1.
Nymphenburg Palace
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Castle of the Nymph, is a Baroque palace in Munich, Bavaria, southern Germany. The palace is the summer residence of the former rulers of Bavaria of the House of Wittelsbach. The central pavilion was completed in 1675, as a building material it utilised limestone from Kelheim. The castle was expanded and transformed over the years. Starting in 1701, Max Emanuel, the heir to Bavaria, two pavilions were added each in the south and north of Barellis palace by Enrico Zucalli and Giovanni Antonio Viscardi and connected with the centre pavilion by two gallery wings. In 1716 Joseph Effner redesigned the facade of the pavilion in French Baroque style with pilasters. Later, the section of the palace was further extended to form the court stables. For the sake of balance, the building was added to the north. Finally, a circle with Baroque mansions was erected under Max Emanuels son Holy Roman Emperor Charles VII Albert. In 1795 the Elector Charles Theodore ordered the widening of the galleries on the park side, with the Treaty of Nymphenburg signed in July 1741, Charles Albert allied with France and Spain against Austria. Two of the children were born here, Maria Antonia in 1724. Charles Albert lived during his time in Munich as Holy Roman Emperor in Nymphenburg Palace, Joseph founded the Nymphenburg Porcelain Manufactory. In 1792 Elector Charles Theodor opened the park for the public, for a long time the palace was the favourite summer residence of the rulers of Bavaria. King Max I Joseph died there in 1825 and his great-grandson King Ludwig II was born there in 1845, in 1863 the only meeting between Ludwig and Otto von Bismarck was held in Nymphenburg, although they remained connected in a lifelong friendship. Today Nymphenburg is open to the public but also continues to be a home and chancery for the head of the house of Wittelsbach, currently Franz, the palace, together with its park, is now one of the most famous sights of Munich. The baroque facades comprise an overall width of about 700 metres, some rooms still show their original baroque decoration while others were later redesigned in rococo or neoclassical style. The Steinerner Saal in the pavilion, with ceiling frescoes by Johann Baptist Zimmermann and F. Zimmermann. Acting as a hall, it occupies over three floors of the central pavilion of the palace
2.
Munich
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Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
3.
Bavaria
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Bavaria is a free state and one of 16 federal states of Germany. Located in the German southeast with an area of 70,548 square kilometres and its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and, with 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germanys second most populous state. Munich, Bavarias capital and largest city, is the third largest city in Germany, the Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War, Bavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the states Catholic majority and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes such as Oktoberfest. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia. The Bavarians emerged in a north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, the name Bavarian means Men of Baia which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE. From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria and their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibalds successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the frontier against the expansion of Slavs. Tassilos son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616, after Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and his son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodos death the duchy was divided among his sons, at Hugberts death the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748, saint Boniface completed the peoples conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century
4.
Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria
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Maximilian III Joseph was a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire and Duke of Bavaria from 1745 to 1777. Born in Munich, Maximilian was the eldest son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VII and his wife, Maria Amalia of Austria, upon his fathers death in January 1745, he inherited a country in the process of being invaded by Austrian armies. During the Seven Years War Bavarian forces then fought on the Habsburg side, Maximilian Josephs sister Maria Josepha of Bavaria was married in 1765 to Maria Theresas son Emperor Joseph II. But long-term weakening of Prussia was not in the Bavarian interest, Maximilian Joseph tried, as far as possible, to keep Bavaria out of the wars. Apart from militia troops, he sent only a force of 4,000 men to join the Austrian army. In 1758/1759, he withdrew Bavarian auxiliary troops from Austrian service, together with the Wittelsbach Elector Charles Theodore of the Palatinate he enforced the neutrality of the Empire during the conflict. Maximilian Joseph was a progressive and enlightened ruler who did much to improve the development of his country and he encouraged agriculture, industry, and exploitation of the mineral wealth of the country, and abolished the Jesuit censorship of the press. In 1747 the Nymphenburg Porcelain Factory was established, while the Codex Maximilianeus bavaricus civilis was written in 1756, in 1759, he founded Munichs first academic institution, the Bavarian Academy of Sciences. During the severe famine in 1770 Maximilian sold some of the jewels to pay for grain imports to relieve hunger. In that year, he issued an edict against the extravagant pomposity of the Church which contributed to the end of the era of Bavarian rococo. He also forbade the Oberammergau Passion Play, in 1771 the elector regulated general school attendance. In December 1777 Maximilian Joseph rode in his carriage through Munich, on the ride, as he passed one of the clocks, the mechanism broke. Commenting to the passengers, Max Joseph decided this was an omen, within days, he was stricken with a strange disease. None of his 15 doctors could diagnose it, but by Christmas, it had become clear that it was a virulent strain of smallpox. By the last day of the month he was dead without leaving an heir, Maximilian III Joseph is buried in the crypt of the Theatinerkirche in Munich. He was succeeded by his distant cousin, the Elector Palatine Charles Theodore from the branch of the dynasty. Maximilian III Joseph ordered in 1751 François de Cuvilliés to construct the splendid rococo Cuvilliés Theatre and he also ordered to decorate some rooms of the New Schleissheim Palace in rococo style. In 1775 La finta giardiniera, an Italian opera by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, received its first performance at the Salvatortheater in Munich
5.
Franz Anton Bustelli
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Franz Anton Bustelli was a Swiss-born German modeller for the Bavarian Nymphenburg Porcelain Manufactory from 1754 to his death in 1763. Bustelli was born in Locarno in Italian-speaking Switzerland, and died in Munich, Bavaria, few details of his life are known, but he trained as a sculptor, probably mostly in wood, in Italy. He spoke and wrote German fluently, and may have grown up in Bavaria, Bustelli joined the Neudeck factory in Munich in 1754, the year after it was established by the local ruler, Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria. That year the elector placed Sigmund Graf von Haimhausen in charge of the factory, Bustelli was rapidly promoted to Modellmeister, or head modeller, and created moulds for about 150 new models for Neudeck and Nymphenburg. The most famous of his works are a set of eight pairs of male and female figures whose glances interact. These were followed by groups of paired lovers and other figures and he was involved in the design of a large dinner service for the Elector, though the elaborate individual paintings, by Joseph Zächenberger, were not completed until after his death. Models were produced in both polychrome and plain white examples, with the more numerous, and the colouring often varying considerably between examples. His figures are designed in the round, meant to be appreciated from all angles. The bases are unusually thin, and often include scroll-work that integrates elegantly with the figures, some subjects are drawn from engravings, and many seem to show the influence of the conventional theatrical gestures of the period. He was not very highly paid, and his possessions at his death included furniture and personal effects, some of his own figures,228 engravings, today many Bustelli designs continue to be produced by Nymphenburg, though not from the original moulds, and using modern stamps. Original figures may fetch over $150,000, other museums all over the world have examples. 5196 Bustelli is a main belt asteroid, discovered in 1973 and named after Bustelli, Böttger and Kaendler of Meissen have the two preceding numbers
6.
Sigmund von Haimhausen
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Sigmund von Haimhausen was a Bavarian aristocrat, mining operator, head of the Bavarian Mint and Mines commission, porcelain manufacturer and first president of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences. Sigmund Ferdinand Graf von und zu Haimhausen was born on 28 December 1708 in Munich and he came from a family ennobled by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. His father was Franz Joseph von und zu Haimhausen and his mother Maria Magdalena Baroness von Rehlin, Sigmund attended the Jesuit school in Munich, then in 1724 went with his older brother Charles Ferdinand to the University of Salzburg. After two years moved on to study law in Prague. In the late summer of 1728 the two began to travel, visiting Dresden, Berlin, Lübeck, Hamburg and Amsterdam. They spent a semester in Leyden where they and hundreds of young men heard Johann Jacob Vitriarius deliver his lectures on public law. They then visited London and spent eight months in Paris before returning home in July 1730 and their grandfather died on 11 January 1724 and left Sigmund his Bavarian and Bohemian properties, leaving only the title and a legacy to Charles. However, the government overrode the will and decreed that Charles should receive the possessions in Bavaria, sigmunds Bohemian properties included the Gute Kuttenplan copper mine and other mines. Haimhausen devoted himself to the study of mining and he attended the metallurgical lectures of Dr. Störr in Leipzig, traveled through the Saxon ore fields and Austrian mining towns, and talked or corresponded with leading experts in mining. When Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, died on 20 October 1740 Sigmund joined in the homage of Bohemia in Prague and attended the coronation of Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor, in Frankfurt. He moved temporarily to Bavaria, and this became permanent under Maximilian III Joseph. In 1751 the Elector Max III Joseph appointed Haimhausen Master of the Mint and he was appointed to the privy council the same year. Starting in 1747, with the support of the Elector Max III Joseph, the Elector gave up funding the venture, but Haimhausen took over management and invested about 10,000 Bavarian Gulden in the enterprise from 1751-55. In 1753 he employed the skilled manufacturer Joseph Jakob Ringler, on 30 May 1754 the factory was incorporated into the Bavarian state system, and made a department of the Mint and Mining Commission headed by Haimhausen. In 1754 the factory hired Franz Anton Bustelli from Ticino in Switzerland as head of the modelling shop and he became model master, and contributed greatly to the early success of the factory. In 1761 the Churfürstliche Porcelain-Fabrique was transferred to the Nymphenburg Palace in Munich, after some difficulties, the Nymphenburg Porcelain Manufactory became successful and delivered high-quality products. The factory was best known for its Rococo figures, including Bustellis Chinese and Turkish figures, Bustellis successor Dominik Auliczek was known for groups of fighting animals, such as one of a bear being attacked by hounds. The factory did not make much tableware, but the Haimhausen and Electoral Court services are excellent, richly decorated in floral sprays, butterflies, the elector awarded Haimhausen a medal for his achievements
7.
Cavalier house
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A cavaliers house or cavalier house was a building that formed part of the ensemble of a stately home, palace or schloss and was used to accommodate the royal or princely household. They emerged in the Baroque era, the name is derived from the original use of such buildings for accommodating cavalrymen. Later it became synonymous for the attached to a palace or stately home that was not used by the royal family themselves. In Baroque ensembles, cavalier houses and palace were frequently around a cour dhonneur, there were no hard and fast rules, so that a cavalier house could sometimes be found in the palace park
8.
