1.
Hawaiian Railway Society
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The Hawaiian Railway Society is a 3 ft narrow gauge heritage railroad located in Ewa, Hawaii, USA, on the island of Oahu. It utilizes trackage of the defunct Oahu Railway and Land Company, in 1970 two important events took place. John Knaus then contacted Bill Paty who was the manager of Waialua Agricultural Co. about saving and restoring the locomotive. John then contacted his boss, Captain Henry Davies, of the Naval Ammunition Depot and this was followed by a letter to Ed Bernsten of the National Railway Historical Society seeking information on organizing a local chapter. John received approval to have No.6 restored at Lualualei and he then talked to Nick Carter, another rail fan who had expressed interest in saving the Navy mainline on the leeward coast for an operating railroad. On August 22,1970, John Knaus, Nick Carter, Luman Wilcox, Wilcox was appointed to draw up the temporary by-laws. On August 27 an organizational meeting was held at Coccos with 15 people in attendance, Wilcox entertained a motion to organize forming a local chapter of the NRHS. Dr. Bob Kemble seconded and the motion was carried, thirteen of the fifteen people present signed up. Nominated and elected were, Luman Wilcox for pres, Ken Peale for VP, Nick Carter for Secretary-Treasurer, and John Knaus for National Director. On Oct 9,1970 the membership met to approve the By-Laws, on February 17,1971 a Waialua Agricultural Co. trailer was used to transport WA Co.6 to Lualualei. Waialua Elementary School students gave the old locomotive a send off before it left Waialua, No.6 was a magnet that brought a group of talent to Lualualei shortly after. A boiler maker named Dave Griner, a welder named Dick Marshall, on October 13 the Hawaii Chapter of the National Railway Historical Society was granted a charter. On October 13,1971 The State of Hawaii, Department of Regulatory Agencies granted the Hawaii Chapter of the National Railway Historical Society a charter of incorporation. Now the use of Hawaii Chapter, NRHS posed a problem the name was too long, so at a membership meeting on December 19,1973, the members voted to use the name, Hawaiian Railway Society without severing itself from the NRHS. On November 25,1972, a Saturday, a ceremony marked the restoration of No.6. On hand were local dignitaries to celebrate the event, after 84 Sundays of restoration work, a dream came true. This educational, non-profit organization was able to get the remaining stretch of track on Oahu, placed on the State, as of early 2009, the Society has restored about 6.5 miles and is working to restore more. A usual consist features open-air cars built on ex-US Army flatcars, the Hawaiian Railway also rosters a Parlor/Observation car that is used for private excursions
2.
Track gauge
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In rail transport, track gauge is the spacing of the rails on a railway track and is measured between the inner faces of the load-bearing rails. All vehicles on a network must have running gear that is compatible with the track gauge, as the dominant parameter determining interoperability, it is still frequently used as a descriptor of a route or network. There is a distinction between the gauge and actual gauge at some locality, due to divergence of track components from the nominal. Railway engineers use a device, like a caliper, to measure the actual gauge, the nominal track gauge is the distance between the inner faces of the rails. In current practice, it is specified at a distance below the rail head as the inner faces of the rail head are not necessarily vertical. In some cases in the earliest days of railways, the company saw itself as an infrastructure provider only. Colloquially the wagons might be referred to as four-foot gauge wagons, say and this nominal value does not equate to the flange spacing, as some freedom is allowed for. An infrastructure manager might specify new or replacement track components at a variation from the nominal gauge for pragmatic reasons. Track is defined in old Imperial units or in universally accepted metric units or SI units, Imperial units were established in United Kingdom by The Weights and Measures Act of 1824. In addition, there are constraints, such as the load-carrying capacity of axles. Narrow gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives, as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels. Narrow gauge is often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. Broader gauge railways are generally expensive to build and require wider curves. There is no single perfect gauge, because different environments and economic considerations come into play, a narrow gauge is superior if ones main considerations are economy and tight curvature. For direct, unimpeded routes with high traffic, a broad gauge may be preferable, the Standard, Russian, and 46 gauges are designed to strike a reasonable balance between these factors. In addition to the general trade-off, another important factor is standardization, once a standard has been chosen, and equipment, infrastructure, and training calibrated to that standard, conversion becomes difficult and expensive. This also makes it easier to adopt an existing standard than to invent a new one and this is true of many technologies, including railroad gauges. The reduced cost, greater efficiency, and greater economic opportunity offered by the use of a common standard explains why a number of gauges predominate worldwide
3.
Honolulu, Hawaii
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Honolulu is the capital and largest city of the U. S. state of Hawaii. It is an part of and the county seat of the City and County of Honolulu on the island of Oahu. The city is the gateway to Hawaii and a major portal into the United States. The city is also a hub for international business, military defense, as well as famously being host to a diverse variety of east-west and Pacific culture, cuisine. Honolulu is the most remote city of its size in the world and is both the westernmost and the southernmost major U. S. city. For statistical purposes, the U. S. Census Bureau recognizes the area commonly referred to as City of Honolulu as a census county division. Honolulu is a financial center of the islands and of the Pacific Ocean. The population of the city of Honolulu was 337,256 as of the 2010 census, while the Honolulu CCD was 390,738, Honolulu means sheltered harbor or calm port. The old name is said to be Kou, a district encompassing the area from Nuuanu Avenue to Alakea Street. The city has been the capital of the Hawaiian Islands since 1845, as of 2015, Honolulu was ranked high on world livability rankings, and was also ranked as the 2nd safest city in the U. S. It is also the most populated Oceanian city outside Australasia and ranks second to Auckland as the most populous city in Polynesia, evidence of the first settlement of Honolulu by the original Polynesian migrants to the archipelago comes from oral histories and artifacts. These indicate that there was a settlement where Honolulu now stands in the 11th century, however, after Kamehameha I conquered Oʻahu in the Battle of Nuʻuanu at Nuʻuanu Pali, he moved his royal court from the Island of Hawaiʻi to Waikīkī in 1804. His court relocated in 1809 to what is now downtown Honolulu, the capital was moved back to Kailua-Kona in 1812. In 1794, Captain William Brown of Great Britain was the first foreigner to sail into what is now Honolulu Harbor, more foreign ships followed, making the port of Honolulu a focal point for merchant ships traveling between North America and Asia. In 1845, Kamehameha III moved the permanent capital of the Hawaiian Kingdom from Lahaina on Maui to Honolulu and he and the kings that followed him transformed Honolulu into a modern capital, erecting buildings such as St. Andrews Cathedral, ʻIolani Palace, and Aliʻiōlani Hale. At the same time, Honolulu became the center of commerce in the islands, an economic and tourism boom following statehood brought rapid economic growth to Honolulu and Hawaiʻi. Modern air travel brings, as of 2007,7.6 million visitors annually to the islands, today, Honolulu is a modern city with numerous high-rise buildings, and Waikīkī is the center of the tourism industry in Hawaiʻi, with thousands of hotel rooms. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 68.4 square miles
4.
Narrow-gauge railway
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A narrow-gauge railway is a railway with a track gauge narrower than the 1,435 mm of standard gauge railways. Most existing narrow-gauge railways are between 600 mm and 1,067 mm, narrow-gauge railways also have specialized use in mines and other environments where a very small structure gauge makes a very small loading gauge necessary. Narrow-gauge railways also have general applications. Many narrow-gauge street tramways are used, particularly in Europe, where 1,000 mm metre gauge tramways are common, the earliest recorded railway is shown in the De re metallica of 1556, which shows a mine in Bohemia with a railway of about 2 ft gauge. During the 16th century, railways were mainly restricted to hand-pushed narrow-gauge lines in mines throughout Europe, during the 17th century, mine railways were extended to provide transportation above ground. These lines were industrial, connecting mines with nearby transportation points and these railways were usually built to the same narrow gauge as the mine railways from which they developed. The worlds first steam locomotive on rails, built in 1802 by Richard Trevithick for the Coalbrookdale Company, during the 1820s and 1830s, a number of industrial narrow-gauge railways in the United Kingdom used steam locomotives. In 1842, the first narrow-gauge steam locomotive outside the UK was built for the 1,100 mm gauge Antwerp-Ghent Railway in Belgium, historically, many narrow-gauge railways were built as part of specific industrial enterprises and were primarily industrial railways rather than general carriers. Some common uses for these industrial narrow-gauge railways were mining, logging, construction, tunnelling, quarrying, extensive narrow-gauge networks were constructed in many parts of the world for these purposes. For example, mountain logging operations in the 19th century often used narrow-gauge railways to transport logs from mill sites to market, significant sugarcane railways still operate in Cuba, Fiji, Java, the Philippines, and Queensland. Narrow-gauge railway equipment remains in use for the construction of tunnels. Extensive narrow-gauge railway systems served the front-line trenches of both sides in World War I and they were a short-lived military application, and after the end of the war, the surplus equipment from these created a small boom in narrow gauge railway building in Europe. Narrow-gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives, as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels. Narrow gauge is often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. It is also used in populated areas where the potential demand is too low for broader gauge railways to be economically viable. This is the case in some of Australia and most of Southern Africa, the use of such railways has almost vanished due to the capabilities of modern trucks. In many countries, narrow gauge railways were built as feeder or branch lines to feed traffic to more important standard gauge lines, the choice was often not between a narrow-gauge railway and a standard gauge one, but between a narrow-gauge railway and none at all. Some bulk commodities, such as coal, ore, and gravel, can be transshipped, but this still incurs time penalties
5.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
6.
Hawaii
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Hawaii is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States of America, having received statehood on August 21,1959. Hawaii is the only U. S. state located in Oceania and it is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U. S. state not located in the Americas, the state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast, Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Island of Hawaiʻi. The last is the largest island in the group, it is called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U. S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U. S. states. It is the state with an Asian plurality. The states coastline is about 750 miles long, the fourth longest in the U. S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida, the state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaiʻi is that was named for Hawaiʻiloa and he is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled. The Hawaiian language word Hawaiʻi is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, cognates of Hawaiʻi are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori, Rarotongan and Samoan. According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaiʻi or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the home, but in Hawaii. A somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as an official state language. The title of the constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii, diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length
7.
