process in stars by fusing two carbon atoms together, this requires temperatures above 600 megakelvins and a star of at least three solar masses. Two nuclear isomers have been discovered, the one being 24mNa with a half-life of around 20.2 milliseconds. Sodium atoms have 11 electrons, one more than the stable configuration of the noble gas neon. This process requires so little energy that sodium is oxidized by giving up its 11th electron. In contrast, the ionization energy is very high, because the 10th electron is closer to the nucleus than the 11th electron. As a result, sodium usually forms ionic compounds involving the Na+ cation, the most common oxidation state for sodium is +1. It is generally less reactive than potassium and more reactive than lithium, Sodium metal is highly reducing, with the reduction of sodium ions requiring −2.71 volts, though potassium and lithium have even more negative potentials
25.
Protein
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Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, a linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide, short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds, the sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors, proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. Once formed, proteins only exist for a period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cells machinery through the process of protein turnover. A proteins lifespan is measured in terms of its half-life and covers a wide range and they can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1–2 days in mammalian cells. Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms, many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. In animals, proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized, digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism. Methods commonly used to study structure and function include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance. Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids, all proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features, including an α-carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only proline differs from this structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group. The amino acids in a chain are linked by peptide bonds. Once linked in the chain, an individual amino acid is called a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen. The peptide bond has two forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar
26.
False advertising
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False advertising is the use of misleading, false, or unproven information to advertise products to consumers. One form of advertising is to claim that a product has a health benefit or contains vitamins or minerals that it in fact does not. Many governments use regulations to control false advertising, a false advertisement can further be classified as deceptive if the advertiser deliberately misleads the consumer, as opposed to making an honest mistake. Often used in cosmetic and weight loss commercials and these adverts portray false and unobtainable results to the consumer and give a false impression of the products true capabilities. If retouching is not discovered or fixed a company can be at an advantage with consumers purchasing their seemingly more effective product. Advertisers for weight loss products may also employ athletes who are recovering from injuries for before, an ad may omit or skim over important information. The ads claims may be true, but the ad does not include information that a reasonable person would consider relevant. This practice was prevalent in the United States in the recent past, a common form of hidden fees and surcharges is “fine print” in advertising. Another way to hide fees that is used is to not include “shipping fees” into the price of goods online. This makes an item look cheaper than it is once the shipping cost is added, some products are sold with fillers, which increase the legal weight of the product with something that costs the producer very little compared to what the consumer thinks that he or she is buying. Food is an example of this, where meat is injected with broth or even brine, malt and ham have been used as filler in peanut butter. There are also non-meat fillers which may look starchy in their makeup, they are high in carbohydrate, one example is known as a cereal binder and usually contains some combination of flours and oatmeal. Some products may have a container where most of the space is empty. The words “Diet, low fat, sugar-free, healthy and good for you” are labels they may see every day and it seems advertisers are aware of their needs to live longer and live well so they are adapting their products in accordance with this. It is suggested that food advertising influences consumer preferences and shopping habits, therefore, by highlighting certain contents or ingredients is misleading consumers into thinking they are buying healthy when in fact they are not. Many large food companies are going to court after using misleading tactics like these, Using a tick panel above the label and using large, bold font. Highlighting one healthy ingredient on the front of the packet with a big tick next to it, Using words like healthy and natural which are weasel claims – words that contradict the claims that may follow it. These are commonly used words where the meaning can be overlooked by consumers, Using words like ‘help’ on the product labeling, misleading consumers into thinking it ‘will’ help
27.
Idilia Foods
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Cola Cao is a high-energy chocolate drink with vitamins and minerals that originated in Spain but is now marketed in several countries. It is produced by the Barcelona-based company Idilia Foods and it can also be added to breakfast cereal or used as a baking ingredient. In Spain in particular, Cola Cao is an accompaniment to breakfast. Children often dunk María biscuits in their Cola Cao milk, in recent decades, almost all cafes have taken to offering it in single-serving sachets as an alternative to coffee. Cola Cao is much thicker than the hot chocolate drinks found in other countries. It does not dissolve quickly and is served with a tea spoon. Competing brands like Nesquik have promoted their own quick solubility, currently Cola Cao is sold in the classic version for those who have grown fond of eating the undissolved lumps and as Cola Cao Turbo for those who want a homogeneous liquid. The Cola Cao song used to promote the product in the 1940s is a nostalgia item and its first verses are still remembered, Yo soy aquel negrito del África Tropical / que cultivando cantaba la canción del Cola Cao /. Cola Cao has been marketed in association with the Olympic Games, Cola Cao is sold in containers of many different sizes. The most common are plastic tubs holding 400 grams, and single-serving sachets, Cola Cao is exported to various countries such as Spain, Portugal, Chile, Bosnia and Herzegovina and China, where Nutrexpa offices are located. It was introduced to Japan in early 1990s only to be discontinued a few later, however in 2007 Cola cao Chocolate Roll Cakes manufactured in China are sold at dollar stores. Cola Cao factories have production lines unique to each region, European market, Factory in Barcelona, Spain Cola Cao Original, Light, Turbo, Fiber, Energy, Complete and more
28.