Dominikus Auliczek
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Dominik Auliczek was a sculptor and porcelain designer born in Bohemia who was employed for many years by the porcelain factory at the Nymphenburg Palace, Munich, Bavaria. Dominik Auliczek was born in Polička, Bohemia on 1 August 1734 and his father was Mathias Auliczek, the mayor of the town, and his mother was Rosina Martini. Auliczek studied with F. Pacak in Litomyšl and he then studied in Vienna in 1752–53, first with J. G. Leutner and then at the Academy. In 1754 he was in Paris, and in 1755–56 he studied at the Academy in London, in 1756–59 he studied at the Academy in Rome. In 1759 he earned a prize for sculpture from the Accademia di San Luca and he then worked for three years under Gaetano Chiaveri. Auliczek had completed several statues, and was preparing to return to Bohemia with his earnings when he was robbed by a man posing as a bishop. Auliczek moved to Munich in 1762, and joined the Nymphenburg Porcelain Manufactory in 1763, first as a repairer, on 28 November 1765 he married Maria Josepha, daughter of the artist Joseph Weiß, in Nymphenburg. They had three daughters and five sons, in 1772 he was appointed court sculptor. He became a councilor in 1782, dominik Auliczek died in Munich on 15 April 1804, aged 69. His son Dominikus von Auliczek the Younger was also a porcelain designer, auliczeks work was at first strongly influenced by the Romanesque and then Late Baroque, at the end by Rococo, and was starting to show signs of Classicism. Nothing of the Roman period can be seen in his large sculptures and he created figures of gods for the Electoral palace gardens in Nymphenburg in 1770–82, and three groups of cherubs in 1776. The statues included Jupiter, Juno, Pluto and Proserpina and his depictions of fighting animals are the most notable of his porcelain figures and groups, and he also made well-executed figures of gods and portraits in relief. The Perlservice is the best example of his tableware
9.
Johann Peter Melchior
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Johann Peter Melchior was a German porcelain modeller. He was interested in art from an age and was apprenticed to a sculptor in Düsseldorf. He made a name for himself in the trade and was named Modellmeister at the acclaimed Höchst porcelain factory in 1767. He later worked at the factories at Frankenthal and Nymphenburg, Melchior was a transitional figure between Rococo and Neoclassicism. His early work was graceful and often sentimental, and his subjects included religious groups, pastoral scenes, characters from mythology. As his career progressed, his works became less sentimental and more neoclassical, charlotte Jacob-Hanson, Johann Peter Melchior, Master Modeller, The Magazine Antiques, Vol. CLIV, No.3 September 1998, pp. 338–345
10.
Ludwig I of Bavaria
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Ludwig I was king of Bavaria from 1825 until the 1848 revolutions in the German states. Born in the Hôtel des Deux-Ponts in Strasbourg, he was the son of Count Palatine Maximilian Joseph of Zweibrücken by his first wife Augusta Wilhelmine of Hesse-Darmstadt, at the time of his birth, his father was an officer in the French army stationed at Strasbourg. He was the godson and namesake of Louis XVI of France and his father assumed the title of King of Bavaria on 1 January 1806. Starting in 1803 Ludwig studied in Landshut where he was taught by Johann Michael Sailer, on 12 October 1810 he married Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen, the daughter of Frederick, Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen. The wedding was the occasion of the first-ever Oktoberfest, as commander of the 1st Bavarian Division in VII Corps, he served under Marshal François Joseph Lefebvre in 1809. He led his division in action at the Battle of Abensberg on 20 April, on 14 October, Bavaria made a formal declaration of war against Napoleonic France. The treaty was passionately backed by Crown Prince Ludwig and by Marshal von Wrede, already at the 1815 Congress of Vienna, Ludwig advocated a German national policy. Until 1816 the crown prince served as governor-general of the Duchy of Salzburg and his second son Otto, the later King of Greece, was born there. Between 1816 and 1825, he spent his years in Würzburg and he also made numerous trips to Italy and stayed often in the Villa Malta in Rome, which he later also bought. Ludwig supported generously as a Philhellene the Greek War of Independence, in 1817 Ludwig was also involved in the fall of Prime Minister Count Max Josef von Montgelas whose policies he had opposed. He succeeded his father on the throne in 1825, Ludwigs rule was strongly affected by his enthusiasm for the arts and women and by his overreaching royal assertiveness. An enthusiast for the German Middle Ages, Ludwig ordered the re-erection of several monasteries in Bavaria which had closed during the German Mediatisation. He reorganized the regions of Bavaria in 1837 and re-introduced the old names Upper Bavaria, Lower Bavaria, Franconia, Swabia. He changed his royal titles to Ludwig, King of Bavaria, Duke of Franconia, Duke in Swabia, Ludwigs plan to reunite the eastern part of the Palatinate with Bavaria could not be realized. In 1815, Badens possession of Manheim and Heidelberg was confirmed, Ludwig founded the city of Ludwigshafen there as a Bavarian rival to Mannheim. Ludwig moved the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität from Landshut to Munich in 1826, the king also encouraged Bavarias industrialization. He initiated the Ludwig Canal between the rivers Main and the Danube, in 1835 the first German railway was constructed in his domain, between the cities of Fürth and Nuremberg. Bavaria joined the Zollverein in 1834, as Ludwig had supported the Greek fight of independence his second son Otto was elected king of Greece in 1832
11.
Art Nouveau
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Art Nouveau is an international style of art, architecture and applied art, especially the decorative arts, that was most popular between 1890 and 1910. A reaction to the art of the 19th century, it was inspired by natural forms and structures, particularly the curved lines of plants. English uses the French name Art Nouveau, according to the philosophy of the style, art should be a way of life. For many well-off Europeans, it was possible to live in an art nouveau-inspired house with art nouveau furniture, silverware, fabrics, ceramics including tableware, jewellery, cigarette cases, artists desired to combine the fine arts and applied arts, even for utilitarian objects. By 1910, Art Nouveau was already out of style and it was replaced as the dominant European architectural and decorative style first by Art Deco and then by Modernism. Art Nouveau took its name from the Maison de lArt Nouveau, in France, Art Nouveau was also sometimes called by the British term Modern Style due to its roots in the Arts and Crafts Movement, Style moderne, or Style 1900. It was also sometimes called Style Jules Verne, Le Style Métro, Art Belle Époque, in Belgium, where the architectural movement began, it was sometimes termed Style nouille or Style coup de fouet. In Britain, it was known as the Modern Style, or, because of the arts and crafts movement led by Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, as the Glasgow style. In Italy, because of the popularity in Italy of designs from Londons Liberty & Co department store, in the United States, due to its association with Louis Comfort Tiffany, it was often called the Tiffany style. In Germany and Scandinavia, a style emerged at about the same time, it was called Jugendstil. In Catalonia the related style was known as Modernisme, in Spain as Modernismo, Arte joven, in Russia, it was called Modern, and Jugendstil, and Nieuwe Kunst in the Netherlands. Some names refer specifically to the forms that were popular with the Art Nouveau artists, Stile Floreal in France, Paling Stijl in the Netherlands. The new art movement had its roots in Britain, in the designs of William Morris. Early prototypes of the include the Red House of Morris. In France, the style combined several different tendencies, in architecture, it was influenced by the architectural theorist and historian Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, a declared enemy of the historical Beaux-Arts architectural style. For each function its material, for each material its form and this book influenced a generation of architects, including Louis Sullivan, Victor Horta, Hector Guimard, and Antoni Gaudí. The French painters Maurice Denis, Pierre Bonnard and Édouard Vuillard played an important part in integrating fine arts painting with decoration, I believe that before everything a painting must decorate, Denis wrote in 1891. The choice of subjects or scenes is nothing and it is by the value of tones, the colored surface and the harmony of lines that I can reach the spirit and wake up the emotions
12.
House of Wittelsbach
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The Wittelsbach family is a European royal family and a German dynasty from Bavaria. The family also provided two Holy Roman Emperors, one King of the Romans, two Anti-Kings of Bohemia, one King of Hungary, one King of Denmark and Norway, the familys head, since 1996, is Franz, Duke of Bavaria. Berthold, Margrave in Bavaria, was the ancestor of Otto I, Count of Scheyern, whose third son Otto II, the Counts of Scheyern left Scheyern Castle in 1119 for Wittelsbach Castle and the former was given to monks to establish Scheyern Abbey. Duke Ottos son Louis I, Duke of Bavaria acquired also the Electorate of the Palatinate in 1214. On Duke Otto IIs death in 1253, his sons divided the Wittelsbach possessions between them, Henry became Duke of Lower Bavaria, and Louis II Duke of Upper Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine. When Henrys branch died out in 1340 the Emperor Louis IV, the Bavarian branch kept the duchy of Bavaria until its extinction in 1777. His six sons succeeded him as Duke of Bavaria and Count of Holland, the Wittelsbachs lost the Tyrol with the death of duke Meinhard and the following Peace of Schärding - the Tyrol was finally renounced to the Habsburgs in 1369. In 1373 Otto, the last Wittelsbach regent of Brandenburg, released the country to the House of Luxembourg, on Duke Alberts death in 1404, he was succeeded in the Netherlands by his eldest son, William. A younger son, John III, became Bishop of Liège, however, on Williams death in 1417, a war of succession broke out between John and Williams daughter Jacqueline of Hainaut. This last episode of the Hook and Cod wars finally left the counties in Burgundian hands in 1432, with the Landshut War of Succession Bavaria was reunited in 1505 against the claim of the Palatinate branch under the Bavarian branch Bavaria-Munich. From 1549 to 1567 the Wittelsbach owned the County of Kladsko in Bohemia, strictly Catholic by upbringing, the Bavarian dukes became leaders of the German Counter-Reformation. From 1583 to 1761, the Bavarian branch of the dynasty provided the Prince-electors and Archbishops of Cologne and many other Bishops of the Holy Roman Empire, namely Liège. Wittelsbach princes served for example as Bishops of Regensburg, Freising, Liège, Münster, Hildesheim, Paderborn and Osnabrück, in 1623 under Maximilian I the Bavarian dukes were invested with the electoral dignity and the duchy became the Electorate of Bavaria. His grandson Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria served also as Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands and his son Emperor Charles VII was also king of Bohemia. With the death of Charles son Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria the Bavarian branch died out in 1777, the Palatinate branch kept the Palatinate until 1918 and succeeded also in Bavaria in 1777. With the Golden Bull of 1356 the Counts Palatine were invested with the electoral dignity, princes of the Palatinate branch served as Bishops of the Empire and also as Elector-Archbishops of Mainz and Elector-Archbishops of Trier. Jülich and Berg fell to the Wittelsbach Count Palatine Wolfgang William of Neuburg, in 1619, the Protestant Frederick V, Elector Palatine became King of Bohemia but was defeated by the Catholic Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria, a member of the Bavarian branch. As a result, the Upper Palatinate had to be ceded to the Bavarian branch in 1623, when the Thirty Years War concluded with the Treaty of Münster in 1648, a new additional electorate was created for the Count Palatine of the Rhine
13.