Oahu
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Oʻahu or Oahu /oʊˈɑːhu/, known as The Gathering Place, is the third largest of the Hawaiian Islands. It is home to about two-thirds of the population of the U. S. state of Hawaii, the state capital, Honolulu, is on Oʻahus southeast coast. Along with the rest of the Hawaiian Islands, Oahu is one of the largest and northernmost islands of Polynesia, in the greatest dimension, this volcanic island is 44 miles long and 30 miles across. The length of the shoreline is 227 miles, the island is the result of two separate shield volcanoes, the Waiʻanae and Koʻolau Ranges, with a broad valley or saddle between them. The highest point is Kaʻala in the Waiʻanae Range, rising to 4,003 feet above sea level, the island was home to the Kunia Regional SIGINT Operations Center from 1941 to 2012, it is now home to the National Security Agencys Hawaii Cryptologic Center. The island is home to 953,207 people in 2010, Oʻahu has for a long time been known as the Gathering Place. The term Oʻahu has no confirmed meaning in Hawaiian, other than that of the place itself, ancient Hawaiian tradition attributes the names origin in the legend of Hawaiʻiloa, the Polynesian navigator credited with discovery of the Hawaiian Islands. The story relates that he named the island after a son, residents of Oʻahu refer to themselves as locals, no matter their ancestry. The city of Honolulu—largest city, state capital, and main deepwater marine port for the State of Hawaiʻi—is located here. As a jurisdictional unit, the island of Oʻahu is in the Honolulu County, although as a place name. Well-known features found on Oʻahu include Waikīkī, Pearl Harbor, Diamond Head, Hanauma Bay, Kāneʻohe Bay, Kailua Bay, being roughly diamond-shaped, surrounded by ocean and divided by mountain ranges, directions on Oʻahu are not generally described with the compass directions found throughout the world. Locals instead use directions originally using Honolulu as the central point, to go ewa means traveling toward the western tip of the island, Diamond Head is toward the eastern tip, mauka is inland and makai toward the sea. Oʻahu is also known for having the longest rain shower in history, kaneohe Ranch, Oʻahu, Hawaiʻi reported 247 straight days with rain from August 27,1993 to April 30,1994. The island has many one of them being rainbow state. This is because rainbows are a sight in Hawaiʻi due to the frequent rain showers. The average temperature in Oʻahu is around 70 to 85 degrees, the weather during the winter is cooler, but still warm with the average temperature of 68-78 degrees. The windward side is known for some of the most beautiful beaches in the world, lanikai Beach on the windward coast of Oʻahu has been consistently ranked among the best beaches in the world. The 300-year-old Kingdom of Oʻahu was once ruled by the most ancient aliʻi in all of the Hawaiian Islands, the first great king of Oʻahu was Mailikukahi, the lawmaker, who was followed by many generation of monarchs
8.
Benjamin Franklin Dillingham
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Dillingham was born on September 4,1844 into an old New England family in Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Dillingham and mother was Lydia Sears Howes, at the age of fourteen he became a sailor on the Yankee clipper Southern Cross which was captured and destroyed by the Confederate steamer Florida in 1863 during the American Civil War. In 1865 he became first mate of a barque named Whistler that did a run between San Francisco and Honolulu. On his third trip to the kingdom, Dillingham broke his leg after falling from a horse and was forced to convalesce in Hawaii. He decided to stay in Honolulu and by the end of 1865 was a clerk at Diamond Hardware, on April 26,1869 he married Emma Louise Smith, of a prominent missionary family. She was the daughter of Reverend Lowell Smith and Abigail Willis Tenney, Dillingham turned out to be an astute businessman, and more importantly, was always willing to take risks. In 1879 he started a farm in upper Honolulu. He founded the Oahu Railway and Land Company that began service in November 1889, Dillingham was well liked among Honolulus various communities, and he included King Kalākaua and Queen Liliʻuokalani as his friends. Although he disapproved of the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1893, he looked favorably on the American annexation in 1898, Dillingham spent the rest of his life in Hawaii. Apart from the OR&L, Dillingham was especially active in sugarcane plantations, including the Olaʻa Sugar Company on the Big Island, and the Ewa and Kahuku sugarcane plantations on Oahu. While the OR&L and these companies were profitable, Dillinghams Big Island railroad. His Hawaiian Fiber Company, which operated a plantation on the Ewa coral plain in southwestern Oahu, was ultimately also a failure. Nevertheless, Dillingham was one of the business people in the early years of Hawaiis economic. He died on April 7,1918 and was buried in Oahu Cemetery, two days before, James Bicknell Castle, a distant cousin of his wife and a partner in sugarcane plantation ventures, died. His son Walter F. Dillingham would also become a businessman in Oahu and his wife Emma Louise Smith Dillingham wrote a book of poetry on Diamond Head. His daughter Mary Emma Dillingham married Walter Francis Frear who became Governor of the Territory of Hawaii 1907–1913, the next governor from 1913 to 1918, Lucius Pinkham, was a Democrat, although he had worked for Dillingham at OR&L 1892–1894 and as manager of his hardware company 1898–1903. Two sons died young, Charles Augustus Dillingham and Alfred Hubbard Dillingham, youngest son Harold Garfield Dillingham married Margaret Bayard Smith in 1885 and had 5 children. Youngest daughter Marion Eleanor Dillingham married John Pinney Erdman in 1874 and had five children, yardley, Paul T. Millstones and milestones, the career of B. F. Dillingham, 1844-1918
9.
Honolulu
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Honolulu is the capital and largest city of the U. S. state of Hawaii. It is an part of and the county seat of the City and County of Honolulu on the island of Oahu. The city is the gateway to Hawaii and a major portal into the United States. The city is also a hub for international business, military defense, as well as famously being host to a diverse variety of east-west and Pacific culture, cuisine. Honolulu is the most remote city of its size in the world and is both the westernmost and the southernmost major U. S. city. For statistical purposes, the U. S. Census Bureau recognizes the area commonly referred to as City of Honolulu as a census county division. Honolulu is a financial center of the islands and of the Pacific Ocean. The population of the city of Honolulu was 337,256 as of the 2010 census, while the Honolulu CCD was 390,738, Honolulu means sheltered harbor or calm port. The old name is said to be Kou, a district encompassing the area from Nuuanu Avenue to Alakea Street. The city has been the capital of the Hawaiian Islands since 1845, as of 2015, Honolulu was ranked high on world livability rankings, and was also ranked as the 2nd safest city in the U. S. It is also the most populated Oceanian city outside Australasia and ranks second to Auckland as the most populous city in Polynesia, evidence of the first settlement of Honolulu by the original Polynesian migrants to the archipelago comes from oral histories and artifacts. These indicate that there was a settlement where Honolulu now stands in the 11th century, however, after Kamehameha I conquered Oʻahu in the Battle of Nuʻuanu at Nuʻuanu Pali, he moved his royal court from the Island of Hawaiʻi to Waikīkī in 1804. His court relocated in 1809 to what is now downtown Honolulu, the capital was moved back to Kailua-Kona in 1812. In 1794, Captain William Brown of Great Britain was the first foreigner to sail into what is now Honolulu Harbor, more foreign ships followed, making the port of Honolulu a focal point for merchant ships traveling between North America and Asia. In 1845, Kamehameha III moved the permanent capital of the Hawaiian Kingdom from Lahaina on Maui to Honolulu and he and the kings that followed him transformed Honolulu into a modern capital, erecting buildings such as St. Andrews Cathedral, ʻIolani Palace, and Aliʻiōlani Hale. At the same time, Honolulu became the center of commerce in the islands, an economic and tourism boom following statehood brought rapid economic growth to Honolulu and Hawaiʻi. Modern air travel brings, as of 2007,7.6 million visitors annually to the islands, today, Honolulu is a modern city with numerous high-rise buildings, and Waikīkī is the center of the tourism industry in Hawaiʻi, with thousands of hotel rooms. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 68.4 square miles
10.
Ewa Villages, Hawaii
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Ewa Villages is a census-designated place located in the ʻEwa District and the City & County of Honolulu on the leeward side of Oʻahu in Hawaiʻi some 20 miles from downtown Honolulu. As of the 2010 census, the CDP had a population of 6,108 and this area was previously known as ʻEwa. In the late 19th century to early 20th century, ʻEwa was one of the population centers on the island of Oʻahu. The ʻEwa Mill was an employer that set up residential villages within ʻEwa. This area is now referred to as Oʻahus Second City, with a city located in Kapolei. Honouliuli is a village and now a place name for the north end of ʻEwa. The U. S. postal code for ʻEwa is 96706, Ewa Villages is located at 21°20′32″N 158°2′30″W, inland from ʻEwa Beach along the main thoroughfare of State Rte.76. This highway runs north past Honouliuli to Waipahu, connecting there to Farrington Highway, the main east-west thoroughfare in ʻEwa Villages is Renton Road which connects to Kalaeloa and Kapolei to the west. Eventually the Kapiolei Parkway will replace Renton Road as the main east-west thoroughfare for the Second City south of H-1, according to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 1.1 square miles, all land. ʻEwa is a widely used term on Oʻahu, referring to the direction of the town of ʻEwa. Its opposite is Diamond Head or Koko Head, Honouliuli Internment Camp, a World War II–era internment camp, operated there from 1943 to 1945. As of the census of 2000, there were 4,741 people,1,178 households, the population density was 4,838.6 people per square mile. There were 1,274 housing units at a density of 1,300.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 3. 50% White,0. 30% African American,0. 11% Native American,70. 43% Asian,4. 64% Pacific Islander,0. 76% from other races, and 20. 27% from two or more races. 8. 80% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,11. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 4.02 and the family size was 4.33. In the CDP the population was out with 27. 8% under the age of 18,9. 4% from 18 to 24,30. 2% from 25 to 44,18. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 33 years, for every 100 females there were 102.0 males
11.
James Campbell (industrialist)
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James Campbell, Esq. was a Scots-Irish industrialist in sugar cane processing, who became one of the largest landowners in the United States Territory of Hawaiʻi, and a real estate developer. He was an immigrant to Hawaiʻi from Ireland, at the age of 51, he married for a second time, to a young woman who was a daughter of Hawaiian aristocracy. They had eight children, four of whom survived to adulthood, one of their daughters married into the ruling family, and their grandchildren were heirs to the throne of the kingdom of Hawaii. He established the Estate of James Campbell for his heirs, which continued for more than 100 years as one of the largest landowners in the islands, in 2007 more than 170 heirs agreed to rework it as the James Campbell Company, only three cashed out. James Campbell was born on February 4,1826 to Scotch-Irish William Campbell and Martha Adams in Londonderry, Campbell was the eighth of twelve children. At the age of thirteen, Campbell boarded a ship leaving Ireland for Canada and he joined his brother John in New York City and worked for him. For two years in the United States, Campbell followed in his fathers footsteps as a carpenter, in 1841 he joined a whaling crew bound for the South Pacific, the vessel was shipwrecked in the Tuamotu Islands. Campbell and two shipmates were the ones to survive by clinging onto debris and floating to a nearby island. They were captured by natives and held prisoner, Campbell persuaded the chief he could be useful by using his skill to make repairs, and their lives were spared. After a few months he escaped on a bound for Tahiti. In 1850, the young Ulsterman boarded another whaling ship which reached the port of Lahaina on the Hawaiian island of Maui, Campbell took up carpentry again to make a living. In Lahaina he married Hannah Barla, who died in 1858, in 1860, Campbell formed a partnership with entrepreneurs Henry Turton and James Dunbar. They established a plant, Pioneer Mill Company. Dunbar sold out of the early on. The partners also bought the Lahaina Sugar Company when it went bankrupt in 1863, with the boom in the sugar industry in the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi and high international demand, Campbell became one of the wealthiest people in Lahaina. He used his profits to purchase land on the islands of Oʻahu, Maui, in 1877, Campbell sold his interest in the Pioneer Mill for half a million dollars to Turton. The Pioneer Mill produced sugar until 1999, on October 30,1877, the 51-year-old Campbell married 19-year-old Abigail Kuaihelani Maipinepine Bright, a Hawaiian woman of aristocratic family. In 1878 he bought a house in Honolulu from Archibald Scott Cleghorn, Cleghorn was brother-in-law to King Kalākaua, and the heir to the throne
12.