Ferrero Rocher
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Ferrero Rocher is a spherical chocolate produced by the Italian chocolatier Ferrero SpA. The Ferrero Rocher was introduced in 1982 in Europe, shortly after release production was halted due to a problem with label printing. Michele Ferrero, the inventor, named the chocolate after a grotto in the Roman Catholic shrine of Lourdes. Rocher comes from the French and means rock or boulder, the grotto at the Lourdes shrine is in the rock of Massabielle. The chocolate consists of a whole roasted hazelnut encased in a thin wafer shell filled with chocolate and covered in milk chocolate. The production process is secretive, with no smartphones or notebooks allowed inside, as of 2015, the production in the Alba factory is 24 million Rochers a day. The sweet is produced by machinery, the process begins with flat sheets of wafer with hemispheres moving down an assembly line. The hemispheres of the wafers are then filled with Nutella and a whole hazelnut, next, two of these wafer sheets, one with a hazelnut and one with only Nutella, are clamped together. The excess wafer is cut away producing wafer balls and these balls are then coated with a layer of chocolate, a layer of chopped hazelnuts, and a final layer of chocolate before the chocolate is packaged. Roughly 3.6 billion Ferrero Rochers are sold each year in over 40 countries and these include 28 countries in Europe,9 countries in the Americas,9 countries in Asia,2 countries in the Oceania region, and 2 countries in Africa. The chocolate is available in supermarkets or department stores. Before the 1980s, China had not been exposed to chocolate because the country shut its doors to foreign business, China began letting foreign businesses in, especially the Big Five chocolate companies. Ferrero SpA was successful in China, to the Chinese, the gold wrapper may have represented opulence. Ferrero Rochers are associated with Christmas and New Year, as of 2015, 61% of Ferrero Rochers were sold during the last three months of the year. In the United Kingdom in the 1990s, an advertisement series was based upon a party in a European ambassadors official residence, Gianduja Gianduiotto Ferrero UK website Ferrero U. S. website Gianduja
29.
BBC News Online
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BBC News Online is the website of BBC News, the division of the BBC responsible for newsgathering and production. The website is the most frequently accessed news website in the United Kingdom, and forms a part of BBC Online. The website contains international news coverage, as well as British, entertainment, science, BBC News Online is closely linked to its sister department website, that of BBC Sport. Both sites follow similar layout and content options and respective journalists work alongside each other, location information provided by users is also shared with the website of BBC Weather to provide local content. From 1998 to 2001 the site was named best news website at the BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Awards when the category was withdrawn. It has previously won both the Judges award and the Peoples Voice award for best news site at the annual Webby Awards, the website was launched on 4 November 1997, headed by founding editor Mike Smartt and Project Director Bob Eggington. The management team for launch included Dave Brewer, Chris Nuttall, Matthew Karas, Matt Jones, Janet Marsh, Simon George, nic Newman was seconded from BBC World Service to launch and run Talking Point. The broader editorial team was together from within the BBC, from print journalism. A major overhaul in 2003, primarily by Paul Sissons and Maire Flynn, coincided with a relaunch of the BBC News Channel and featured a wider page design. The site launched a set of semi-official RSS0.91 syndication feeds in June 2003, each news index has its own RSS feed, including the in-depth sections. In 2004 the BBC News website partnered with Moreover Technologies, in a response to the 2003 Graf Report, whilst the BBC does not censor or change results the algorithms used tend to give greater weight to national and international sources over regional or local ones. The BBC began providing real-time global user information in June 2006, new features were gradually introduced, including the publicising of video content more prominently, and the introduction of live streaming of the BBC News channel. Beginning on 30 April 2009, some published stories included in-text links, mostly to in-site profile articles on people, the BBC announced on 19 November 2009 that it was to pay more attention to search engine optimisation by extending news headlines. On 14 July 2010 the site was redesigned, with the vertical section headings moved to run horizontally near the top of the page. It was met with mixed opinions, Stephen Fry stated his approval of the redesign, however, there was also criticism, with some stating that the use of white space was too widespread and led to the need for continuous and excessive scrolling. The new design went live on 23 March 2015, there are two different editions of the site, a UK edition, which gives prominence to UK stories, and an international edition, which prioritises international news. Internet users with IP addresses originating from the UK are served the UK edition, the international version contains advertising and an Advertise With Us link at the bottom. All articles are archived indefinitely and can be retrieved via searching or by browsing the extensive Special Reports section, the previous seven days top stories were formerly available through the Week at a Glance section of the website
30.