Prince Luitpold of Bavaria (b.1951)
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Prince Luitpold of Bavaria is a member of the House of Wittelsbach, which reigned as kings of Bavaria until 1918, and a CEO of König Ludwig GmbH & Co. Prince Luitpold was born at Schloß Leutstetten near Starnberg, in Bavaria and he is the only surviving child of Prince Ludwig of Bavaria and his wife Princess Irmingard of Bavaria. On 25 June 1979 Prince Luitpold married Katrin Beatrix Wiegand, daughter of Gerd Wiegand, the civil wedding took place at Starnberg and the religious ceremony followed a day later at the Andechs Abbey in Bavaria. Initially the union was considered morganatic, but on 3 March 1999 the marriage was declared to be dynastic, founder of Learning Lions, a schooling project in Kenia Prince Heinrich Rudolf of Bavaria. At Kaltenberg he also organizes a jousting tournament. In 2011 he purchased the Nymphenburg Porcelain Manufactory, founded in 1745 by Maximilian III Joseph, Prince Luitpold owns the Bavarian castles of Leutstetten and Kaltenberg, in which he lives with his family
14.
Hanns Goebl
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Hanns Goebl was a Bavarian sculptor who worked for the Nymphenburg Porcelain Factory. During the 1930s and 1940s he produced works of art for the Nazis. From 1924 to 1929 he was a student at the Academy of Fine Arts Munich where he studied under Joseph Wackerle and he then received a one-year fellowship at the Villa Massimo, the German art foundation in Rome. When he returned to Germany he joined the Nympenburg Porcelain Factory where he designed numerous small works, in 1932 his work was displayed at the Villa Romana, the German art foundation in Florence. In 1935 he was at the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin, in 1940 and 1941 he was at the Kunsthalle Mannheim. In 1941 he designed the Hoheitsadler, the Third Reichs coat of arms and he also sculpted a bust of Rudolf von Sebottendorf
15.
Porcelain manufacturing companies in Europe
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Porcelain manufacturing companies are firms which manufacture porcelain. The table below lists European manufacturers of porcelain established before the 18th century and this table may be sorted according to the year of foundation, description and country. The table below lists European manufacturers of porcelain established in the 18th century and this table may be sorted according to the year of foundation, description and country
16.
Porcelain
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Porcelain /ˈpɔːrsəlᵻn, ˈpɔːrslᵻn/ is a ceramic material made by heating materials, generally including kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 °C. Porcelain was first developed in China around 2,000 years ago, then spread to other East Asian countries, and finally Europe. It combines well with both glazes and paint, and can be modelled very well, allowing a range of decorative treatments in tablewares, vessels. It also has uses in technology and industry. The European name, porcelain in English, come from the old Italian porcellana because of its resemblance to the translucent surface of the shell, Porcelain is also referred to as china or fine china in some English-speaking countries, as it was first seen in imports from China. Porcelain has been described as being completely vitrified, hard, impermeable, white or artificially coloured, translucent, however, the term porcelain lacks a universal definition and has been applied in a very unsystematic fashion to substances of diverse kinds which have only certain surface-qualities in common. Terms such as porcellaneous or near-porcelain may be used in such cases, a high proportion of modern porcelain is made of the variant bone china. Kaolin is the material from which porcelain is made, even though clay minerals might account for only a small proportion of the whole. The word paste is an old term for both the unfired and fired material, a more common terminology these days for the unfired material is body, for example, when buying materials a potter might order an amount of porcelain body from a vendor. The composition of porcelain is highly variable, but the mineral kaolinite is often a raw material. Other raw materials can include feldspar, ball clay, glass, bone ash, steatite, quartz, petuntse, the clays used are often described as being long or short, depending on their plasticity. Long clays are cohesive and have high plasticity, short clays are cohesive and have lower plasticity. Clays used for porcelain are generally of lower plasticity and are shorter than many other pottery clays and they wet very quickly, meaning that small changes in the content of water can produce large changes in workability. Thus, the range of content within which these clays can be worked is very narrow. The following section provides information on the methods used to form, decorate, finish, glaze. Many types of glaze, such as the iron-containing glaze used on the wares of Longquan, were designed specifically for their striking effects on porcelain. Porcelain wares may be decorated under the glaze using pigments that include cobalt and copper or over the glaze using coloured enamels. Like many earlier wares, modern porcelains are often biscuit-fired at around 1,000 °C, coated with glaze, another early method is once-fired where the glaze is applied to the unfired body and the two fired together in a single operation
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Chinese ceramics
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Chinese ceramics show a continuous development since pre-dynastic times and are one of the most significant forms of Chinese art and ceramics globally. The first pottery was made during the Palaeolithic era, Porcelain is so identified with China that it is still called china in everyday English usage. Most later Chinese ceramics, even of the finest quality, were made on an industrial scale, many of the most important kiln workshops were owned by or reserved for the Emperor, and large quantities of ceramics were exported as diplomatic gifts or for trade from an early date. The earliest Chinese pottery was earthenware, which continued in production for utilitarian uses throughout Chinese history, but was increasingly less used for fine wares. Porcelain, on a Western definition, is a term comprising all ceramic ware that is white and translucent. The Chinese tradition recognizes two categories of ceramics, high-fired and low-fired, so doing without stoneware, which in Chinese tradition is mostly grouped with porcelain. Terms such as porcellaneous or near-porcelain may be used for stonewares with porcelain-like characteristics, the Erya defined porcelain as fine, compact pottery. Chinese pottery can also classified as being either northern or southern, the kiln types were also different. Southern materials have high silica, low alumina and high potassium oxide, the northern materials are often very suitable for stoneware, while in the south there are also areas highly suitable for porcelain. Chinese porcelain is made by a combination of the following materials. Porcelain stone - decomposed micaceous or feldspar rocks, historically known as petunse. Feldspar Quartz In the context of Chinese ceramics, the term lacks a universally accepted definition. This in turn has led to confusion about when the first Chinese porcelain was made, claims have been made for the late Eastern Han dynasty, the Three Kingdoms period, the Six Dynasties period, and the Tang dynasty. Chinese kiln technology has always been a key factor in the development of Chinese pottery, the Chinese developed effective kilns capable of firing at around 1, 000°C before 2000 BC. These were updraft kilns, often built below ground, two main types of kiln were developed by about 200 AD and remained in use until modern times. Both could reliably produce the temperatures of up to 1300°C or more needed for porcelain, in the late Ming, the egg-shaped kiln or zhenyao was developed at Jingdezhen, but mainly used there. This was something of a compromise between the types, and offered locations in the firing chamber with a range of firing conditions. According to Science, pottery dating from 20,000 years ago were found at the Xianrendong Cave site
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Chinese export porcelain
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Chinese export porcelain includes a wide range of Chinese porcelain that was made exclusively for export to Europe and later to North America between the 16th and the 20th century. Whether wares made for non-Western markets are covered by the term depends on context, Chinese ceramics made mainly for export go back to the Tang dynasty if not earlier, though initially they may not be regarded as porcelain. The other types include Swatow ware, made for South-East Asian and Japanese markets, Chinese celadons were exported to most of Eurasia, but not Europe, between roughly the Tang and the early Ming dynasties. Chinese export porcelain was generally decorative, but without the significance of wares produced for the Chinese home market. Except for the rare Huashi soft paste wares, traditionally Chinese porcelain was made using kaolin, while rim chips and hairline cracks are common, pieces tend not to stain. Chinese wares were thinner than those of the Japanese and did not have stilt marks. In the 16th century, Portuguese traders began importing late Ming dynasty blue and white porcelains to Europe, buyers included the Kings of England and France. After this, a number of European nations established companies trading with the countries of the Far East, the trade continued until the mid-17th century when the Ming dynasty fell in 1644, and civil war disrupted porcelain production. European traders then turned to Japanese porcelain instead, as valuable and highly prized possessions, pieces of Chinese export porcelain appeared in many 17th century Dutch paintings. The illustration shows a painting by Jan Jansz, treck that includes two Kraak-style bowls, probably late Ming, the one in the foreground being of a type the Dutch called klapmuts. The blue pigment used by the artist has faded badly since the picture was painted, under the Kangxi Emperors reign the Chinese porcelain industry at Jingdezhen was reorganised and the export trade soon flourished again. Chinese export porcelain from the late 17th century included Blue and white, wares included garnitures of vases, dishes, teawares, ewers, and other useful wares along with figurines, animals and birds. Blanc de Chine porcelains and Yixing stonewares arriving in Europe and gave inspiration to many European potters, for the potters of Jingdezhen the manufacture of porcelain wares for the European export market presented new difficulties. Writing from the city in 1712, the French Jesuit missionary Père François Xavier dEntrecolles records that, although European crests on Chinese porcelain can be found on pieces made as early as the 16th century, around 1700 the demand for armorial porcelain increased dramatically. Thousands of services were ordered with drawings of individuals coat of arms being sent out to China to be copied and shipped back to Europe and, from the late 18th century, to North America. Some were lavishly painted in enamels and gilding, while others, particularly later examples, might incorporate only a small crest or monogram in blue. A wide variety of shapes, some of Chinese or Islamic origin, oriental figurines included Chinese gods and goddesses such as Guanyin and Budai, figurines with nodding heads, seated monks and laughing boys as well as figurines of Dutch men and women. From the mid-18th century, even copies of Meissen figurines such as Tyrolean dancers were made for export to Europe, birds and animals, including cows, cranes, dogs, eagles, elephants, pheasants, monkeys and puppies, were popular
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Chinese influences on Islamic pottery