Ranch
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A ranch is an area of land, including various structures, given primarily to the practice of ranching, the practice of raising grazing livestock such as cattle or sheep for meat or wool. The word most often applies to livestock-raising operations in Mexico, the Western United States and Canada, people who own or operate a ranch are called ranchers, cattlemen, or stockgrowers. Ranching is also a used to raise less common livestock such as elk, American bison or even ostrich, emu. Ranches generally consist of areas, but may be of nearly any size. In the western United States, many ranches are a combination of owned land supplemented by grazing leases on land under the control of the federal Bureau of Land Management. If the ranch includes arable or irrigated land, the ranch may also engage in an amount of farming, raising crops for feeding the animals, such as hay. Ranches that cater exclusively to tourists are called guest ranches or, colloquially, most working ranches do not cater to guests, though they may allow private hunters or outfitters onto their property to hunt native wildlife. Ranching is part of the iconography of the Wild West as seen in Western movies, the person who owns and manages the operation of a ranch is usually called a rancher, but the terms cattleman, stockgrower, or stockman are also sometimes used. If this individual in charge of management is an employee of the actual owner. A rancher who primarily raises young stock sometimes is called an operator or a cow-calf man. This person is usually the owner, though in cases, particularly where there is absentee ownership. The people who are employees of the rancher and involved in handling livestock are called a number of terms, including cowhand, ranch hand, people exclusively involved with handling horses are sometimes called wranglers. Ranching and the tradition originated in Spain, out of the necessity to handle large herds of grazing animals on dry land from horseback. During the Reconquista, members of the Spanish nobility and various military orders received large land grants that the Kingdom of Castile had conquered from the Moors and these landowners were to defend the lands put into their control and could use them for earning revenue. When the Conquistadors came to the Americas in the 16th century, followed by settlers, they brought their cattle, huge land grants by the Spanish government, part of the hacienda system, allowed large numbers of animals to roam freely over vast areas. A number of different traditions developed, often related to the location in Spain from which a settlement originated. For example, many of the traditions of the Jalisco charros in central Mexico come from the Salamanca charros of Castile, however, there were cattle on the eastern seaboard. Deep Hollow Ranch,110 miles east of New York City in Montauk, New York, claims to be the first ranch in the United States, the prairie and desert lands of what today is Mexico and the western United States were well-suited to open range grazing
13.
Coral reef
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Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals. Coral reefs are built by colonies of tiny animals found in waters that contain few nutrients. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups, the polyps belong to a group of animals known as Cnidaria, which also includes sea anemones and jellyfish. Unlike sea anemones, corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support, most reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated waters. Often called rainforests of the sea, shallow coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth, paradoxically, coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients. They are most commonly found at depths in tropical waters. Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism, fisheries and shoreline protection, the annual global economic value of coral reefs is estimated between US$29. 8-375 billion. However, coral reefs are fragile ecosystems, partly because they are sensitive to water temperature. Most of the coral reefs we can see today were formed after the last glacial period when melting ice caused the sea level to rise and this means that most modern coral reefs are less than 10,000 years old. As communities established themselves on the shelves, the reefs grew upwards, Reefs that rose too slowly could become drowned reefs. They are covered by so much water there was insufficient light. Coral reefs are found in the sea away from continental shelves, around oceanic islands. The vast majority of islands are volcanic in origin. The few exceptions have tectonic origins where plate movements have lifted the deep ocean floor on the surface. In 1842 in his first monograph, The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, Charles Darwin set out his theory of the formation of atoll reefs and he theorized uplift and subsidence of the Earths crust under the oceans formed the atolls. Darwin’s theory sets out a sequence of three stages in atoll formation and it starts with a fringing reef forming around an extinct volcanic island as the island and ocean floor subsides. As the subsidence continues, the reef becomes a barrier reef. Darwin predicted that underneath each lagoon would be a bed rock base, where the level of the underlying earth allows, the corals grow around the coast to form what he called fringing reefs, and can eventually grow out from the shore to become a barrier reef
14.
Sugarcane
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It has stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in the sugar sucrose, which accumulates in the stalk internodes. The plant is two to six meters tall, all sugar cane species interbreed and the major commercial cultivars are complex hybrids. Sugarcane belongs to the grass family Poaceae, an important seed plant family that includes maize, wheat, rice, and sorghum. Sucrose, extracted and purified in specialized factories, is used as raw material in the food industry or is fermented to produce ethanol. Ethanol is produced on a large scale by the Brazilian sugarcane industry, sugarcane is the worlds largest crop by production quantity. In 2012, The Food and Agriculture Organization estimates it was cultivated on about 26×106 hectares, in more than 90 countries, Brazil was the largest producer of sugar cane in the world. The next five major producers, in decreasing amounts of production, were India, China, Thailand, Pakistan, the world demand for sugar is the primary driver of sugarcane agriculture. Cane accounts for 80% of sugar produced, most of the rest is made from sugar beets, sugarcane predominantly grows in the tropical and subtropical regions. Other than sugar, products derived from sugarcane include falernum, molasses, rum, cachaça, bagasse, in some regions, people use sugarcane reeds to make pens, mats, screens, and thatch. The young, unexpanded inflorescence of tebu telor is eaten raw, steamed, or toasted, the Persians, followed by the Greeks, discovered the famous reeds that produce honey without bees in India between the 6th and 4th centuries BC. They adopted and then spread sugarcane agriculture, merchants began to trade in sugar from India, which was considered a luxury and an expensive spice. Sugarcane is a tropical, perennial grass that forms lateral shoots at the base to produce multiple stems, the stems grow into cane stalk, which when mature constitutes around 75% of the entire plant. A mature stalk is composed of 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugars. A sugarcane crop is sensitive to the climate, soil type, irrigation, fertilizers, insects, disease control, varieties, the average yield of cane stalk is 60–70 tonnes per hectare per year. However, this figure can vary between 30 and 180 tonnes per hectare depending on knowledge and crop management approach used in sugarcane cultivation, sugarcane is a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder. Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical South and Southeast Asia, different species likely originated in different locations, with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum in New Guinea. It is theorized that sugarcane was first domesticated as a crop in New Guinea around 6000 BC, New Guinean farmers and other early cultivators of sugarcane chewed the plant for its sweet juice. The exact date of the first cane sugar production is unclear, the earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts
15.
Sugar plantations in Hawaii
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The sugar grown and processed in Hawaii was shipped primarily to the United States and, in smaller quantities, globally. Industrial sugar production started slowly in Hawaii, the first sugar mill was created on the island of Lanaʻi in 1802 by an unidentified Chinese man who returned to China in 1803. The first sugarcane plantation, known as the Old Sugar Mill of Koloa, was established in 1835 by Ladd & Co. and in 1836 the first 8,000 pounds of sugar, by the 1840s, sugarcane plantations gained a foothold in Hawaiian agriculture. Steamships provided rapid and reliable transportation to the islands, and demand increased during the California Gold Rush, the land division law of 1848 displaced Hawaiian people from their land, forming the basis for the sugarcane plantation economy. In 1850, the law was amended to allow residents to buy. In 1850, when California became a state, profits declined, market demand increased even further during the onset of the American Civil War which prevented Southern sugar from being shipped northward. The price of sugar rose 525% from 4 cents per pound in 1861 to 25 cents in 1864, the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 allowed Hawaii to sell sugar to the United States without paying duties or taxes, greatly increasing plantation profits. This treaty also guaranteed all of the resources including land, water, human labor power, capital. The 1890 McKinley Tariff Act, an effort by the United States government to decrease the competitive pricing of Hawaiian sugar, after significant lobbying efforts, this act was repealed in 1894. By 1890, 75% of all privately held land was owned by foreign businessmen, the plantation owners wanted the United States to annex Hawaii so that Hawaiian sugar would never again be subject to tariffs. They also wanted the United States to annex Hawaii so there could be a U. S military base on the island, the industry was tightly controlled by descendants of missionary families and other Caucasian businessmen, concentrated in corporations known in Hawaii as The Big Five. These included Castle & Cooke, Alexander & Baldwin, C and this control of commodity distribution kept Hawaiians burdened under high prices and toiling under a diminished quality of life. These businessmen had perfected the double-edged sword of a labor force dependent upon plantation goods. Close ties as missionaries to the Hawaiian monarchy along with capital investments, cheap land, cheap labor, Alexander & Baldwin acquired additional sugar lands and also operated a sailing fleet between Hawaii and the mainland, the shipping concern became American-Hawaiian Line, and later Matson. Later the sons and grandsons of the missionaries played central roles in the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1893. In 1898, the Republic of Hawaii was annexed by the United States and became the Territory of Hawaii, when Hawaiian plantations began to produce on a large scale, it became obvious that a labor force needed to be imported. The Hawaiian population was 1/6 its pre-1778 size due to ravaging disease brought by foreigners, additionally, Hawaiian people saw little use for working on the plantations when they could easily subsist by farming and fishing. Plantation owners quickly began importing workers which dramatically changed Hawaii’s demographics and is an example of globalization
16.
Charter
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A charter is the grant of authority or rights, stating that the granter formally recognizes the prerogative of the recipient to exercise the rights specified. The word entered the English language from the Old French charte and it has come to be synonymous with the document that lays out the granting of rights or privileges. The term is used for a case to an institutional charter. A charter school, for example, is one that has different rules, regulations, charter is sometimes used as a synonym for tool or lease, as in the charter of a bus or boat or plane by an organization, intended for a similar group destination. A charter member of an organization is a member, that is. Anglo-Saxon Charters are documents from the medieval period in Britain which typically make a grant of land or record a privilege. They are usually written on parchment, in Latin but often with sections in the vernacular, describing the bounds of estates, the British Empire used three main types of colonies as it sought to expand its territory to distant parts of the earth. These three types were royal colonies, proprietary colonies, and corporate colonies, a charter colony by definition is a colony…chartered to an individual, trading company, etc. by the British crown. Although charter colonies were not the most prevalent of the three types of colonies in the British Empire, they were by no means insignificant, a congressional charter is a law passed by the United States Congress that states the mission, authority and activities of a group. Congress issued federal charters from 1791 until 1992 under Title 36 of the United States Code, a municipal corporation is the legal term for a local governing body, including cities, counties, towns, townships, charter townships, villages, and boroughs. Municipal incorporation occurs when such municipalities become self-governing entities under the laws of the state or province in which they are located, often, this event is marked by the award or declaration of a municipal charter. Charters for chivalric orders and other orders, such as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, in project management, a project charter or project definition is a statement of the scope, objectives and participants in a project. It provides a preliminary delineation of roles and responsibilities, outlines the objectives, identifies the main stakeholders. It serves as a reference of authority for the future of the project, in medieval Europe, royal charters were used to create cities. The date that such a charter was granted is considered to be when a city was founded, at one time a royal charter was the only way in which an incorporated body could be formed, but other means are generally now used instead
17.