La Stampa
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La Stampa is an Italian daily newspaper published in Turin, Italy. It is distributed in Italy and other European nations and it is one of the oldest newspapers in Italy. The paper was founded by Vittorio Bersezio, a journalist and novelist, in 1895, the newspaper was bought by Alfredo Frassati, who gave it its current name and a national perspective. For criticising the 1924 murder of the socialist Giacomo Matteotti, he was forced to resign, the financier Riccardo Gualino also took a share. The paper is now owned by Fiat S. p. A, the former contributors of La Stampa include Italian novelist Alberto Moravia. La Stampa, based in Turin, was published in broadsheet format until November 2006 when the paper began to be published in the berliner format and it launched a website in 1999. La Stampa also launched a project, called Vatican Insider, run by the newspaper and has among its staff several Vatican affairs analysts. Since 26 May 2006 it has published a magazine, Specchio+. From 26 January 1996 to 7 April 2006, it was called Specchio, which was published as a weekly supplement, in September 2012 La Stampa moved to its new headquarters in Turin, leaving its historical editorial building. Mario Calabresi is the editor-in-chief of the daily, on 9 April 2013 an explosive device was sent by an anarchist group, the Federazione Anarchica Informale/Fronte Rivoluzionario, to the offices of La Stampa. The 1988 circulation of La Stampa was 560,000 copies, in 1997 the paper had a circulation of 376,493 copies. Its circulation was 399,000 copies in 2000 and 409,000 copies in 2001, the circulation of the paper was 330,000 copies in 2003 and 345,060 copies in 2004. Its 2007 circulation was 314,000 copies and it was 256,203 copies in 2012. and Harold A. Fisher. The worlds great dailies, profiles of fifty newspapers pp 280-85 Official website Radio Nostalgia, the La Stampa-owned local radio station
31.
Quartz (publication)
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Quartz is a website owned by Atlantic Media Co. Its staff includes reporters formerly employed at Bloomberg, The Wall Street Journal, The Economist, the initial sponsors of Quartz were Boeing, Chevron, Cadillac, and Credit Suisse. According to its press release, the publications name Quartz was chosen for reasons related to its branding. The sites URL was created by dropping the characters, leaving behind qz. com. In September 2012, Quartz officially launched its website, qz. com, rather than a traditional homepage, it was designed as a mobile-first design website. The webpage was designed to deliver contents primarily to users of tablet and its founding team members were from several other news organizations, including Bloomberg, the Wall Street Journal, The Economist and the New York Times. According to its website, its team has a record of reporting in 115 countries, Quartzs main office is located in New York, with correspondents and staff reporters in London, India, Hong Kong, Thailand, Los Angeles, Washington, D. C. and elsewhere. Quartz announced in September 2015 that they attracted a record of 16 million monthly unique visitors and its year-to-date revenue has risen 80% since last year. Since the launch of Quartz in September 2012, India has consistently been served as a top contributor for Quartzs international traffic, Quartz decided to launch its second international news site in Africa in June 2015. The launch was similar to the launch in India in 2014 and it views Africa as a potential market due to a high mobile penetration rate and a high rate of innovation in the region. Quartz Africa focuses on Africa Innovators, Nigeria Now, and China in Africa and it aims to cover a global view of the continent as well as other international stories that are related to its African audience. Unlike other media sources, Quartz differentiates itself by focusing on technology, business and innovation in the continent, Quartz launched Atlas in 2015, a home for all of its charts. It can be accessed at atlas. qz. com, Quartz launched its first podcast in partnership with Marketplace, called Actuality. The podcast focuses on top international news and the conversations journalists might have when discussing how to cover a news story, also Quartz launched its first mobile app. It is an app, because of the text-like design. Quartz is a digital news publication with no paywalls or registration. It relies entirely on advertising and sponsored content to fund its business. This opens access to readers, but raises questions of objectivity
32.