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Chinese influences on Islamic pottery cover a period starting from at least the 8th century CE to the 19th century. This influence of Chinese ceramics has to be viewed in the context of the considerable importance of Chinese culture on Islamic arts in general. Despite the distances involved, there is evidence of contact between eastern and southwestern Asia from antiquity. Some very early Western influence on Chinese pottery seems to appear from the 3rd-4th century BCE. An Eastern Zhou red earthenware bowl, decorated with slip and inlaid with glass paste, foreign influence especially is thought to have encouraged the Eastern Zhou interest in glass decorations. Contacts between China and Central Asia were formally opened from the 2nd to 1st century BCE through the Silk Road, in the following centuries, a great cultural influx benefited China, embodied by the appearance in China of foreign art, new ideas and religions, and new lifestyles. Such mixed influences are visible in the earthenwares of Northern China in the 6th century. The best of these ceramics use bluish green, yellow or olive glazes, direct contacts between the Muslim and Chinese worlds were marked by the Battle of Talas in 751 in Central Asia. Muslim communities are known to have present in China as early as the 8th century CE, especially in commercial harbours such as Canton. From the 9th century onwards, Islamic merchants started to import Chinese ceramics and these exotic objects were cherished in the Islamic world and also became an inspiration for local potters. Archaeological finds of Chinese pottery in the Middle East go back to the 8th century, remains of Tang period ceramics have been found in Samarra and Ctesiphon in present-day Iraq, as well as in Nishapur in present-day Iran. These were less successful than those of Korean pottery, but eventually were able to provide attractive local competition to Chinese imports. Chinese production could adapt to the preferences of foreign markets, larger celadon dishes than the Chinese market wanted were favoured for serving princely banquets in the Middle East, celadon wares were believed there to have the ability to detect poison, by sweating or breaking. After about 1450 celadon wares fell out of fashion in China, and this style of ornament was then confined to blue and white, and is not found in the red and white painted wares then preferred by the Chinese themselves. The start of the Ming dynasty was followed by a decree of 1368. Often Islamic production imitated not the latest Chinese styles, but those of the late Yuan, in turn, Chinese potters began in the early 16th century to produce some items in overtly Islamic styles, including jumbled inscriptions in Arabic. These appear to have made for the growing Chinese Muslim market. Yue ware originated in the Yue kilns of Northern Zhejiang, in the site of Jiyuan near Shaoxing, called Yuezhou in ancient times
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Proto-celadon
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Proto-celadon was a type of Chinese ceramic which developed during the Shang period and Western Han periods. It is often described as proto-porcelain, and was usually glazed in light yellowish green, the body of proto-celadon was high-fired, the Chinese classification including porcelain, with an iron content below 3%. Firing temperature was around 1200 degrees Celsius, in Western terms the wares are stoneware. Surface treatment consisted of a lime glaze, the type of objects manufactured in proto-celadon were similar to the objects manufactured in bronze. During the Shang and Zhou periods, proto-celadon was mainly produced in the south of the Yangtze river. Following this period, production greatly improved in quantity and quality, from the Eastern Han period, true celadon ware started to appear, with production focused in Zhejiang Province. Although still following the shapes and patterns of proto-celadon wares, these advances now represented the characteristics of porcelain, with refined clays and these advances were followed by those of Yue ware, and the blooming of celadon production from the period of the Song dynasty. A Handbook of Chinese Ceramics from The Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Celadon
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Celadon originated in China, though the term is purely European, and notable kilns such as the Longquan kiln in Zhejiang province are renowned for their celadon glazes. Celadon production later spread to regions in Asia, such as Japan, Korea. Eventually European potteries produced some pieces, but it was never an element there. Finer pieces are in porcelain, but both the color and the glaze can be produced in stoneware and earthenware, most of the earlier Longquan celadon is on the border of stoneware and porcelain, meeting the Chinese but not the European definitions of porcelain. The similarity of the color to jade, traditionally the most highly valued material in China, was a part of its attraction. Celadon continued to be produced in China at a lower level, in Korea the celadons produced under the Goryeo Dynasty are regarded as the classic wares of Korean porcelain. The celadon colour is produced by firing a glaze containing a little iron oxide at a high temperature in a reducing kiln. The materials must be refined, as other chemicals can alter the color completely, too little iron oxide causes a blue colour, and too much gives olive and finally black, the right amount is between 0. 75% and 2. 5%. The presence of chemicals may have effects, titanium dioxide gives a yellowish tinge. Pieces made with a celadon glaze are themselves often referred to as celadons, the term celadon for the potterys pale jade-green glaze was coined by European connoisseurs of the wares. Another theory is that the term is a corruption of the name of Saladin, the Ayyubid Sultan, yet a third theory is that the word derives from the Sanskrit sila and dhara, which mean green and stone respectively. The unique grey or green glaze is a result of iron oxides transformation from ferric to ferrous iron during the firing process. Individual pieces in a single firing can have different colours. Most of the time, green was the colour, reminding the Chinese of jade. The most famous and desired shades range from a pale green to deep intense green, often meaning to mimic the green shades of jade. The main color effect is produced by iron oxide in the recipe or clay body. Celadons are almost exclusively fired in a reducing atmosphere kiln as the changes in the iron oxide which accompany depriving it of free oxygen are what produce the desired colors. As with most glazes, crazing can occur in the glaze and, greenwares are found in earthenware from the Shang dynasty onwards
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Yue ware
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Yue ware or Yüeh ware is a type of Chinese ceramics, a felspathic siliceous stoneware, which is characteristically decorated with celadon glazing. Yue ware is sometimes called green porcelain in modern literature. It has been one of the most successful and influential of all south Chinese ceramics types, Yue ware was fired in dragon kilns. The Yue glazing was an ash glaze, made with a recipe using wood ash and clay, firing temperature is thought to have been about 1, 000°C or slightly higher. The color of the ranges from grey to olive to brown. Yue ware is considered as the ancestor of Song celadon ceramics, Yue ware originated in the Yue kilns of Northern Zhejiang, in the site of Jiyuan near Shaoxing, called in ancient times Yuezhou. Its name goes back to the Yue of the Spring and Autumn period, Yue ware was first manufactured in the 2nd century CE, when it consisted of very precise imitations of bronze vessels, many of which have been found in tombs of the Nanjing region. After this initial phase, Yue ware evolved progressively into true ceramic form, production in Jiyuan stopped in the 6th century, but expanded to various areas of Zhejiang, especially around the shores of Shanglinhu in Yuyao County（余姚县）. Yue ware was highly valued and was used as tribute for the court of China in the 9th century. Significantly, it was used in Chinas most revered Famen Temple （法门寺）in Shaanxi Province（陕西省）. Yue ware was exported to the Middle East early on, in an early example of Chinese influences on Islamic pottery, shards of Yue ware have been excavated in Samarra, Iraq. From the 8th to the 11th centuries, it was exported to East Asia, South Asia. A particularly refined form of Yue ware is the Mi-se Yue ware found in the Famen Temple and this ware was undecorated but characterized by a smooth and thin glaze of a light color, either yellowish green or bluish green. Korean celadons were thought to be influenced by Yue ware by the 11th century, however, the Koreans developed their own bluish-green celadon glazes by the Koryo dynasty, that was different from those of Yue wares. Medley, Margaret, Tang Pottery and Porcelain,1981, Faber & Faber, ISBN0571109578 A Handbook of Chinese Ceramics from The Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Ding ware
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Ding ware, Ting ware or Dingyao were Chinese ceramics, mostly porcelain, produced in the prefecture of Dingzhou in Hebei in northern China. The main kilns were at Jiancicun or Jianci in Quyang County and they were produced between the Tang and Yuan dynasties of imperial China, though their finest period was in the 11th century, under the Northern Song. The kilns were in almost constant operation from the eighth until the mid-fourteenth century. The most characteristic wares are thin porcelains with a white or greyish body, chemical analysis has shown that they were often made entirely of a kaolinitic clay without any petuntse or porcelain stone. They are mostly decorated, with uncoloured designs that are incised or in shallow relief. A key event in this process was the flight of the remaining Northern Song court to the south, a new Southern Song court was based in Hangzhou. This may have accompanied by the movement of potters to Jingdezhen. The white glaze was noted for a cream or ivory tint. Earlier, pre-Song, pieces had a blueish tint as they were fired with wood, a change to firing with coal, probably in the 10th century, produced the tint described as ivory. Other secondary wares had monochrome glazes in different colours, a rare black, various shades of red and brown, gold. These are better known through literature than through surviving examples, only the red and black are represented by entire pieces. These may lack any other decoration, another rare group is white with painted underglaze decoration in a brown derived from iron oxides. Pieces produced in Ding ware were mostly open vessels of a small size, with shapes and decoration often borrowed from metalwork. Any decoration on the outside of pieces continued to be hand-carved for some time, while the decoration was hand-carved, it was mostly scrolling plant-forms including lotus and peony, with some simple animals such as ducks and fish. These were generally rather open and well spaced, executed with remarkable fluency, moulds allowed more complexity, including scenes with children, landscapes and other animals. The Ding kilns developed stepped saggars, allowing several bowls, slightly reducing in size, to be fired in the same saggar, terms such as porcellaneous or near-porcelain may be used in such cases. Ding ware was later grouped as one of the Five Famous Kilns and it heavily influenced the early white wares of Jingdezhen, where the white porcelain preceding Qingbai ware is known as Southern Ding, and Qingbai also shows considerable influence in its decoration. Ding production continued under the Jin dynasty, non-Chinese interlopers from Manchuria, Jin court taste was very different from the Song, favouring elegant plant-scroll designs, now mostly moulded, which were more intricate than those already produced under the Northern Song
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Qingbai ware
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Qingbai ware is a type of Chinese porcelain produced under the Song Dynasty and Yuan dynasty, defined by the ceramic glaze used. Qingbai ware is white with a tint, and is also referred to as Yingqing. It was made in Jiangxi province in south-eastern China, in locations including Jingdezhen. However, it was not at the time a prestigious ware, the quality is very variable, reflecting these different markets, the best pieces can be very thin-walled. Qingbai ware was made with a porcelain body, fired with a glaze that produced a slight blue-green tint. The kilns used pine wood as fuel, producing an atmosphere that produced the tint. Qingbai ware was used by commoners, and never seems to have made for imperial use. In the 14th century the same manufacturers turned to the new blue and white porcelain, using the same body, many types of items were made, as well as the usual plates and bowls, there were teapots and small round lidded boxes, usually described as for cosmetics. Items made for burial included tall funerary urns with complicated, and rather crowded, there are also tomb figures, though less care is expended on these than on the famous sancai figures of the Tang dynasty. Small Buddha statues, often highly detailed hair, clothes and accessories. A variety of forming techniques were used, tending for basic shapes to move over the period from wheel-thrown vessels decorated by carving with a knife or impressed decoration, to moulded bodies. Shapes and decoration had much in common with Ding ware from northern China, Qingbai initially appeared in the Northern Song period, from about 960 to 1127, and became a sought-after item in the Chinese market. It became even more popular during the Southern Song period, which lasted approximately from 1127 to 1279 and it was also exported in quantity to China’s neighboring nations. Kilns used to make Qingbai ware have been unearthed in many of Chinas provinces, suggesting great popularity, excavations at the kiln site for Jizhou ware revealed large numbers of discarded fragments of Qingbai, below the layers with brown and white painted wares. Jizhou was clearly one of the sites where this was produced. It was apparently a gift to Louis the Great of Hungary, the vase was then mounted with a silver handle and base, transforming it into a ewer and transferred as a gift to his Angevin kinsman Charles III of Naples in 1381. It is now, having lost its medieval mounts, in the National Museum of Ireland, Qingbai was later also produced in Japan, where it is known as seihakuji. A record auction price was paid for a statue of a seated Guanyin, Qingbai ware is not considered to be part of the wu wei ce, Five Great Kilns, or five classic wares of the Song Dynasty