Republic of Hawaii
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The Territory of Hawaii was formally established as part of the U. S. on June 14,1900. The Kingdom of Hawaii was overthrown in 1893 in a revolt against a Queen who rejected the constitution then in effect. American officials immediately recognized the new government and U. S, marines landed to protect American citizens during the upheaval. The Queens supporters charged their presence frightened the Queen and thus enabled the revolution, in 1887, members of the Reform Party of Hawaii forced the King to accept a new constitution limiting the monarchs constitutional power as defined by the Constitution of 1864. The Constitution of 1887, also called the Bayonet Constitution for the used to secure the kings approval, was enacted without legislative approval. In 1893 a coup détat against the monarch was carried out by more than 1,000 armed local men who were led by sugar planters. There was no bloodshed as the armed force did not resist. A temporary Provisional Government of Hawaii was formed by the Committee of Safety, the leaders of the coup, who had strong economic ties with the United States wanted to join the United States, in part to avoid import taxes. Annexation was delayed by two petitions with over 20,000 signatures representing over half of the Native Hawaiian population, the Queen herself took up residence in Washington to lobby for her restoration. President Grover Cleveland, a Democrat opposed to American expansion, sent an investigator who wrote the Blount Report, the report concluded that Minister Stevens had manipulated and orchestrated the revolt. Cleveland decided that the United States should restore the Queen, he asked for Doles resignation, however, the U. S. Senate held hearings regarding the Morgan Report, undermining the Blount Reports claims. Public opinion in the United States favored annexation, in May 1894 the U. S. President Cleveland thereupon dropped the issue, leaving the Republic of Hawaii to fend for itself. The Provisional Government convened a convention and established the Republic of Hawaiʻi on July 4,1894. The president of Hawaii was the head of state and head of government. The constitution provided that the term of office would be six years. The President had the authority to legislation, which could be overridden by two-thirds majority in both houses of the legislature, and he was also commander-in-chief of the military. The President appointed, subject to the confirmation of the Senate, Cabinet members were considered usurers of both houses of the Legislature, they could participate in proceedings, but could not vote as they were not elected members of the Legislature. If the presidency became vacant, the Minister of Foreign Affairs could serve as Acting President until the Legislature voted to elect a successor, article 23 of the 1894 Constitution specifically named Sanford B. Dole as the republics first President
18.
Waipahu, Hawaii
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Waipahu is a former sugarcane plantation town and now census-designated place located in the ʻEwa District on the island of Oʻahu in the City & County of Honolulu, Hawaiʻi, United States. As of the 2010 Census, the CDP population was 38,216, the U. S. postal code for Waipahu is 96797. Waipahu is the name of an artesian spring, in Hawaiian, Waipahu is derived from wai, meaning water, and pahū, meaning burst or explode, combined, Waipahu means water forced up. The early Native Hawaiians took pleasure in the cool and clear water gushing from the ground, before the Western civilization set foot in Hawaii, the Hawaiians considered Waipahu to be the capital of Oahu. Royalty in the Kingdom of Hawaii would often gather and enjoy the water from the spring Waipahu. In 1897, Oahu Sugar Company was incorporated, and its board of directors located the sugar mill in Waipahu. There were 44 Hawaiians, including 10 minors,57 Portuguese,443 Japanese,408 of them contract laborers, the companys managers from 1897 to 1940 were August Ahrens, E. K. Bull, J. B. Thomson, E. W. Greene, in the early days of the plantation, each worker was assigned a number inscribed on a metal disc about the size of a silver dollar. The numbers 1 through 899 identified Japanese alien,900 through 1400 were Japanese who were American citizens or Hawaii-born. The 2000 and 2100 series were Portuguese laborers,2200 Spanish,2300 Hawaiian,2400 Puerto Rican,3000 Chinese or Korean,4000 and 5000 Filipino aliens, the company imported laborers from many different countries including the Philippines, Japan, China, Portugal, and Norway. Very few laborers working for the Oahu Sugar Co. were Hawaiian, the majority of the companys first laborers were either Japanese or Chinese. Each ethnic group was broken up into different camps and this division was said to have been the result of different cultures and language barriers. Plantation workers lived by what was called The Plantation System, Field workers received an average monthly salary of $12.50. However, Filipino immigrants were less than all of the other laborers because they were the cheapest to import. The Filipinos, on average, made less than $10.00 a month, the Chinese generally were paid the most with a monthly average of $15.00. In 1932 the Oahu Sugar Co. opened a continuation school and those who werent available during the day could also attend evening courses. This was to them a chance to better their knowledge for a better job. Oahu Sugar Company shut down operations after the 1995 harvest
19.
Haleiwa, Hawaii
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Haleʻiwa is a North Shore community and census-designated place in the Waialua District of the island of Oʻahu, City and County of Honolulu. Haleʻiwa is located on Waialua Bay, the mouth of Anahulu Stream, a small boat harbor is located here, and the shore of the bay is surrounded by Haleʻiwa Beach Park and Haleʻiwa Aliʻi Beach Park. Further west from the center of town is Kaiaka State Recreation Area on Kiaka Point beside Kaiaka Bay, as of the 2010 census, the CDP had a population of 3,970. It is the largest commercial center on the North Shore of the island and its old plantation town character is preserved in many of the buildings, making this a popular destination for tourists and residents alike, visiting surfing and diving sites along the north shore. The U. S. postal code for Haleʻiwa, including Kawailoa, is 96712, Haleʻiwa is located at 21°3524 North, 158°650 West, southwest along Kamehameha Highway from Pūpūkea. At Haleʻiwa, Kamehameha Highway becomes state route 99, which runs eastward up across the Oʻahu central plateau to Wahiawā, a new bypass route avoids both the traffic circle and Haleʻiwa, extending state route 83 to just north of Haleʻiwa town. Haleʻiwa Road and both Kaukonahua Road and Waialua Beach Road from Weed Circle go south and southwest into Waialua across Paukauila Stream, the historic Rainbow Bridge over the Anahulu River marks the northern entrance to old Haleiwa Town. There you will find small shops, eateries and many galleries, two beach parks surround the small boat harbor located in Waialua Bay, Haleiwa Beach Park located to the north and Haleiwa Alii Beach Park located to the south. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 3.0 square miles. 2.3 square miles of it is land, and 0.69 square miles of it is water, the total area is 23. 67% water. In 1898 a businessman named Benjamin Dillingham opened a hotel in the North Shore area, in the Hawaiian language, hale means house, and the ʻiwa is a frigatebird. According to Hawaii Town 1984 Haleiwa became a State Historic, Cultural, the 16th Coast Artillerys Battery F was assigned to four 8-inch M1888 railway guns that were located nearby on specially made spurs. These railway guns were dismounted and designated as Battery Kahuku. As of the 2000 Census, there were 2,225 people,770 households, the population density was then 469. 4/km². There were 867 housing units at a density of 474.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 24. 63% White,0. 49% Black or African American,0. 31% Native American,28. 85% Asian,9. 98% Pacific Islander,0. 81% from other races, and 34. 92% from two or more races. 10. 29% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,24. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.88 and the family size was 3.46
20.
Waimea Bay, Hawaii
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Waimea Bay is located in Haleiwa on the North Shore of Oahu in the Hawaiian Islands at the mouth of the Waimea River. Waimea Valley extends behind Waimea Bay, Waimea means reddish water in Hawaiian. Captain Charles Clerke aboard HMS Resolution stopped at Waimea Bay on February 28,1779, Clerke had shortly before taken command of the ship after Capt. James Cook was killed at Kealakekua Bay on February 14. Waimea Bay was the only Oahu anchorage visited by the expedition, Waimea Valley was densely populated at the time, and the remains of Puu o Mahuka, an important heiau can still be seen above the bay. Puu o Mahuka Heiau State Monument is a Native Hawaiian historical site located just above the bay and it is a historically important site on the North Shore, as well as providing a view of Waimea Bay and the Waianae Mountain range. Waimea Bay is located along Kamehameha Highway, the bay is on the north-west side of the highway. In winter, Waimea and other North Shore locations such as Pipeline and these waves are created by winter storms in the North Pacific, and their arrival on Oahus North Shore are typically forecast accurately several days in advance. In summer, Waimea typically has clear and calm water, the surf break at Waimea Bay was significant in the development of Big wave surfing. Larger surf at the bay went unridden for years until November 7,1957 when a handful of surfers finally paddled out, while the surf only breaks big several times a year, Waimea was the most prestigious big wave surf break in the world for decades. With the advent of tow-in surfing, more and more big wave breaks have been discovered that are far superior in quality to Waimea, however, the bay still holds a significant place even in todays world of big wave surfing. The Quiksilver Big Wave Invitational in Memory of Eddie Aikau takes place in Waimea Bay to honor the legendary surfer and the first lifeguard of the North Shore of Oahu. Since its inception in 1984, the tournament has only held nine times. Open-ocean swells of this height generally translate to wave faces in the bay of 30 feet to 40 feet, the most recent tournament was in February 2016. On January 28,1998, Hawaii issued its first ever condition black legally closing all North Shore beaches including Waimea bay, the Quiksilver Big Wave Invitational in Memory of Eddie Aikau was canceled due to above average behemoth surf. Waimea Bay is a song on Jan and Deans Ride The Wild Surf album, Waimea Bay is also mentioned in The Beach Boys classic song, Surfin U. S. A. as well as Jimmy Buffetts song, Beautiful Swimmers. It is also the name of an unreleased Lana Del Rey song entitled Waimea, Waimea rock was featured in part of a commercial for the Bing search engine in 2012. The commercial featured the song Hey-ho by the Lumineers, google maps satellite image of Waimea Bay
21.