La Repubblica
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La Repubblica is an Italian daily general-interest newspaper. It was founded in 1976 in Rome by Gruppo Editoriale LEspresso led by Eugenio Scalfari and Carlo Caracciolo, born as a radical leftist newspaper, it has since moderated to a milder centre-left political stance. It lately assumed a position and a generally supporting view of Democrat Prime Minister Matteo Renzi. La Repubblica was founded by Eugenio Scalfari, also director of the weekly magazine LEspresso, the publisher Carlo Caracciolo and Mondadori had invested 2.3 billion lire and a break-even point was calculated at 150,000 copies. Scalfari invited a few trusted colleagues, Gianni Rocca, then Giorgio Bocca, Sandro Viola, Mario Pirani, Miriam Mafai, Barbara Spinelli, Natalia Aspesi, the cartoons were the prerogative of Giorgio Forattini until 1999. The newspaper first went on sale on 14 January 1976 and it was presented as the first Italian tabloid with some sections such as sports and business intentionally left out. When it was founded, it was intended to be a newspaper, with only major news at the national level. It was composed of 20 pages and was published from Tuesday to Sunday, the paper defined itself as a “giornale-partito” in its initial stage. During the first two years, it built up a core-audience identified as members of the centre-left and the Italian Communist Party, in 1977, Scalfari decided to cater to the university student movement, so la Repubblica began its expansion. The strength of the newspaper lay particularly in the comments section. In the meantime, Giampaolo Pansa from Corriere della Sera became Deputy Director, alongside Rocca, in early 1978, average sales amounted to 114,000 copies. The papers stance proved popular and, by the end of the year, in 1979, with an average print run of 180,000 copies, it achieved a break-even point. The size of the newspaper increased with page count growing from 20 to 24, the newspaper decided to cover sports for the first time and veteran reporter Gianni Brera was added. In 1981, the Corriere della Sera was hit by a scandal when chief editor Franco Di Bella was outed as a member of the masonic lodge Propaganda Due. This allowed La Repubblica to win extra readers and recruit a number of commentators such as Enzo Biagi. Aiming to gain top circulation in Italy, chief editor Scalfari launched new reader-friendly initiatives, there were now 40 pages, including news sections, entertainment and sport. The newspaper was pitched as an omnibus newspaper and this seemed to pay off as in 1985 la Repubblica sold an average of 372,940 copies, about 150,000 more than in 1981. 1986 marked the tenth birthday
33.
CTV News
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CTV News is the news division of the CTV Television Network in Canada. The name CTV News is also applied as the title of local and regional newscasts on the networks owned-and-operated stations, local newscasts on CTV Two are also branded as CTV News, although in most cases they are managed separately from the newscasts on the main CTV network. Canada AMs replacement Your Morning is produced by Bell Media In-House Productions, with news content provided by CTV News. In most markets, local CTV News programs air at noon,6 p. m. and 11,00 p. m. or 11,30 p. m. on weekdays, and at 6 p. m. and 11,00 p. m. /11,30 p. m. on weekends. In selected markets,5,00 and/or 5,30 p. m. newscasts are also produced, CFTO News for the Toronto station. By late 2005 the O&Os local newscasts had been renamed CTV News, beginning in February 2014, local programs were again rebranded using region-specific on-air titles such as CTV News Toronto. At the same time the CTV and CTV Two O&O stations received a new package, which is in a blue and white color scheme, a revised logo. National aggregate ratings published by BBM Canada refer to the local broadcasts collectively as CTV Evening News, CTV Late News, CTV Noon News, etc. although these titles are not used on-air. Since most CTV affiliates are owned by the network, CTV offers the opportunity to buy national ads on local programming across its O&Os, making these aggregate ratings useful for advertisers. Bell Medias secondary A system which was acquired through the purchase of CHUM Limited, and operated primarily in smaller markets produced similar local newscasts known as A News. When the A system re-branded as CTV Two on August 29,2011, most of these stations are nevertheless required to operate their local news operations separately from CTV stations serving the same or adjacent markets. Affiliates not owned by the network also air their own newscasts, such as NTV. The channel airs programs focused on the region, and currently airs simulcasts of CFTOs 6, 00pm and 11. CTV News has bureaus across Canada and around the world, but many were closed to cut costs, viewers may also upload media for any station or program. Official website CTV Toronto News CTV Montreal News CTV Edmonton News CTV British Columbia News
34.