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Jingdezhen porcelain
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Jingdezhen porcelain is Chinese porcelain produced in or near Jingdezhen in southern China. Jingdezhen may have produced pottery as early as the sixth century CE, though it is named after the name of Emperor Zhenzong, in whose reign it became a major kiln site. By the 14th century it had become the largest centre of production of Chinese porcelain, from the Ming period onwards, official kilns in Jingdezhen were controlled by the emperor, making imperial porcelain in large quantity for the court and the emperor to give as gifts. It also has a river leading to river systems flowing north and south, the imperial kilns were in the centre of the city at Zhushan, with many other kilns four kilometres away at Hutian. The imperial kilns were situated at Pearl Hill in Jingdezhen, some give a date of 1369 for the commencement of production. But there continued to be many other kilns, producing wares for many distinct markets, the imperial court, except during periods of crisis, generated a huge demand for porcelain. Apart from the vast main palaces and other residences, for much of the period the many princes had subsidiary regional courts, there were imperial temples to be supplied, each of which was given monochrome wares in different colours, as well as several monasteries and shrines. The porcelain to which different ranks of the household were entitled were set out in minute detail in regulations. The final version of these, from 1899, specified that the Empress Dowager Cixi was allowed 821 pieces of yellow porcelain, a concubine of the first rank had 121 pieces of yellow with a white interior, but those of the second rank had yellow decorated with green dragons. The Ming dynasty is dated as beginning in 1368, but there was a long revolt against the Yuan dynasty. By 1402 there were twelve imperial kilns at Jingdezhen, then one of three areas with imperial kilns, production was controlled by a ministry in the capital, by then in Beijing, far to the north. Production was on a scale, employing hundreds if not thousands of workers. In 1433 a single order from the palace was for 443,500 pieces of porcelain, all with dragon, court artists were by now supplying drawn or woodblock printed designs from the capital. Some may also have sold, especially for export. Sometimes antique pieces in the Imperial collection were sent to Jingdezhen to be copied, a recently excavated Ming princely burial has yielded the first example to survive until modern times of a type of gaiwan set known from 15th-century paintings. There is a blue and white Jingdezhen stem cup, that has a silver stand, presumably many such sets existed, but recycling the precious metal elements was too tempting at some point, leaving only the porcelain cups. Other imperial porcelains may have carried gilding, which has now worn away, under the Yongle Emperor, reign marks were introduced for the first time, applied to porcelain and other types of luxury products made for the imperial court. A wide variety of wares were produced for the court, with blue and white accompanied by red and this was sometimes combined with the cobalt blue in blue and red pieces
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Blue and white pottery
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Blue and white pottery covers a wide range of white pottery and porcelain decorated under the glaze with a blue pigment, generally cobalt oxide. The decoration is applied by hand, originally by brush painting. Blue and white decoration first became used in Chinese porcelain in the 14th century. A style of decoration based on plant forms spreading across the object was perfected. Blue and white pottery in all of these continues to be produced. Cobalt blue was first used in decorating Islamic pottery, especially in Persia, the first Chinese blue and white wares were as early as the ninth century in Henan province, China, although only shards have been discovered. Tang period blue-and-white is even rarer than Song blue-and-white and was unknown before 1985, the Tang pieces are not porcelain however, but rather earthenwares with greenish white slip, using cobalt blue pigments. The only three pieces of complete Tang blue and white in the world were recovered from Indonesian Belitung shipwreck in 1998 and it appears that the technique was thereafter forgotten for some centuries. There are still arguing that early pieces are mis-dated, and in fact go back to the Southern Song. In the early 14th century, mass-production of fine, translucent, blue and white porcelain started at Jingdezhen and this development was due to the combination of Chinese techniques and Islamic trade. The new ware was made possible by the export of cobalt from Persia, cobalt blue was considered as a precious commodity, with a value about twice that of gold. Motifs also draw inspiration from Islamic decorations, a large portion of these blue-and-white wares was then shipped to Southwest-Asian markets through the Muslim traders based in Guangzhou. From the 16th century, local sources of cobalt blue started to be developed, production of blue and white wares has continued at Jingdezhen to this day. Blue and white porcelain made at Jingdezhen probably reached the height of its technical excellence during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty. The true development of blue and white ware in China started with the first half of the 14th century, the main production center was in Jingdezhen, Jiangxi Province. With the advent of the Ming dynasty in 1368, blue and white ware was shunned for a time by the Court, especially under the Hongwu and Yongle Emperors, as being too foreign in inspiration. Blue and white porcelain however came back to prominence with the Xuande Emperor, during the 17th century, numerous blue and white pieces were made as Chinese export porcelain for the European markets. European symbols and scenes coexisted with Chinese scenes for these objects, in the 1640s, rebellions in China and wars between the Ming dynasty and the Manchus damaged many kilns, and in 1656–1684 the new Qing Dynasty government stopped trade by closing its ports
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Dehua porcelain
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Dehua porcelain is a type of white Chinese porcelain, made at Dehua in the Fujian province. A traditional European term for it is Blanc de Chine and it has been produced from the Ming dynasty to the present day. Large quantities arrived in Europe as Chinese export porcelain in the early 18th century and it was copied at Meissen and it was also exported to Japan in large quantities. The area along the Fujian coast was one of the main ceramic exporting centers. Over one-hundred and eighty kiln sites have been identified extending in historical range from the Song period to present, the two principal kiln sites were those of Qudougong and Wanpinglun. The Wanpinglun site is the older of the two and manufactured pressed wares and others, the kilns of Dehua also produced other ceramic wares, including some with under glaze blue decoration. From the Ming period porcelain objects were manufactured that achieved a fusion of glaze and body traditionally referred to as ivory white and milk white. The special characteristic of Dehua porcelain is the small amount of iron oxide in it. The unfired porcelain body is not very plastic but vessel forms have been made from it, there was a large output of figures, especially religious figures, e. g. Guanyin, Maitreya, Luohan and Ta-mo figures. Guanyin, the Goddess of Mercy, was revered in Fujian. Donnelly says, “There is no doubt that figures constitute the great glory of blanc de Chine. ”Some have been produced with little modification from the late 16th or early 17th century. Crisply modeled figures with a white glaze were popular as were joss-stick holders, brush pots, Dogs of Fo, libation cups. The devotional objects produced at Dehua “conformed to the stipulations of the early Ming period, not only in their whiteness. They were probably used in the shrines that every Chinese home possessed. ”The numerous Dehua porcelain factories today make figures. During the Cultural Revolution “Dehua artisans applied their very best skills to produce immaculate statuettes of the Great Leader and the heroes of the revolution. Portraits of the stars of the new opera in their most famous roles were produced on a truly massive scale. ”Mao Zedong figures later fell out of favor but have been revived for foreign collectors. Precise dating of blanc de Chine of the Ming and Qing dynasties is often difficult because the conservatism of the Dehua potters led them to similar pieces for decades or even for centuries. There are blanc de Chine figures being made in Dehua today little different from those made in the Ming dynasty, notable artists in blanc de Chine, such as the late Ming period He Chaozong, signed their creations with their seals
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Kraak ware
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Kraak ware or Kraak porcelain is a type of Chinese export porcelain produced mainly from the Wanli reign, but also in the Tianqi and the Chongzhen. The wares have suffered from imprecise terminology, sometimes being used for many varieties of Chinese export blue. Strictly defined, it is distinguished by the arrangement of its ornament into panels and it is a sub-class of Jingdezhen ware, mostly made as deep bowls and wide dishes, decorated with motifs from nature, in a style not used on wares for the domestic Chinese market. Kraak porcelain is believed to be named after the Portuguese ships, although the link with Carrak ships is generally accepted as the root of the name Kraak ware, other origins of the label have also been proposed. For example, Rinaldi points out that in Dutch the verb means to break - a characteristic that certainly is common among Kraak wares. Moreover, the term refers to the type of shelves that often displayed import blue and white porcelains in Friesland and it is often decorated with variations on the more traditional motifs found on Chinese porcelain, such as stylized flowers and Buddhist auspicious emblems. However, most characteristic of Kraak decoration is the use of foliated radial panels, in other words, the surface of the porcelain is divided into segments, each containing its own discrete image. Shapes included dishes, bowls, and vases, Kraak ware bowls fall into roughly two types, the first is a deep, unrimmed Chinese style bowl, taking roughly the same shape as the Qing enameled cup. The second type are called klapmutsen, a klapmuts is somewhat akin to what we would today call a soup-bowl—a broader-based, rimmed style that was new in the Chinese repertoire, and seems to have been exclusively exported to Europe. As noted above, it made a frequent appearance in the sumptuous Dutch paintings of the seventeenth century, today a great deal is learned about Kraak ware through excavation of shipwrecks by marine archaeologists. Because the wreck can usually be dated with some degree of certainty, moreover, its location can also indicate its destination point, thus revealing much about international trade routes and outposts at the time. In contrast to the other major European imports of the time, ceramics are able to withstand exposure to water, Blue and White, Chinese Porcelain and Its Impact on the Western World. Chicago, David and Alfred Smart Gallery,1985, persia and China, Safavid Blue and White Ceramics in the Victoria and Albert Museum, 1501–1738. London, Victoria & Albert Museum,2002, still Life and Trade in the Dutch Golden Age. New Haven and London, Yale University Press,2007, China for the West, Chinese Porcelain and other Decorative Arts for Export, Illustrated from the Mottahedeh Collection. London and New York, Sotheby Parke Bernet,1978, Porcelain from the Vung Tau wreck, The Hallstrom Excavation. In Chinese Export Art and Design, London, Victoria and Albert Museum,1987. Chinese Armorial Porcelain for the Dutch Market, Chinese Porcelain with Coats of Arms of Dutch Families, den Haag, Centraal Bureau voor Generalogie and Zwolle, Waanders Publishers,2007