Kahuku, Hawaii
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Kahuku is a census-designated place in the Koʻolauloa District on the island of Oahu, County of Honolulu, Hawaii, United States. In the Hawaiian language, ka huku means the projection, presumably a reference to Kahuku Point nearby, as of the 2010 Census, Kahuku had a population of 2,614. Kahuku is located at 21°40′49″N 157°57′1″W and this community is located northwest from Laie and east from Kuilima and Kawela Bay along Kamehameha Highway. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 2.3 square miles. The total area is 57. 46% water, the Pacific Ocean lying off the coast in the census tract, as of the census of 2000, there were 2,097 people,509 households, and 401 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 2,150.9 people per square mile, there were 518 housing units at an average density of 531.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 11. 06% White,0. 29% Black or African American,0. 14% Native American,26. 85% Asian,27. 28% Pacific Islander,1. 05% from other races, and 33. 33% from two or more races. 8. 63% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,19. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.96 and the family size was 4.63. In the CDP the population was out with 35. 4% under the age of 18,10. 7% from 18 to 24,23. 3% from 25 to 44,17. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 28 years, for every 100 females there were 101.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.9 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $39,135, and the median income for a family was $47,045. Males had an income of $29,934 versus $22,366 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $12,340,14. 6% of the population and 11. 8% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the population,17. 4% of those under the age of 18 and 17. 7% of those 65. The ZIP Code for Kahuku is 96731, in the mid-1970s a popular television game show, The Diamond Head Game, was contested on the grounds of Del Webbs Kuilima Hotel, located just to the west. At the end of show the announcer would say, If you plan to be in Hawaii, send a self-addressed, stamped envelope to the Diamond Head Game, Kahuku. The Fox TV series North Shore was filmed there recently, places of interest in the area include beaches, hiking, fishing, art galleries, and several shrimp trucks in the vicinity
22.
Sugar cane mill
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A sugar cane mill can refer to a factory that processes sugar cane to produce raw or white sugar. It can also mean the piece of equipment that crushes the sticks of sugar cane to extract the juice, the raw sugar produced is often refined to produce white sugar. This sugar refining can be either at a completely separate factory or at a back-end refinery which is attached to the raw sugar factory. There are two processes for extracting juice from cane, Milling, and Diffusion, juice extraction by milling is the process of squeezing the juice from the cane under a set mills using high pressure between heavy iron rollers. Those mills can have from 3 up to 6 rolls, every set of mills are called tandem mill or mill train, mixed juice is withdrawn from the first and second mills and is sent for further processing. Milling trains typically have four, five or six mills in the tandem, for improve the milling extraction performance before the cane reach the first mill, normally are used knife and shredder as preparation equipments. Sugarcane diffusion is the process of extracting the sucrose from the cane with the use of imbibtion, shredded cane is introduced into the diffuser at the feed end, Hot water is poured over the shredded cane just before the discharge end of the diffuser. The hot water percolates through the bed of cane and removes sucrose from the cane.0 to 4.5 which is quite acidic, calcium hydroxide, also known as Milk of lime or limewater, is added to the cane juice to adjust its pH to 7. The lime helps to prevent sucroses decay into glucose and fructose, the limed juice is then heated to a temperature above its boiling point. The superheated limed juice is allowed to flash to its saturation temperature. The flashed juice is transferred to a clarification tank which allows the suspended solids to settle. The supernatant, known as clear juice is drawn off of the clarifier, the clarified juice is concentrated in a multiple-effect evaporator to make a syrup of about 60 percent sucrose by weight. This method boils the sugar liquors in three stages, called A-, B- and C-, a batch type sugar centrifuge separates the sugar crystals from the mother liquor. These centrifuges have a capacity of up to 2,200 kilograms per cycle, the sugar from the centrifuges is dried and cooled and then stored in a silo or directly packed into bags for shipment. The mother liquor from the first crystallization step is again crystallized in vacuum pans, the mother-liquor is again crystallized in vacuum pans. Due to the low purity the evapo-crystallization alone is not sufficient to exhaust molasses, then the massecuite is re-heated in order to reduce its viscosity and then purged in the C-produced centrifugals. The run-off from the C-centrifugals is called molasses, the spun-off sugar from the B-product and C-product centrifuges is re-melted, filtered and added to the syrup coming from the evaporator station. Some cane sugar mills have so-called back-end refineries, in this case, a portion of the raw sugar produced in the mill is directly converted to refined sugar with a higher purity for local consumption, exportation, or bottling companies
23.
Wahiawa, Hawaii
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Wahiawa is a census-designated place in Honolulu County, Hawaii, United States, on the island of Oahu. It is located in the Wahiawa District, on the plateau or central valley between the two mountains that comprise the island. In Hawaiian, wahi a wā means place of noise, perhaps a reference to the fact that once upon a time, the population was 17,821 at the 2010 census. Lakes and reservoirs are rare in Hawaii, and Wahiawa is at once unique in being surrounded on three sides by Lake Wilson, the town must be accessed by either of two bridges on Kamehameha Highway across the narrow north and south arms of the reservoir. Still, there are significant U. S. Army facilities here, including Schofield Barracks, Wheeler Army Airfield, and East Range, Schofield Barracks alone is larger than Wahiawa. Wahiawa is also the home of the U. S. Navys Naval Computer, the U. S. postal codes for Wahiawa are 96786 and 96857. Wahiawa is located at 21°30′9″N 158°1′23″W, vehicular routes heading towards the North Shore from Wahiawa are Kamehameha Highway to Haleiwa and Kaukonahua Road to Waialua. Wheeler and Schofield are reached along Wilikina Drive, which bypasses Wahiawa from the south bridge, Kamehameha Highway continues south past Wheeler to Mililani Town. Kunia Road runs from Wilikina Drive, between Schofield and Wheeler, then southward along the mostly still agricultural western side of the plain to Kunia and Waipahu beyond. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 2.4 square miles, of which 2.1 square miles is land and 0.27 square miles. Kaʻala, the highest peak on Oahu, is located 5 miles west of Wahiawa, Wahiawa Reservoir or Lake Wilson is located in Wahiawa, the second largest reservoir in Hawaii. It is used to irrigate fields, including the Dole Pineapple Plantation fields located at the northern part of Wahiawa. As of the census of 2000, there were 16,151 people,5,376 households, the population density was 7,642.8 people per square mile. There were 5,900 housing units at a density of 2,791.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 11. 31% White,2. 02% Black or African American,0. 32% Native American,45. 77% Asian,9. 62% Pacific Islander,1. 83% from other races, and 29. 14% from two or more races. 11. 00% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,21. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.97 and the family size was 3.45. In the CDP the population was out with 26. 1% under the age of 18,8. 6% from 18 to 24,26. 6% from 25 to 44,19. 9% from 45 to 64
24.
Pineapple
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The pineapple is a tropical plant with an edible multiple fruit consisting of coalesced berries, also called pineapples, and the most economically significant plant in the Bromeliaceae family. Pineapples may be cultivated from a cutting of the fruit, possibly flowering in 5-10 months. Pineapples do not ripen significantly after harvest, pineapples can be consumed fresh, cooked, juiced, or preserved. They are found in an array of cuisines. The fiber is used as a component for wallpaper and other furnishings. The word pineapple in English was first recorded to describe the organs of conifer trees. When European explorers discovered this tropical fruit in the Americas, they called them pineapples, other members of the Ananas genus are often called pine, as well, in other languages. In Spanish, pineapples are called piña, or ananá, the pineapple is a herbaceous perennial, which grows to 1.0 to 1.5 m tall, although sometimes it can be taller. In appearance, the plant has a short, stocky stem with tough, when creating its fruit, it usually produces up to 200 flowers, although some large-fruited cultivars can exceed this. Once it flowers, the fruits of the flowers join together to create what is commonly referred to as a pineapple. After the first fruit is produced, side shoots are produced in the axils of the main stem. These may be removed for propagation, or left to produce additional fruits on the original plant, commercially, suckers that appear around the base are cultivated. It has 30 or more long, narrow, fleshy, trough-shaped leaves with sharp spines along the margins that are 30 to 100 cm long, surrounding a thick stem, in the first year of growth, the axis lengthens and thickens, bearing numerous leaves in close spirals. After 12 to 20 months, the stem grows into an inflorescence up to 15 cm long with over 100 spirally arranged, trimerous flowers. Flower colors vary, depending on variety, from lavender, through light purple to red, the ovaries develop into berries, which coalesce into a large, compact, multiple fruit. The fruit of a pineapple is arranged in two interlocking helices, eight in one direction,13 in the other, each being a Fibonacci number. The pineapple carries out CAM photosynthesis, fixing carbon dioxide at night and storing it as the acid malate, seed formation needs pollination, but the presence of seeds harms the quality of the fruit. In Hawaii, where pineapple is cultivated on an agricultural scale, certain bat-pollinated wild pineapples open their flowers only at night
25.
Waikiki
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Waikīkī is a beachfront neighborhood of Honolulu, on the south shore of the island of Oʻahu, in Hawaii, United States. Waikiki is most famous for Waikīkī Beach, but it is just one of six beaches in the district, Waikīkī is home to public places including Kapiʻolani Park, Fort DeRussy, Kahanamoku Lagoon, Kūhiō Beach Park, and Ala Wai Harbor. The name Waikīkī means spouting fresh water in the Hawaiian language, for springs, the area was a retreat for Hawaiian royalty in the 1800s who enjoyed surfing there on early forms of longboards. A few small hotels opened in the 1880s, in 1893, Greek-American George Lycurgus leased the guest house of Allen Herbert and renamed it the Sans Souci creating one of the first beach resorts. Later that year Robert Louis Stevenson stayed at the resort, subsequently it became a destination for tourists from the mainland. The area at coordinates 21°15′49″N 157°49′17″W is still called Sans Souci Beach, the beach hosts many events a year, including surf competitions, outdoor performances, hula dancing and outrigger canoe races. It is also where Kurt Cobain, the frontman for the band group Nirvana, married Courtney Love, the neighborhood extends from the Ala Wai Canal on the west and north, to Diamond Head on the east. Waikīkī Beach is noted for its views of the Diamond Head tuff cone, its warm and cloud-free climate. The Waikīkī skyline is now dotted with an abundance of both high-rises and resort hotels, the beach is actually fairly short, with half of it marked off for surfers. For some distance into the ocean the water is quite shallow, as with most ocean beaches the waves can have some force, particularly on windy days. The surf at Waikīkī is known for its long rolling break, making it ideal for long boarding, tandem surfing and beginners. Waikīkīs main thoroughfare is Kalakaua Avenue, named after King Kalakaua, waikīkīs other main thoroughfare, Kuhio Avenue, named after Prince Kuhio, is better known for its restaurants, cafes and grocers, along with its clubs, nightlife and prostitution. Over time, Waikīkī beach has had problems with erosion, leading to the construction of groynes, for example, in the 1920s and 1930s sand was imported from Manhattan Beach, California, via ship and barge to Waikīkī. Officials are looking for ways to sustain the existing sand by eliminating loss due to tidal flow, subject to permits, a partial restoration was completed in the spring of 2012. The proposed project imported sand from nearby shoals and widened the 1, the project restored the beach to its 1985 shoreline. Waikiki Beach has had problems with sewage spills. China Airlines operates its Honolulu Branch Office in Waikīkī, NTT DoCoMo also has limited operations here for the convenience of Japanese tourists. Hawaiian Airlines is based in Honolulu, district 6 of the Honolulu Police Department encompasses Waikiki
26.