Fannie May
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1-800-Flowers. com, Inc. is a floral and gourmet foods gift retailer and distribution company in the United States. It was one of the first retailers to use a 24 x 7 toll-free telephone number, the concept of using the word flowers within a Phoneword was originated by William Alexander in the early 1980s. The phone number, 1-800-356-9377, had assigned to a trucking brokerage in Wisconsin and was used for that company until 1981. Granville Semmes and David Snow formed a corporation which began to use that number to sell flowers in 1982 and their business struggled and that company was dissolved, with its assets going to investors James Poage and John Davis of Texas. In turn, this new corporation struggled financially as well and its assets were acquired in 1986 by Jim McCann, an owner of several flower shops in the New York City area since 1976, under whom the business saw success and growth. In the early 1990s, two events helped bring 1-800-Flowers to national prominence, first, AT&T created an advertising campaign featuring the company that aired repeatedly during the 1992 Summer Olympics. Second, at the time of the first Persian Gulf War, many advertisers were pulling out of CNN, 1-800-Flowers agreed to remain as an advertiser at founder Ted Turners request. The company was among the first retailers to partner with CompuServe and AOL, on September 1,1995, the company registered the 1800flowers. com domain name. In 1999, the company went public on the NASDAQ stock exchange under the ticker symbol FLWS and changed its name to 1-800-FLOWERS. COM, the company has merged with or acquired a number of other gift and retailing companies. In September 2007, the company announced a partnership with Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia to produce a line of products inspired by Martha Stewart. In August 2011, the company acquired Flowerama, a Waterloo-based floral retailer with 100 locations in 28 states, according to the Consumerist in 2008, customers have reported unknowingly being subscribed to LiveWell after receiving rebate checks from 1-800-flowers. It had 4,000 employees as of 2008, with a cap of $119 Million USD. For a few weeks in fall 2009, 1-800-Flowers. com sponsored the Entertainment Tonight birthday segment, in 2009, revenue was US$714 Million. Operating income wasUS$-72.2 Million, net income was US$-98.4 Million, assets were valued at US$286 Million, the company is headquartered in Carle Place, New York, on Long Island. The company fills its orders in two ways, through a network of florists and through drop shipments and it established a florist-to-florist network called BloomNet, and is one of several floral wire services in the country today. Fannie May Confections, Inc. - a chocolate and confectionery based in Chicago. Florists. com - Flower delivery via local florists Digital Leadership Program - Executive training program, on July 21,2008, 1-800-Flowers purchased Napco Marketing Corporation, a wholesale distributor of floral and plant containers and related supplies for the florist and mass market channels. On April 30,2008, 1-800-Flowers purchased DesignPac Gifts LLC, vanity numbers Phonewords About us page from the company site SEC Filing on NASDAQ Yahoo
35.
Kinder Chocolate
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Kinder Chocolate is a confectionery product brand line of Italian confectionery multinational Ferrero SpA. Kinder was developed and produced at Ferrero Germany in 1967 for the German market, one year later it was sold in Italy, before reaching the countries along the Mediterranean Sea. Kinder Bueno is a duo set of chocolate wafer bars containing a hazelnut cream filling and was released in the United Kingdom in 1999 and these were marketed as the first Kinder chocolate for adults, and have gained the Kinder brand greater recognition in the UK. Kinder introduced a white version of Bueno in 2008. Kinder Surprise is a milk chocolate egg shell containing a toy. The outside surface of the egg is milk chocolate, and the inside is a milky interior, a capsule containing a toy is inside the chocolate egg. Kinder Joy is similar in shape to the Kinder Surprise, it has a plastic egg-shaped packaging that is divided into two halves. One half contains two soft creamy chocolate layers, one milk-chocolate flavoured, one white-chocolate flavoured, which are eaten with an included spoon, embedded in the ganache are two round, chocolate-covered wafers, which are filled with the same hazelnut cream found in Kinder Bueno. The other half contains a small toy, happy Hippos are a wafer coated hippo-shaped biscuit, filled with both a white filling and a hazelnut filling. Happy Hippos are also available in Chocolate flavour, Kinder Chocolate is a fine milk chocolate with a milky filling, ranging from 4 to 40 bars. Kinder Delice is a cake with a layer of milk inside. Kinder Pingui is similar to Kinder Delice with the exception of a chocolate covering. Milky Bites are small milk chocolate eggs, with a hazelnut, country Crisp, similar to the Kinder Schokolade, containing small pieces of cereal and grain within the chocolate filling, as well as a wafer casing. Kinder Maxi is a version of the Kinder Chocolate. Kinder Riegel is a milk chocolate stick with extra creamy milk filling, Kinder Maxi King is a milk cake with a layer of caramel inside and a hazelnut chocolate covering. Kinder Paradiso is a lemon flavoured sponge cake, with a creamy milk filling in between and powdered sugar on the top. Kinder Milk Slice is a sponge cake that has a creamy. Kinder ChocoFresh is a 2 layered chocolate bar, in the bottom, a layer of hazelnut cream then, a whipped cream base, then its coated with pure chocolate
Cookbook: Nutella 
Media: Nutella