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Swatow ware
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Swatow ware or Zhangzhou ware is a loose grouping of mainly late Ming dynasty Chinese export porcelain wares initially intended for the Southeast Asian market. The traditional name in the West arose because Swatow, or present-day Shantou, was the South Chinese port in Guangdong province from which the wares were thought to have been shipped, the peak levels of production may have ended around 1620. Compared to contemporary Jingdezhen porcelain, Swatow ware is generally coarse, crudely potted, underglaze blue decoration had been common in Chinese ceramics for over two centuries, but polychrome enamels had been relatively unusual before this period. The pieces are large open forms such as dishes, painted with sketchy designs over the glaze in red, green, turquoise. On the other hand, the drawing has a spontaneity not found in the tradition of finer wares. The most common subjects are birds in flight or at rest in or by water, animals, especially deer, set in a landscape are also common, as main subjects or in medallions in the border. Human figures are shown as staffage in landscapes, especially manning boats. Other motifs are sea-monsters and dragons, both oddly-shaped, some dishes have Islamic inscriptions in Arabic, intended for South East Asian Muslims rather than those further west. Some dishes show European ships, and represent Western ships compasses, the designs show awareness of contemporary Jingdezhen porcelain, but at a considerable distance. Smaller numbers of pieces, often undecorated, are in a range of other colours, especially blues and browns, usually achieved by slips. The pieces very often have grit from the kiln on the glaze at the foot and they were fired in dragon kilns of various designs, and the numerous potteries were small concerns, far removed from the industrial scale of Jingdezhen. Pieces were mostly wheel-thrown, but moulds were used to form pieces. This design is one of many where the Chinese characters in debased seal script make no sense, a division of the blue and white wares into three families or broad groups has been proposed by Barbara Harrisson, conservative, persistent and versatile, in chronological order. This classification was refined by Monique Crick in 2010 into three types of decoration, Sketchy, Composed, and Full rim-to-rim. The Sketchy decoration group uses a vigorous, brushed style, painted freehand, some of these pieces have visible pin pricks indicating where a stencil was fixed, presumably allowing rapid painting of the wash. The outline would have needed to dry before the wash was applied, the dishes were given a white slip coating, and fired at the high temperature necessary for porcelain, which would have burnt the coloured enamels. They were then painted before a second firing at about 800° C. Common palettes are red, green and yellow, and turquoise, red, green, the black, mainly used for line-drawing, was actually made from the cobalt used for underglaze blue, in impure and concentrated form
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Tianqi porcelain
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Tianqi porcelain refers to Chinese underglaze blue porcelain made in the unofficial kilns of Jingdezhen for a largely Japanese market in the 17th century. The term Tianqi is a reference to the era name of the reign of the Tianqi Emperor in the late Ming Dynasty, the Tianqi ware, and other associated wares, display a refreshing spontaneity of design that makes them unique in Chinese ceramic history. The influence of the landscape artist Dong Qichang can be discerned in the use of a dark. Designs for this ware are usually landscapes, birds and flowers, animals, sizes are usually small to mid-size flatware and bowls. Many examples of the ware were treasured in Japan as part of the tea ceremony culture, many examples of this ware show an unmistakable Japanese influence and it is thought that they were especially ordered from Japan by period tea masters. This ware is known in Japan as ko sometsuke or “old blue-and white. ”Base inscriptions are usually those from previous reigns in the dynasty with a preference for the Chenghua reign mark. Masahiko Sato, Chinese Ceramics, A Short History, Weatherhill, New York and Tokyo,1981, pp. 195-205
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Kangxi transitional porcelain
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Kangxi transitional porcelain was manufactured at China’s principle ceramic production area of Jingdezhen until 1683 when the production of “official ware” was resumed. The Manchu regime was established in 1644, for those many intervening years a variety of porcelain wares were created in private kilns for domestic use and export to client markets such as Japan. Previously in the years of the Wanli Emperor of the Ming Dynasty, the influence of the artist Dong Qichang can be readily seen on ceramic ware of the period with its heavily accented light and dark tones. The change to Shen Shitung can be seen in generous vertical washes that create a definite foreground and background contrast, Kangxi transitional ware in its broadest sense is best appreciated and studied in Japan than in the west. The informality of design and shape appealed to Japanese taste and especially involved in the tea ceremony. Palace-ware or imperial-ware has traditionally found many admirers in Europe and America, Kangxi reign marks on porcelain are few throughout the ceramic period, but a few can be identified with the pre‑1677 decades. Earlier Ming period marks can frequently be found and their styles closely match the few Kangxi marks that are found and aid in delineating Kangxi transitional porcelain. Masahiko Sato, Chinese Ceramics, New York and Tokyo,1981, cheng Tingji, The Gazetteer of Fuliang County, chapter 3, 62b
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Korean pottery and porcelain
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Korean ceramic history begins with the oldest earthenware from around 8000 BC. Imaed Silla period pottery was simple in colour, shape, in some ways these were over-decorated wares, using exaggerated forms, stylized repeating designs and a wide variety of organic patterns. Cheongja wares used refined clays with a bit of powder added, then a glaze with a bit of added iron powder added once again. The glaze was durable with a slightly shinier and glossier finish, in an oily way, baekja wares came from highly refined white clay, glazed with feldspar, and fired in large regulated and clean kilns. The baekja wares reached their zenith immediately before the Joseon Dynasty came to power, fine pieces have recently been found in the area around Wolchil Peak near Mount Kumgang. The transitional wares of white became expressions of the Joseon Dynasty celebrations of victory in many decorated with Korean calligraphy. Traditionally white wares were used by both the scholarly Confucian class, the nobility and royalty on more formal occasions, the Goryeo Dynasty achieved the unification of the Later Three Kingdoms under King Taejo. The works of this period are considered to be the finest small-scale works of ceramics in Korean history, key-fret, foliate designs, geometric or scrolling flowerhead bands, elliptical panels, stylized fish, insects, birds and the use of incised designs began at this time. Glazes were usually various shades of celadon, with browned glazes to almost black glazes being used for stoneware, celadon glazes could be rendered almost transparent to show black and white inlays. In-curving rimmed alms bowls have also discovered similar to Korean metalware. Wine cups often had a foot which rested on dish-shaped stands. During the Joseon Dynasty, ceramic wares were considered to represent the highest quality of achievement from royal, city, and provincial kilns, the last of which were export-driven wares. This was the age of Korean pottery, with a long period of growth in royal and provincial kilns. Wares evolved along Chinese lines in terms of colour, shape, celadon, white porcelain, and storage pottery were similar, but with certain variations in glazes, incision designs, florality, and weight. The Ming influence in blue and white wares using cobalt-blue glazes existed, but without the pthalo blue range, buddhist designs still prevailed in celadon wares, lotus flowers, and willow trees. The form most often seen was that of pear-shaped bottles, notable were thinner glazes, and colourless glazes for buncheong or stoneware. Joseon White Porcelain representing Joseon ceramics was produced throughout the period of the Joseon dynasty. The plain and austere white porcelain suitably reflects the taste of Neo-Confucian scholars, the wares began to assume more traditional Korean glazes and more specific designs to meet regional needs
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Goryeo ware
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Goryeo ware refers to all types of Korean pottery and porcelains produced during the Goryeo dynasty. Goryeo most often refers to celadon. The Gangjin Kiln Sites produced a number of wares. An artist of the era who specialised in it was Living National Treasure Yu Geun-Hyeong. His work was documented in the short film Koryo Celadon in 1979, many celadon pieces from Goryeo are listed as National Treasures of South Korea. Korean pottery and porcelain Buncheong Joseon white porcelain Koryô Celadon at the Metropolitan Museum of Art online https, //www. youtube. com/watch. v=Fq8eBghuOLA
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Joseon white porcelain
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Joseon white porcelain or Joseon baekja refers to the white porcelains produced during the Joseon dynasty. White porcelains were preferred and praised than any other porcelains during the time to represent Korean Confucian ethics such as frugality and pragmatism. In overall, Joseon ceramics undergone numerous transformations during the five hundred-year period and is divided into three major periods, the early, the middle, and the late period. A number of Joseon porcelain has been registered by the government as National Treasures, Joseon white porcelains are characterized by the beauty of unpretentious forms, understated decoration, and subtle use of color, reflecting the ideals of Korean Confucian state. Blue and white porcelain Korean pottery and porcelain Dehua porcelain Jae-yeol Kim, Korean Art from the Gompertz and Other Collections in the Fitzwilliam Museum. Translated by Youngsook Pak, Roderick Whitfield, keith Pratt, Richard Rutt, James Hoare. Korea, A Historical and Cultural Dictionary, claire Roberts, Michael Brand, Powerhouse Museum, Queensland Art Gallery. Earth, Spirit, Fire, Korean Masterpieces of the Choson Dynasty, in Pursuit of White, Porcelain in the Chosôn Dynasty, 1392–1910. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, media related to Joseon porcelain at Wikimedia Commons Gallery of Korean Pottery and Porcelain at Korean Overseas Culture and Information Service
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Japanese pottery and porcelain