Pearl Harbor
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Pearl Harbor is a lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. Much of the harbor and surrounding lands is a United States Navy deep-water naval base and it is also the headquarters of the United States Pacific Fleet. The U. S. government first obtained exclusive use of the inlet, the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan on December 7,1941, was the immediate cause of the United States entry into World War II. Pearl Harbor was originally a shallow embayment called Wai Momi or Puʻuloa by the Hawaiians. Puʻuloa was regarded as the home of the goddess, Kaʻahupahau. Making due allowance for legendary amplification, the estuary already had an outlet for its waters where the present gap is, during the early 19th century, Pearl Harbor was not used for large ships due to its shallow entrance. The interest of United States in the Hawaiian Islands grew as a result of its whaling, shipping and trading activity in the Pacific. As early as 1820, an Agent of the United States for Commerce and these commercial ties to the American continent were accompanied by the work of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. American missionaries and their families became a part of the Hawaiian political body. Throughout the 1820s and 1830s, many American warships visited Honolulu, in most cases, the commanding officers carried letters from the U. S. Government giving advice on governmental affairs and of the relations of the island nation with foreign powers. In 1841, the newspaper Polynesian, printed in Honolulu, advocated that the U. S. establish a base in Hawaii for protection of American citizens engaged in the whaling industry. The British Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs Robert Crichton Wyllie, remarked in 1840 that and my opinion is that the tide of events rushes on to annexation to the United States. In 1865, the North Pacific Squadron was formed to embrace the western coast, lackawanna in the following year was assigned to cruise among the islands, a locality of great and increasing interest and importance. This vessel surveyed the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands toward Japan, as a result, the United States claimed Midway Island. The Secretary of the Navy was able to write in his report of 1868. This increased activity caused the permanent assignment of at least one warship to Hawaiian waters and it also praised Midway Island as possessing a harbor surpassing Honolulus. In the following year, Congress approved an appropriation of $50,000 on March 1,1869, after 1868, when the Commander of the Pacific Fleet visited the islands to look after American interests, naval officers played an important role in internal affairs. They served as arbitrators in disputes, negotiators of trade agreements and defenders of law
27.
Hickam Air Force Base
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Hickam Field is a United States Air Force installation, named in honor of aviation pioneer Lieutenant Colonel Horace Meek Hickam. The base merged with the Naval Base Pearl Harbor to become part of the Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam, the base neighbors Honolulu International Airport and currently shares runways with the airport for its activities and purposes. Hickam is home to the 15th Wing and 67 partner units including Headquarters of Pacific Air Forces, Hawaii Air National Guard, the Air Mobility Commands 515th Air Mobility Operations Wing provides tactical and strategic airlift within the Pacific region. In addition, Hickam supports 140 tenant and associate units, the 15th Wing is composed of four groups each with specific functions. The 15th Operations Group controls all flying and airfield operations, the 15th Maintenance Group performs aircraft and aircraft ground equipment maintenance. The 15th Medical Group provides medical and dental care and these units are structured according to the Total Force Integration concept, and as such have both an active duty Commander and a Guard Commander. They share missions as well as equipment.78 and it was the largest peacetime military construction project in the United States to that date and continued through 1941. The Quartermaster Corps was assigned the job of constructing a modern airdrome from tangled algaroba brush, planning, design, and supervision of construction were all conducted by Capt. Howard B. Construction was still in progress when the first contingent of 12 men, Hickam Field was completed and officially activated on September 15,1938. In early 1939 construction began on the barracks, a single three-story nine-winged structure to house 3,200 men at a cost of $1,039,000. Personnel began moving into the barracks in January 1940, and by its completion on 30 September 1940, it was fully occupied, Hickam was the principal army airfield in Hawaii and the only one large enough to accommodate the B-17 Flying Fortress bomber. In connection with plans for the Pacific, aircraft were brought to Hawaii throughout 1941 to prepare for potential hostilities. The first mass flight of bombers from Hamilton Field, California arrived at Hickam on 14 May 1941, Hickam suffered extensive damage and aircraft losses, with 189 people killed and 303 wounded. During World War II, the became a major center for training pilots. Hickam is home to the 65th Airlift Squadron which transports theater senior military leaders throughout the world in the C-37B and C-40 Clipper aircraft. In mid-2003, the 15th Air Base Wing was converted to the 15th Airlift Wing as it prepared to beddown and fly the Air Forces newest transport aircraft, the first Hickam-based C-17 arrived in February 2006, with seven more to follow during the year. The C-17s will be flown by the 535th Airlift Squadron, on September 16,1985, the Secretary of the Interior designated Hickam Field a National Historic Landmark, recognizing its key role in the World War II Pacific campaign. A bronze plaque reflecting Hickams national significance in commemorating the history of the United States of America took its place among other memorials surrounding the base flagpole, dominating the area is a large bronze tablet engraved with the names of those who died as a result of the 1941 attack
28.
Kalaeloa Airport
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It is included in the Federal Aviation Administration National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2017–2021, in which it is categorized as a regional reliever facility. Kalaeloa Airport is part of a state structure governing all of the airports and seaports of Hawaiʻi. The official authority of Kalaeloa Airport is the Governor of Hawaiʻi and he or she appoints the Director of the Hawaiʻi State Department of Transportation who has jurisdiction over the Hawaiʻi Airports Administrator. Collectively, the six bodies have authority over the four districts in Hawaiʻi, Hawaiʻi District, Kauaʻi District, Maui District. Kalaeloa Airport is a subordinate of the Oʻahu District officials, mokulele Airlines became the first airline to provide scheduled service at Kalaeloa when it began flights to Kahului Airport on Maui on July 1,2014. After serving the airport for two years and finding itself unable to make a profit doing so, the airline ended scheduled service at the airport in September 2016. HABS/HAER documentation of Naval Air Station Barbers Point for a listing of the extensive documentation of Naval Air Station Barbers Point by the Historic American Buildings Survey. Solar Impulse 2 landed in Kalaeloa Airport on 3 July 2015, after achieving the longest non-stop solo fixed-wing airplane flight in history
29.
Schofield Barracks
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Schofield Barracks is a United States Army installation and census-designated place located in the City and County of Honolulu and in the Wahiawa District of the American island of Oʻahu, Hawaiʻi. Schofield Barracks lies adjacent to the town of Wahiawā, separated from most of it by Lake Wilson, Schofield Barracks is named after Lieutenant General John McAllister Schofield, Commanding General United States Army August 1888 to September 1895. He had been sent to Hawaiʻi in 1872 and had recommended the establishment of a base at Pearl Harbor. Schofield Barracks has an area of 17,725 acres on Central Oʻahu, the post was established in 1908 to provide mobile defense of Pearl Harbor and the entire island. It has been the home of the 25th Infantry Division, known as the Tropic Lightning Division, the population was 16,370 at the 2010 census. Schofield Barracks is located at 21°29′52″N 158°3′48″W, the Main Gate used to be off Wilikina Drive, however, now only the Foote and Lyman gates located along Kunia Road are used for controlled access. Proceeding north on Wilikina Road leads to intersections with Kaukonahua Road to Waialua, east on Wilikina leads to Interstate H-2 and Kamehameha Highway to Wahiawā and Mililani Town. Proceeding south on Kunia Road past Schofield leads to the Kunia Gate on Wheeler, Kunia, according to the United States Census Bureau, the post has a total area of 2.8 square miles, all of it land. Schofield Barracks has a savanna climate. This climate type is shared with Honolulu but is in slightly cooler year round owing to the elevation. Precipitation patterns closely resemble those of mediterranean climates being found in mainland California, as of the census of 2000, there were 14,428 people,2,965 households, and 2,902 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 5,251.5 people per square mile, there were 3,733 housing units at an average density of 1,358.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 56. 4% White,21. 9% African American,1. 1% Native American,3. 9% Asian,1. 7% Pacific Islander,8. 6% from other races, and 6. 5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 16. 2% of the population,2. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and none had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.55 and the family size was 3.58. In the CDP the population was out with 32. 1% under the age of 18,29. 8% from 18 to 24,36. 6% from 25 to 44,1. 4% from 45 to 64. The median age was 22 years, for every 100 females there were 152.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 183.6 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $33,788, and the median income for a family was $32,970
30.
Wheeler Army Airfield
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It is a National Historic Landmark for its role in the 7 December 1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Two canvas hangars were erected and the field cleared of weeds, guava, thus Wheeler Field got its modest start. It was named Wheeler Field on 11 November 1922 in honor of Major Sheldon H. Wheeler, former commander of Luke Field on Ford Island, killed in the crash of DH-4B, No.63525 on 13 July 1921. In June 1923,13 months after the designation of the new flying field, shop hangars, airplane hangars, in 1927, one of the wooden shop hangars was remodeled to provide space for a barracks and a mess hall incident to the formation of a pursuit group. It was not until 1930 that any permanent construction was started, many different units were originally stationed at Wheeler Field. The first units of the Schofield Barracks divisional airdrome were the 4th Observation Squadron, Photo Section No.11, in October 1922, the photo section and intelligence units were returned to Luke Field. The following May, the 17th Composite Group was organized at Wheeler and it consisted of a Headquarters Squadron, the 19th Pursuit Squadron and the 4th Observation Squadron. These units operated from the field until January 1924, when the 17th Group was rendered inactive, three years later, the foundation for the present 18th Pursuit Group was laid and the 6th and 19th Pursuit Squadrons were transferred from Luke Field. More squadrons were added to the 18th Pursuit Group and Bellows Field was opened as an aerial gunnery camp for the use of tactical organizations. The 15th Pursuit Group was formed next and was made a permanent part of the airdrome, hand in hand with this move came the formation of the 14th Pursuit Wing. S. to Australia in 1928, and the first Hawaii-to-Mainland solo flight in 1935 by Amelia Earhart. Ms. Earhart visited Wheeler Field in 1935 in her Lockheed Vega, kingsford Smith, in his plane, the Southern Cross, also used the airfield on his historic flights across the Pacific. By 1940, Wheeler Field had evolved into a base for Army Air Corps pursuit aircraft such as the P-40 Warhawk. Wheeler Army Airfield was a target and site of the first attack on 7 December 1941. The Japanese attacked the airfield to prevent the numerous planes there from getting airborne, 2nd Lieutenant Phil Rasmussen found an old, unscathed Curtiss P-36 Hawk and taxied it to a revetment where he had it loaded with ammunition. During a lull in the bombing, he took off three other pilots. Lieutenant Rasmussen managed to shoot down a Mitsubishi A6M Zero and the American pilots subsequently engaged 11 Japanese aircraft, the installation has a National Historic Landmark District in association with the attack on 7 December 1941. The 1941 Flightline, hangars and barracks survive today, casualties at Wheeler totaled 33 killed and 75 wounded. Of the 233 aircraft assigned to the Hawaiian Air Force,146 were in commission before the attack, afterward, only 83 were in commission and 76 had been totally destroyed
31.
Bertram Goodhue
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Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue was an American architect celebrated for his work in Gothic Revival and Spanish Colonial Revival design. He also designed notable typefaces, including Cheltenham and Merrymount for the Merrymount Press, later in life, Goodhue freed his architectural style with works like El Fureidis in Montecito, one of the three estates designed by Goodhue. Goodhue was born in Pomfret, Connecticut to Charles Wells Goodhue and his second wife, due to financial constraints he was educated at home by his mother until, at age 11 years, he was sent to Russells Collegiate and Commercial Institute. Finances prevented him from attending university, but he received a degree from Trinity College in Connecticut in 1911. In lieu of formal training, in 1884 he moved to Manhattan, New York City, to apprentice at the firm of Renwick. Goodhues apprenticeship ended in 1891 when he won a competition for St. Matthews in Dallas. This circle included Charles Eliot Norton of Harvard University and Ernest Fenollosa of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts and it was also through this group that Goodhue met Ralph Adams Cram, who would be his business partner for almost 25 years. Cram and Goodhue were members of societies, including the Pewter Mugs. In 1892–1893 they published an art magazine called The Knight Errant. The multitalented Goodhue was also a student of design and type design. In 1896, he created the Cheltenham typeface for use by a New York printer and this typeface came to be used as the headline type for The New York Times. In 1891, Cram and Goodhue formed the firm of Cram, Wentworth. The firm was a leader in Neo-Gothic architecture, with significant commissions from ecclesiastical, academic, the Gothic Revival Saint Thomas Church was designed by them and built in 1914 on Manhattans Fifth Avenue in New York City. In 1915, Goodhue accepted membership to what is now as the American Academy of Arts. In 1917, Goodhue was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, Goodhue, in departed into a series of radically different stylistic experiments over his independent career. His first was the Byzantine Revival style for St. Bartholomews Episcopal Church on New York Citys Park Avenue and this was for the significant commission of the El Prado Quadrangles layout and buildings at the major 1915 Panama-California Exposition, located in San Diegos Balboa Park. He was the architect, taking over from Irving Gill, with Carleton Winslow Sr. The Panama-California Expositions style was seen by many and widely published, becoming influential in California
32.
Honolulu Museum of Art
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The Honolulu Museum of Art is an art museum in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi. The museum is largest of its kind in the state, and was founded in 1922 by Anna Rice Cooke. The Honolulu Museum of Art was called “the finest small museum in the United Statesˮ by J. Carter Brown, director of the National Gallery of Art from 1969 to 1992. It presents international caliber special exhibitions and features a collection that includes Hokusai, van Gogh, Gauguin, Monet, Picasso and Warhol, located in two of Honolulu’s most beautiful buildings, visitors enjoy two cafés, gardens, and films and concerts at the theater. In 2011, The Contemporary Museum gifted its assets and collection to the Honolulu Academy of Arts, in 2012, the Museum is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums and registered as a National and State Historical site. In 1990, the Honolulu Museum of Art School was opened to expand the program of art classes. In 2001, the Henry R. Luce Pavilion Complex opened with the Honolulu Museum of Art Café, Museum Shop, the Honolulu Museum of Art has a large collection of Asian art, especially Japanese and Chinese works. Major collections include the Samuel H, other collections include the James A. Michener collection of ukiyo-e prints and the Hawaiian art collection, which chronicles the history of art in Hawaiʻi. The permanent collection is presented in 32 galleries and six courtyards, the Honolulu Museum of Art occupies 3.2 acres near downtown Honolulu, not far from Waikīkī beach. The Museum is open to the public Tuesday through Sunday, admission is free to members, children and for some events, but otherwise a fee is charged. Some events and certain days offer free admission to all, an optional audio guide includes 40 selections from the collection. Guided tours are offered several times daily, tours in the Japanese language, for the hearing impaired and specialty group tours for 10 or more are also available. The museum is open 10 a. m. to 4,30 p. m. on Tuesday to Saturday,1 p. m. to 5 p. m. on Sunday, and closed on Monday. The museums second location, Spalding House, is located in lush Makiki Heights and features galleries of art, a café, on permanent view is David Hockneys installation Lenfant et les sortilèges, the artists interpretation of his original stage designs for the 1981 Metropolitan Opera production. The Doris Duke Theatre at the Museum seats 280 and it hosts movies, concerts, lectures, and presentations. The theatre is home to Hawaiis GLBT film festival the Rainbow Film Festival. It is currently run by Theatre Manager, Taylour Chang, in 1927, the Robert Allerton Art Research Library opened with 500 books. In 1955, it was expanded and named for Robert Allerton, Collections include 45,000 books and periodicals, biographical files on artists, and auction catalogues dating to the beginning of the 20th century
33.
C. Brewer Building
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Brewer Building at 827 Fort Street in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi was built in 1930 to be the headquarters of C. Brewer & Co. the smallest of Hawaiʻis Big Five corporations, the intimate, almost residential design was begun by Bertram Goodhue and completed by Hardie Phillip. The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places on 2 April 1980, the modest decorations symbolized the business of the C. Brewer Company, wrought iron railings represent sugar cane, and light fixtures were designed to resemble of sugar cubes, the building now houses the statewide headquarters of the Hawaii Community Foundation which moved into the building in 2010. Brewer & Company Building,827 Fort Street, Honolulu, Honolulu County, HI,3 photos,1 photo caption page
34.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
35.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
36.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
37.
Attack on Pearl Harbor
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The attack, also known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor, led to the United States entry into World War II. The Japanese military leadership referred to the attack as the Hawaii Operation and Operation AI, Japan intended the attack as a preventive action to keep the U. S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions they planned in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States. Over the next seven hours there were coordinated Japanese attacks on the U. S. -held Philippines, Guam and Wake Island and on the British Empire in Malaya, Singapore, the attack commenced at 7,48 a. m. The base was attacked by 353 Imperial Japanese fighter planes, bombers, all eight U. S. Navy battleships were damaged, with four sunk. All but the USS Arizona were later raised, and six were returned to service, the Japanese also sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, an anti-aircraft training ship, and one minelayer. 188 U. S. aircraft were destroyed,2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 others were wounded. Important base installations such as the station, shipyard, maintenance. Japanese losses were light,29 aircraft and five midget submarines lost, one Japanese sailor, Kazuo Sakamaki, was captured. The surprise attack came as a shock to the American people. The following day, December 8, the United States declared war on Japan, the U. S. responded with a declaration of war against Germany and Italy. Domestic support for non-interventionism, which had been fading since the Fall of France in 1940, Roosevelt to proclaim December 7,1941, a date which will live in infamy. Because the attack happened without a declaration of war and without explicit warning, over the next decade, Japan continued to expand into China, leading to all-out war between those countries in 1937. Japan spent considerable effort trying to isolate China and achieve sufficient resource independence to attain victory on the mainland, from December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on USS Panay, the Allison incident, and the Nanking Massacre swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan. Fearing Japanese expansion, the United States, the United Kingdom, in 1940, Japan invaded French Indochina in an effort to control supplies reaching China. The United States halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools, and aviation gasoline to Japan, an invasion of the Philippines was also considered necessary by Japanese war planners. War Plan Orange had envisioned defending the Philippines with a 40 and this was opposed by Douglas MacArthur, who felt that he would need a force ten times that size, and was never implemented. By 1941, U. S. planners anticipated abandonment of the Philippines at the outbreak of war and orders to that effect were given in late 1941 to Admiral Thomas Hart, commander of the Asiatic Fleet
38.
R&R (military)
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R&R, military slang for rest and recuperation, is a term used for the free time of a soldier or international UN staff serving in unaccompanied duty stations. The term is used by a number of such as the United States Armed Forces. The US Morale, Welfare and Recreation network provides services for US military personnel. In the UK, the term applies to a type of leave granted to personnel during a deployment which allows them to return home to the UK to visit their family. This change was criticized by some in Europe, where prostitution is legal, all US military personnel serving in Vietnam during hostilities there were eligible for one R&R during their tour of duty. The duration of R&R was five days leave to R&R destinations, Bangkok, Hong Kong, Kuala Lampur, Penang, Manila, Seoul, Singapore, Taipei, due to their greater distance, seven days leave was permitted for R&R destinations Hawaii and Sydney. Bangkok was reportedly most popular with single GIs, Hawaii most popular with married GIs planning to holiday with spouses, the official policy of the United States Department of Defense was to suppress prostitution. Prostitution however, was relied upon by the US military to combat the battlefield trauma many faced, the heart of its economy remains sex tourism. Soldiers sometimes called the breaks I&I for intoxication and intercourse
39.
Rio Grande class K-28
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They were the first new narrow gauge locomotives ordered by the railroad since 1903. They initially comprised class E-4-148-S, but were reclassified K-28 in 1924 when the railroad reorganized into the Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad, the chassis is of outside-frame design with the drive wheels placed between the main frames, and the running gear to the outside. This general arrangement was used on the earlier class K-27 and later class K-36. During World War II, seven of them were purchased by the US Army for use on the White Pass and Yukon Route in Alaska, but they did not fare well in the bitter Yukon winters. In particular, the unusual, extended counterweights on the wheel axles made them liable to ride up on trackside ice. All seven were withdrawn from service in 1944, and were barged to Seattle in 1946 for scrapping, the three locos which remained with the D&RGW, numbers 473,476 and 478 were assigned to the Durango – Silverton tourist trains from the 1950s onwards. The Durango & Silverton inherited these when it took over the Silverton Branch in 1981, number 473 is operational while 476 is in the roundhouse under major repairs, with 478 currently being rebuilt. Due to their size, these engines are often used by the Durango & Silverton for shorter trains, usually the first or last on the schedule. This results in the draft being forced through the bed in the thinner areas towards the flue sheet. These locomotives are popular subjects for model railroaders, and high quality models in HOn3 and On3 scales have been produced by several manufacturers since the 1950s
40.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
41.
1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake
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The 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake occurred near the Aleutian Islands, Alaska on April 1. The shock had a moment magnitude of 8.6 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI and it resulted in 165–173 casualties and over $26 million in damage. The seafloor along the fault was elevated, triggering a Pacific-wide tsunami with multiple waves at heights ranging from 45–130 ft. The tsunami obliterated the Scotch Cap Lighthouse on Unimak Island, Alaska among others, despite the destruction to the Aleutian Island Unimak, the tsunami had almost an imperceptible effect on the Alaskan mainland. The wave reached Kauai, Hawaii 4.5 hours after the quake and these Hawaiian natives were caught completely off-guard by the onset of the tsunami due to the inability to transmit any warnings from the destroyed posts at Scotch Cap. The effects of the tsunami reached the West Coast of the United States. The tsunami was unusually powerful for the size of the earthquake, the event was classified as a tsunami earthquake due to the discrepancy between the size of the tsunami and the relatively low surface wave magnitude. The large-scale destruction prompted the creation of the Seismic Sea Wave Warning System, which later became the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in 1949
42.