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Japanese pottery and porcelain, is one of the countrys oldest art forms, dating back to the Neolithic period. Kilns have produced earthenware, pottery, stoneware, glazed pottery, glazed stoneware, porcelain, Japan has an exceptionally long and successful history of ceramic production. Earthenwares were created as early as the Jōmon period, giving Japan one of the oldest ceramic traditions in the world, Japan is further distinguished by the unusual esteem that ceramics holds within its artistic tradition, owing to the enduring popularity of the tea ceremony. Japanese ceramic history records distinguished many potter names, and some were artist-potters, e. g. Honami Koetsu, Ogata Kenzan, Japanese anagama kilns also have flourished through the ages, and their influence weighs with that of the potters. Another characteristically Japanese aspect of the art is the popularity of unglazed high-fired stoneware even after porcelain became popular. Since the 4th century, Japanese ceramics have often influenced by Chinese. Japan transformed and translated the Chinese and Korean prototypes into a uniquely Japanese creation, since the mid-17th century when Japan started to industrialize, high-quality standard wares produced in factories became popular exports to Europe. In the 20th century, a modern ceramics industry grew up, Japanese pottery is distinguished by two polarised aesthetic traditions. On the one hand, there is a tradition of simple and roughly finished pottery, mostly in earthenware. This relates to Zen Buddhism and many of the greatest masters were priests, many pieces are also related to the Japanese tea ceremony and embody the aesthetic principles of wabi-sabi. Most raku ware, where the decoration is partly random, is in this tradition. The other tradition is of highly finished and brightly coloured factory wares, mostly in porcelain, with complex and balanced decoration, a third tradition, of simple but perfectly formed and glazed stonewares, also relates more closely to both Chinese and Korean traditions. In the Neolithic period, the earliest soft earthenware was made, during the early Jōmon period in the 6th millennium BCE typical coil-made ware appeared, decorated with hand-impressed rope patterns. Jōmon pottery developed a flamboyant style at its height and was simplified in the later Jōmon period, the pottery was formed by coiling clay ropes and fired in an open fire. In about 4th–3rd century BCE Yayoi period, Yayoi pottery appeared which was another style of earthenware characterised by a pattern or no pattern. Jōmon, Yayoi, and later Haji ware shared the firing process but had different styles of design. In the 3rd to 4th centuries AD, the kiln, a roofed-tunnel kiln on a hillside. Its manufacture began in the 5th century AD and continued in outlying areas until the 14th century, although several regional variations have been identified, Sue was remarkably homogeneous throughout Japan
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Arita ware
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Arita ware is a broad term for Japanese porcelain made in the area around the town of Arita, in the former Hizen Province, northwestern Kyūshū. According to tradition, the Korean potter Yi Sam-pyeong, or Kanagae Sanbee, is considered the father of Arita ware porcelain. This narrative is however disputed by many historians and he is nevertheless honoured in Sueyama Shrine as the founder. The first porcelain made in Japan followed the discovery of clay near Arita near the end of the 16th century. A number of opened up in the area, and a considerable variety of styles were made. Early wares used underglaze blue decoration, but by the mid-17th century Arita was in the forefront as Japan developed overglaze enamelled decoration in a range of bright colours, the type called kin-rande was especially popular and is therefore known in the West also as Imari ware. Nabeshima ware developed out of Arita, which was of a quality produced for the Nabeshima Lords of the Saga Domain. Kakiemon is a style of porcelain that developed out of Arita, the kilns in Arita also produced white Hakuji porcelain. Ford, Barbara Brennan, and Oliver R, the Great Japan Exhibition, Art of the Edo Period 1600–1868,1981, Royal Academy of Arts/Wiedenfield and Nicolson Media related to Arita ware at Wikimedia Commons
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Imari ware
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Imari ware is a type of Arita ware traditionally made in the town of Arita, in the former Hizen Province, northwestern Kyūshū. They were exported to Europe extensively from the port of Imari, Saga, the name therefore derives from the port of export. Imari ware has been produced up through the present day. Imari was simply the trans-shipment port for Arita wares and it was the kilns at Arita which formed the heart of the Japanese porcelain industry. Aritas kilns were set up in the 17th century, when kaolin was discovered in 1616, a popular legend attributes the discovery to an immigrant Korean potter, Yi Sam-pyeong, although most historians consider it doubtful. After the discovery some kilns began to produce revised Korean-style blue and white porcelains, in the mid-17th century there were also a lot of Chinese refugees in Northern Kyushu due to the turmoil on Chinese continent, and it is said one of them brought coloring technique to Arita. Thus Shoki-Imari developed into Ko-Kutani Imari, Ko-Kutani was produced around 1650 for both export and domestic market. Kutani ware is characterized by green, blue, purple, yellow and red colors in bold designs of landscapes. Blue and white porcelain pieces continued to be produced and they are called Ai-Kutani, Ko-Kutani style evolved into Kakiemon style Imari, which was produced for about 50 years around 1700. Kakiemon style was characterized by lines, and bright blue, red and green designs of dramatically stylized floral. Imari achieved its technical and aesthetic peak in Kakiemon style, blue and white Kakiemon is called Ai-Kakiemon. Kakiemon style transformed into Kinrande in the 18th century, Kinrande used blue underglaze and red and gold overglaze, and later some other colors. Imari began to be exported to Europe when the Chinese kilns at Ching-te-Chen were damaged in the political chaos, exports to Europe were made through the Dutch East India Company, but the designation Imari porcelain in Europe connotes Arita wares of mostly Kinrande Imari. Export of Imari to Europe stopped in mid-18th century when China resumed export to Europe, by that time, however, both Imari and Kakiemon style were already so popular among Europeans, Chinese export porcelain copied both Imari and Kakiemon style, which is called Chinese Imari. At the same time, European kilns, such as Meissen and English potteries such as Johnson Bros. and Crown Derby imitated the Imari, export of Imari surged again in late 19th century when Japonism flourished in Europe. Thus in the world today, two kinds of true Japanese Imari can be found, that exported in the mid-Edo period. From the viewpoint of collectors these two types are different, though Kinrande appearances are similar. Though there are types of Arita, the conception in the West of it in the popular sense is associated only with a type of Arita produced and exported in large quantity in mid-17th century
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Kakiemon
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The style shares much in common with the Chinese Famille Verte style. The superb quality of its decoration was highly prized in the West, the potter Sakaida Kakiemon is popularly credited with being one of the first in Japan to discover the secret of enamel decoration on porcelain, known as akae. Kakiemon is sometimes used as a term describing wares made in the Arita factories using the characteristic Kakiemon overglaze enamels. However, authentic Kakiemon porcelains have been produced by direct descendants, shards from the Kakiemon kiln site at Nangawara show that blue and white and celadon wares were also produced. Kakiemon decoration is usually of high quality, delicate and with asymmetric well-balanced designs and these were sparsely applied to emphasize the fine white porcelain background body known in Japan as nigoshide which was used for the finest pieces. In this period, Sakaida Kakiemon produced normal akae wares, Sakaida Kakiemon XII and XIII attempted to reproduce nigoshide and succeeded in 1953. It has continued to be produced since then, the Kakiemon porcelain was imported into Europe via the Dutch East India Company, and beginning in the 1580s, through a variety of other avenues. Augustus the Strong of Saxony and Mary II of England both owned examples, the earliest inventory to include Japanese porcelain in Europe was made at Burghley House in 1688, these included a standing elephant with its trunk raised and a model of two wrestlers. Wares included bowls, dishes and plates, often hexagonal, octagonal or fluted with scalloped edges, the famed white nigoshide body was only used with open forms, and not for closed shapes such as vases, bottles and teapots, or for figures and animals. The hexagonal Kamiemon vases and covers known as Hampton Court vases were named after a pair at Hampton Court Palace, London, around 1730, this shape was copied at Meissen, Germany, which entered into a sister city contract with Arita, in 1979. The style was adopted and copied in Chelsea and Worcester in the 1750s. The Kakiemon porcelain proved an influence on the new porcelain factories of 18th-century Europe. Meissen copies could be close to the originals, alternatively, the factory painters sometimes just borrowed designs. Kakiemon style was adapted in Germany and Austria by the Du Paquier and Vienna factories and in France at Chantilly, Mennecy. Kakiemon was also an influence on Dutch Delft pottery and Chinese export porcelain, Sakaida Kakiemon, The 1st Kakiemon Sakaida Kakiemon XII Sakaida Kakiemon XIV, who was a Living National Treasure in Japan. Imari porcelain Japanese pottery Korean pottery Chinese porcelain Pottery Intangible Cultural Properties of Japan Takeshi, Japanese ceramics from the Tanakamaru collection. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Kutani ware
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Kutani ware is a style of Japanese porcelain traditionally supposed to be from Kutani, now a part of Kaga, Ishikawa, in the former Kaga Province. It is divided into two phases, Ko-Kutani, from the 17th and early 18th centuries, and Saikō-Kutani from the production in the 19th century. The more prestigious Ko-Kutani wares are recognised by scholars to be a complex and much mis-represented group, the term kutani means Nine Valleys. The first mention was in 1655 during the Meireki era, according to tradition, stones suitable for porcelain making were found in the Kutani mines of the Daishoji clan. Gotō Saijirō, a member of the Maeda clan, was sent by orders of Lord Maeda Toshiharu of the Kaga domain to Arita in Hizen province to learn how to make porcelain and he set up a kiln in the village of Kutani. The lords of the Kaga domain became great patrons of Kutani, porcelains from this early period are specifically called old Kutani and are very rare. Ko-Kutani enjoyed popularity for the few decades after 1655. The styles of the old Kutani were Aote, which used colours of green, yellow, dark blue and purple, and Iroe, which used colours of red, green, purple, dark blue. Arita however also produced a number of vessels in the ko-Kutani style, production suddenly closed down in 1730. The reasons for closure are debated. Theories put forward include that supplies of the necessary for the glazing were difficult to find. A memorial stone stele to Gotō was later erected near an old Kutani ware kiln in Kaga, in 1804, or possibly 1807, production was re-established with the help of several kamamoto, or production potters. New overglaze painting techniques from various kamamoto were infused in the development of what became known as revised Kutani, in the 19th century the style shifted to a more red design called aka-e, which features intricate designs. The gold technique is called kinran-de, and the combination became aka-e kinran-de Kutani, one of the first important exhibitions abroad was in 1873 at the Vienna World Exposition, where kinran-de was exhibited. This helped spread its popularity and contributed to the growth of exports to Europe, the style of producing Kutani was named a traditional craft in 1975. There are now several hundred companies which produce Kutani ware, many artists today are located in Komatsu, Ishikawa and Terai. Well-known artists are Tatsuya Mitsui, Buzan Fukushima, Takayama Kazuo and Akaji Ken who work in the traditional style, tokuda Yasokichi III was designated a Living National Treasure for his enamel work in ao-de ko-Kutani. Yoshida Minori is a third generation master who specialises in the technique and was also designated a Living National Treasure
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French porcelain