Tsunami
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A tsunami or tidal wave, also known as a seismic sea wave, is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Unlike normal ocean waves which are generated by wind, or tides which are generated by the pull of the Moon and Sun. Tsunami waves do not resemble normal undersea currents or sea waves, Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves with periods ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called internal wave train. Wave heights of tens of metres can be generated by large events, numerous terms are used in the English language to describe waves created in a body of water by the displacement of water, however, none of the terms in frequent use are entirely accurate. The term tsunami, meaning harbour wave in literal translation, comes from the Japanese 津波, while not entirely accurate, as tsunami are not restricted to harbours, tsunami is currently the term most widely accepted by geologists and oceanographers. Tsunami are sometimes referred to as tidal waves and this once-popular term derives from the most common appearance of tsunami, which is that of an extraordinarily high tidal bore. Although the meanings of tidal include resembling or having the form or character of the tides, use of the tidal wave is discouraged by geologists. The term seismic sea wave also is used to refer to the phenomenon, prior to the rise of the use of the term tsunami in English-speaking countries, scientists generally encouraged the use of the term seismic sea wave rather than tidal wave. The Sumatran region is not unused to tsunamis either, with earthquakes of varying magnitudes regularly occurring off the coast of the island, Tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in the Mediterranean Sea and parts of Europe. The tsunami claimed more than 123,000 lives in Sicily, the Storegga Slide in the Norwegian sea and some examples of tsunamis affecting the British Isles refer to landslide and meteotsunamis predominantly and less to earthquake-induced waves. The cause, in my opinion, of this phenomenon must be sought in the earthquake, at the point where its shock has been the most violent the sea is driven back, and suddenly recoiling with redoubled force, causes the inundation. Without an earthquake I do not see how such an accident could happen, the principal generation mechanism of a tsunami is the displacement of a substantial volume of water or perturbation of the sea. This displacement of water is attributed to either earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, glacier calvings or more rarely by meteorites. The waves formed in this way are then sustained by gravity, tides do not play any part in the generation of tsunamis. Tsunami can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water and they grow in height when they reach shallower water, in a wave shoaling process described below. A tsunami can occur in any state and even at low tide can still inundate coastal areas. On April 1,1946, the 8.6 Mw Aleutian Islands earthquake occurred with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI and it generated a tsunami which inundated Hilo on the island of Hawaii with a 14-metre high surge. Between 165 and 173 were killed, the area where the earthquake occurred is where the Pacific Ocean floor is subducting under Alaska
43.
Walter F. Dillingham
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Walter Francis Dillingham called the Baron of Hawaii Industry, was an industrialist and businessman from Honolulu, Hawaii. He gained favors from Hawaii politicians to develop urban Honolulu, Dillingham was born in Honolulu, during the Kingdom of Hawaii. His father was Benjamin Dillingham who founded the Oahu Railway and Land Company and his mother was Emma Louise Smith, daughter of missionary Lowell Smith. In 1889 he moved to the United States to attend school in Auburndale, Massachusetts and he first worked as a clerk for his father, and then managed the Dowsett Company and founded Hawaiian Dredging Company. In 1904 his father was hospitalized and he managed the OR&L, from 1907–1913, the Governor of the Territory of Hawaii was Walter F. Frear who was married to Dillinghams sister Mary Emma. In 1909 he constructed a dry dock at Pearl Harbor which eventually became part of the US Navy base and he also enlarged the ports of Kahului and Hilo. On May 2,1910 he married Louise Olga Gaylord in Florence, after his father died in 1918, he and his brother Harold Garfield Dillingham inherited the family businesses. During World War I he worked for the US Army Motor Transport Corps in Washington, Dillingham served on several commissions for the Territory of Hawaii, including the tax appeal court 1908–1910. In 1919, Dillingham built a house at Papaʻenaʻena, an ancient Hawaiian altar to the surf and place of human sacrifice to the god Kūkaʻilimoku. The home, called La Pietra, is now an academy for girls. It was named after the estate of his wifes relatives where they were married, Dillingham drained the wetlands of Waikīkī in the early 1920s and created the Ala Wai Canal, on whose banks the Hawaiʻi Convention Center was built. He helped suppress Japanese Hawaiian plantation workers calls for better conditions during the Oahu Sugar Strike of 1920. His son Benjamin Franklin Dillingham II ran with the Hawaii Republican Party against Daniel Inouye for the Senate in 1962 and lieutenant governor in 1974, the other Senator from Hawaii, Hiram Fong, gave the eulogy at his funeral after his death October 22,1963. Fong said he lived a life that spanned the spectrum of Hawaiian history. Dillingham is buried at the Valley of the Temples Memorial Park in Kāneʻohe, in 1961, his son Lowell Smith Dillingham merged the remains of the Oahu Railway and Land Company and the Hawaiian Dredging and Construction Company to form the Dillingham Corporation. It was sold to investors in 1983 for $347 million. A daughter Elizabeth Dillingham married investment banker Myron Arms Wick Jr. in 1940, Walter Francis Dillingham, 1875-1963, Hawaiian Entrepreneur and Statesman
44.
American Locomotive Company
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The American Locomotive Company was formed in 1901 by the merger of Schenectady Locomotive Engine Manufactory of Schenectady, New York with seven smaller locomotive manufacturers. The American Locomotive Automobile Company subsidiary designed and manufactured automobiles under the Alco brand from 1905-1913, the company changed its name to Alco Products, Incorporated in 1955. In 1964 the Worthington Corporation acquired the company, the company ceased trading in 1969. Samuel R. Callaway left the presidency of the New York Central Railroad to become president of Alco, when Callaway died on June 1,1904, Albert J. Pitkin succeeded him as president of Alco. In 1904, the American Locomotive Company acquired control of the Locomotive and Machine Company of Montreal, Quebec, Canada, in 1905, Alco purchased Rogers Locomotive Works of Paterson, New Jersey, the second largest locomotive manufacturer in the United States behind Baldwin Locomotive Works. In the post World War II period, Alco operated manufacturing plants only in Schenectady and Montreal, after the American Locomotive Company ceased locomotive manufacturing in the United States in 1969, Montreal Locomotive Works continued to manufacture locomotives based on Alco designs. Alco was the second-largest steam locomotive builder in the United States, among these were a large number of well-known locomotives. Alco built many of the biggest locomotives ever constructed, including Union Pacifics Big Boy, during World War II, Alco produced many 2-10-0 Decapods for the USSR. Many of these were undelivered at the end of the war,75214, is preserved at the Finnish Railway Museum. Though the dual-service 4-8-4 steam locomotive had shown promise,1948 was the last year that steam locomotives were manufactured in Schenectady. These were the seven A-2a class 9400-series Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad 2-8-4 Berkshires and their tenders had to be subcontracted to Lima Locomotive Works, as Alcos tender shop had been closed. The building was converted to diesel locomotive manufacture, to compete with locomotives manufactured by the automobile industry, joseph Burroughs Ennis was a senior vice president between 1917 and 1947 and was responsible for the design of many of the locomotives manufactured. The company diversified into the business in 1906, producing French Berliet designs under license. Production was located at Alcos Rhode Island Locomotive Works in Providence, two years later, the Berliet license was abandoned, and the company began to produce its own designs instead. An Alco racing car won the Vanderbilt Cup in both 1909 and 1910 and competed in the first Indianapolis 500 in 1911, driven on all three occasions by Harry Grant, but, ALCOs automotive venture was unprofitable, and they abandoned automobile manufacture in 1913. The Alco automobile story is notable chiefly as a step in the career of Walter P. Chrysler. In 1911 he left Alco for Buick in Detroit, Michigan, for a list of Alco diesel locomotive models, see List of ALCO diesel locomotives. Although strongly committed to the locomotive, Alco produced the first commercially successful diesel-electric locomotive in 1924 in a consortium with General Electric
45.
El Salvador
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El Salvador, officially the Republic of El Salvador, is the smallest and the most densely populated country in Central America. El Salvadors capital and largest city is San Salvador, as of 2015, the country had a population of approximately 6.38 million, consisting largely of Mestizos of European and Indigenous American descent. El Salvador was for centuries inhabited by several Mesoamerican nations, especially the Cuzcatlecs, as well as the Lenca, in the early 16th century, the Spanish Empire conquered the territory, incorporating it into the Viceroyalty of New Spain ruled from Mexico City. In 1821, the country achieved independence from Spain as part of the First Mexican Empire, from the late 19th to the mid-20th century, El Salvador endured chronic political and economic instability characterized by coups, revolts, and a succession of authoritarian rulers. The conflict ended with a settlement that established a multiparty constitutional republic. El Salvador has since reduced its dependence on coffee and embarked on diversifying the economy by opening up trade and financial links, the colón, the official currency of El Salvador since 1892, was replaced by the U. S. dollar in 2001. As of 2010, El Salvador ranks 12th among Latin American countries in terms of the Human Development Index, however, the country continues to struggle with high rates of poverty, inequality, and crime. Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado named the new province for Jesus Christ – El Salvador, the full name was Provincia De Nuestro Señor Jesus Cristo, El Salvador Del Mundo, which was subsequently abbreviated to El Salvador. Tomayate is a site located on the banks of the river of the same name in the municipality of Apopa. The site has produced abundant Salvadoran megafauna fossils belonging to the Pleistocene epoch, at the same time, it is considered the richest vertebrate paleontological site in Central America and one of the largest accumulations of proboscideans in the Americas. Sophisticated civilization in El Salvador dates to its settlement by the indigenous Lenca people, theirs was the first, the Lenca were succeeded by the Olmecs, who eventually also disappeared, leaving their monumental architecture in the form of the pyramids still extant in western El Salvador. The Maya arrived and settled in place of the Olmecs, the Pipil were the last indigenous people to arrive in El Salvador. They called their territory Kuskatan, a Pipil word meaning The Place of Precious Jewels, backformed into Classical Nahuatl Cōzcatlān, the people of El Salvador today are referred to as Salvadoran, while the term Cuzcatleco is commonly used to identify someone of Salvadoran heritage. In pre-Columbian times, the country was inhabited by various other indigenous peoples, including the Lenca. Cuzcatlan was the domain until the Spanish conquest. Since El Salvador resided on the edge of the Maya Civilization. However, it is agreed that Mayas likely occupied the areas around Lago de Guija. Other ruins such as Tazumal, Joya de Cerén and San Andrés may have built by the Pipil or the Maya or possibly both
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