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French porcelain has a history spanning a period from the 17th century to the present. Chinese porcelain had long been imported from China, and was a very expensive, Chinese porcelains were treasured, collected from the time of Francis I, and sometimes adorned with elaborate mountings of precious metal to protect them and enhance their beauty. Huge amounts especially of silver were sent from Europe to China to pay for the desired Chinese porcelain wares and it was at the Nevers manufactory that Chinese-style blue and white wares were produced for the first time in France, with production running between 1650 and 1680. Chinese styles would then be taken up by factories in Normandy, the first soft-paste porcelain in France was developed in an effort to imitate high-valued Chinese hard-paste porcelain, and follow the attempts of Medici porcelain in the 16th century. The first soft-paste frit porcelain, was produced at the Rouen manufactory in 1673, in order to mimic la véritable porcelaine de Chine, and became known as Porcelaine française. Dr. Martin Lister reported from his voyage to Paris, printed in 1698, colbert set up the Royal Factory of Saint-Cloud in 1664 in order to make copies of Indian-style porcelain. Saint-Cloud became a very important manufactory for the new wares, Louis XIV had received 1,500 pieces of porcelain from the Siamese Embassy to France in 1686, but the manufacturing secret had remained elusive. France finally discovered the Chinese technique of hard-paste porcelain through the efforts of the Jesuit Father François Xavier dEntrecolles between 1712 and 1722, the letters sent to Father Orry in Paris were first published by Jean-Baptiste Du Halde in 1735, with English editions appearing in 1736 or 1738. The letters were again published by Abbé Jean-Baptiste Grosier in his General Description of China. DEntrecolles also sent material specimens to Europe, which were analysed by Réaumur, after 1730, polychrome porcelain also came to be produced, often in imitation of Chinese polychrome styles of porcelain, such as the Famille rose types. The Japanese Kakiemon style of Arita porcelain, Japan, known as Fleurs indiennes was also used as an inspiration, especially in Saint-Cloud porcelain, a patent granted to the Chantilly factory in 1735 by Louis XV specifically describes the right to make porcelain façon de Japon. Meanwhile, the technique of soft-paste porcelain seems to have been transmitted to England by French Huguenot refugees. The first soft-paste in England was demonstrated by Thomas Briand to the Royal Society in 1742 and is believed to have based on the Saint-Cloud formula. After this initial period, up to the end of the 18th century, French porcelain manufactories would progressively abandon their Chinese and Japanese designs, porcelain production further developed with Limoges porcelain, a type of hard-paste porcelain produced by factories near the city of Limoges, France. In parallel, soft-paste porcelain continued to be manufactured however, as it was expensive to produce. Orientalism in early modern France Baghdiantz McAbe, Ina 2008 Orientalism in Early Modern France, ISBN 978-1-84520-374-0, Berg Publishing, Oxford
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Chinese porcelain in European painting
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Chinese porcelain in European painting is known from the 16th century, following the importation of Chinese porcelain wares into Europe. In Italy, the first known depiction of Chinese porcelain bowls is from the The Feast of the Gods by Giovanni Bellini. The style of the bowls is that of the Ming dynasty blue and white type, maybe examples of which are known to have been exported in Persia, Syria. The painting by Bellini was a request by Duke Alfonso I dEste and it seems that Bellini found samples of the Chinese ware not through trade, but among diplomatic gifts received by Venice from the Mamluke Sultans in 1498, and in 1498 and 1508. In the 16th century, numerous other painters would use Chinese porcelain in their paintings and this trend was related to the direct importation of Chinese porcelain to Europe, through what is known as Carrak trade, hence the name Kraak porcelain. French painters, such as François Desportes, also represented Chinese bowls in their still-life paintings, some like Jacques Linard in 1627 even painstainkingly reproduced Chinese writing, in Les cinq sens et les quatre éléments,1627. Chinese influences on Islamic pottery Pseudo-Kufic
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Armorial ware
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Armorial ware or heraldic china are ceramics decorated with a coat of arms. Earlier examples were mostly large pieces for display, but later whole services, the term is most often associated, with Chinese export porcelain, often decorated with the arms and crests of European and American families from the late 17th century through the 19th century. British clients imported about 4000 services from 1695 until 1820, when a new prohibitive tax stopped the trade and they were, and even more are, often only used at table on special occasions
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Fonthill Vase
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It is the earliest documented Chinese porcelain object to have reached Europe. The vase was made in Jingdezhen, China, and comes from the years of Qingbai ware in Jingdezhen before it was replaced by the new blue and white porcelain. It is an unusual experimental vase with applied decoration in the medallions. The vase was first part of a collection of Louis the Great of Hungary, the vase was then mounted with a silver handle and base, transforming it into a ewer and transferred as a gift to his Angevin kinsman Charles III of Naples in 1381. Various subsequent owners are known, such as the duc de Berry, by the end of the 17th century, the vase was in the possession of François Lefebvre de Caumartin, who let it be represented in watercolor painting by François Roger de Gaignières in 1713. The vase was later in the possession of William Beckford at Fonthill Abbey and its silver mounts were removed in the 19th century, and the vase reappeared in 1882 at a sale of Beckfords heirs at Hamilton Palace without its mount. The vase was then lost to view until it was rediscovered in the 1950s. The vase is now in the National Museum of Ireland, jean, duc de Berry is also known to have had a similar Chinese porcelain vase in his collection when he died in 1416, although it is unknown how he acquired it. This indicates that the Gaignieres-Fonthill vase was not the only specimen of its kind, Jingdezhen ware The Fonthill Vase today
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Royal Tichelaar Makkum
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Royal Tichelaar Makkum is a Dutch pottery company, based in Makkum. After initially producing bricks and later pottery and tiles, the company has focused on decorative pottery since 1890. As the company in Makkum has always made ceramics, Royal Tichelaar Makkum is regarded as one of the oldest companies in the Netherlands, in 1960, the company received the designation Koninklijk, on the occasion of its 300th anniversary. Later research showed that the company had been even earlier and it celebrated its 400th anniversary in 1994. In 2007, documentation was discovered showing that the company was active in 1572. In 1689, Freerk Jans brickmaker so tichelaar bought one half of the works, and then in 1694, around 1865, the demand for dishes decreased. The brothers Jelmer and Jan started a drastic innovation process, whereby the company could continue as a factory for decorative pottery. Throughout the ages, the company has retained the old working methods, working with locally dug clay that is covered in a white tin glaze after the first firing, in 1882, the use of plaster moulds was introduced, increasing the assortment of decorative pottery. The raw material is yellow or red firing sea clay that is abundant in the west of the province of Friesland. Tichelaar bought German clay but also dug his own clay from the neighbouring countryside, the clay was mixed with marl in the pottery washing plant and then stored in a cellar to keep it frost-free. Shortly before processing, the clay was thoroughly kneaded and mixed again, after drying, it was baked to biscuit, called raw material, which was then covered in white on the front. On the back, the dishes got a layer of glaze, after the artists had applied their decoration to the lead glaze, they were fired a second time. Two sorts of glaze were used, one transparent and one usually white covering glaze, called lead glaze and white glaze respectively, for the decoration, coloured glazes were prepared in the company. They were ground to a powder and when mixed with water. There were five colours, though in practice it was usually blue, Royal Tichelaar Makkum uses traditional production processes and is often asked to carry out restoration projects on historic Delft blue. The company works with such as Hella Jongerius, Studio Job, Jurgen Bey, Alexander van Slobbe, Roderick Vos. The company is now becoming more diversified, glazing ceramic products, roof tiles, official website Video on projects by the Koninklijke Tichelaar Makkum
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Medici porcelain
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Medici porcelain was the first successful attempt in Europe to make imitations of Chinese porcelain. The experimental manufactory housed in the Casino of San Marco in Florence existed between 1575 and 1587 under the patronage of Francesco I de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. A painted mark of Brunelleschis dome and a capital letter F appear on the underside of pieces, others bear the Medici palle. Never a commercial venture, Medici porcelains were sometimes given as gifts, for example. Giorgio Vasari reported in the 1568 edition of his Vite that Bernardo Buontalenti was currently at work on discovering the art of porcelain, there are no references to Medici porcelain manufacture securely dated after Francescos death in 1587. The body of Medici porcelain ware is a type of porcelain, composed of white clay containing powdered feldspar, calcium phosphate and wollastonite. The glaze contains calcium phosphate, indicating that the technique of using calcined bone to make an opaque white glaze was adopted. The result is translucent but slightly glassy in feel, following the precedents of classic Chinese blue and white porcelain, decorations were painted in underglaze blue, which resulted in a range of hues when fired—from a bright cobalt blue to grey. Some pieces have outlines traced in manganese, body shapes are adapted from maiolica ceramics and silver models, they range from the largest basins and ewers, chargers and plates, to the smallest cruets. Decorative motifs are executed in imitation of Chinese blue-and-white wares, or of Turkish İznik ceramics, when Francesco died, his younger brother Cardinal Ferdinando de Medici inherited the position of Grand Duke. Ferdinando brought his prized Chinese and Medici porcelains back with him to Florence from the Villa Medici in Rome, along with his paintings, in 1772 an auction in the Palazzo Vecchio of objects from storage dispersed the Medici porcelains conserved in Tuscany. The venture disappeared from history until interest revived after the mid-nineteenth century, the 1588 inventory drawn up after Francescos death listed 310 pieces. Today only some sixty or seventy pieces are known to survive, the next successful European attempt to make soft-paste porcelain would come from the Rouen manufactory in France, in 1673. G. Cora and A. Fanfani, La porcellana dei Medici 1986, giuseppe Liverani, Catalogo delle porcellane dei Medici, in series Piccola Biblioteca del Museo delle Ceramiche in Faenza, II1936. Arthur Lane, Italian Porcelain London 1954, national Gallery, Washington DC, Medici porcelain flask Metropolitan Museum of Art, Medici porcelain ewer
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Rouen manufactory
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The Rouen manufactory was an early French manufactory for faience and soft-paste porcelain, located in Rouen, Normandy. The first soft-paste porcelain of France, and specifically frit porcelain, was produced at Rouen in 1673, the new soft-paste porcelain material was invented by the potter Louis Poterat. The soft porcelain used blue designs of the already used in the faiences of the period. The porcelain at Rouen became known as Porcelaine française and these were developed in an effort to imitate high-valued Chinese hard-paste porcelain. These events followed the creation of the French East India Company in 1664, the Rouen paste was very light, lighter than any other French make except Sèvres porcelain, and clearly less amber than Saint-Cloud porcelain. The Rouen porcelain manufactory closed in 1696, contrary to the Saint-Cloud manufactory, Rouen porcelain was only produced on a small scale, and failed to be commercially viable. It was characterized by a blue glaze, and minimalist blue decorations which only occupied a small portion of the available space in any given object. After the end of production, various faience products continued to be produced. A rare example of Rouen porcelain
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